Illegality “In a free society the state does not administer the affairs of men. It administers...
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Illegality
“In a free society the state does not administer the affairs of men. It administers justice among men who conduct their own affairs.”
Walter Lippman
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Learning Objectives
• Meaning of illegality
• Types of illegal agreements
• Effect on contracts
• Special doctrines
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• An agreement will be unenforceable because of illegality if the agreement involves an act or promise that violates a law or is against public policy – Even if there was voluntary consent between
two parties who have capacity to contract
• Effect: no remedy for breach of an illegal agreement
Illegality
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• Agreements that violate a statute• Agreements that violate public policy:
– Agreements to commit a crime– Agreements promoting an illegal purpose– Agreement to perform an act for which the
person is not properly licensed• Example: Riggs v. Woman to Woman P.C.
– Agreements in restraint of competition
Types of Illegal Agreements
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• If sole purpose of an agreement is to restrain competition, it violates public policy
• A non-competition clause restrains competition, but courts enforce the clause if:– It serves a legitimate business purpose, – Restriction is reasonable in time, scope, and
geographic area– It does not impose an undue hardship
Agreements in Restraint of Competition
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• In general, courts refuse to enforce and unconscionable contract– A contract with the absence of meaningful choice
and terms unreasonably advantageous to one of the parties
• UCC 2–302 gives courts power to refuse to enforce or modify unconscionable contracts for sale of goods– See Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Mantor
Unconscionable Agreements
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• A contract of adhesion, usually a contract on a standardized form, is offered by a party who is in a superior bargaining position on a “take-it-or-leave-it” basis
• An exculpatory clause (release, liability waiver) in a contract attempts to protect one party from liability for damages
• Courts enforce these contracts unless effect is overly harsh or oppressive
Adhesion & Exculpatory Clauses
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Writing
“A verbal contract isn’t worth the paper it’s written on.”
Samuel Goldwyn, quoted in The Great Goldwyn (Alva Johnson, 1937)
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Learning Objectives
• Significance of a writing in contract law
• The Statute of Frauds• Contracts covered by the Statute of
Frauds and the requirements• The UCC & the Statute of Frauds• The Parole Evidence Rule16 - 9
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• In general, a writing is not required to create a legally enforceable contract
• Writing may be required by Statute of Frauds– Enacted in 17th century England to prevent
fraud by requiring written evidence– American states adopted similar statutes
• A contract is unenforceable if it does not satisfy the statute of frauds
Basics
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• Collateral contracts
• Contracts for real estate
• Contracts for more than one year
• Contracts for sale of goods over $500
• Executor’s promise
• Marriage as consideration
Covered Contracts
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• Collateral contracts in which a guarantor promises to perform an obligation of a principal debtor to a third person (obligee)– Exception: under the main purpose or leading
object rule, no writing required if guarantor makes a collateral promise for main purpose of obtaining personal economic advantage
– See Wintersport Ltd. v. Millionaire.com, Inc.
Collateral Contracts
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• A writing is required for contracts for the transfer or sale of an interest in real estate–Some states require a writing for leases and
certain easements on real property
Real Estate & Sale of Goods
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• UCC 2-201 requires a writing for contracts for the sale of goods for a price of $500 or more
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• A writing is required for bilateral contracts that cannot be performed within a year from the date of their formation (one year rule)– Likelihood of full performance is irrelevant
• Test: is performance possible within year?– Example: If Jack signs contract to consult with
Company X on a 13 month project, the contract must be in writing to be enforceable
The One Year Rule
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• Most states require signed memorandum of parties’ agreement stating essential terms:– (a) identity of parties, (b) subject matter
identified with reasonable certainty, and (c) signed by the party to be charged
– Need not be made at time contract is made
• Convention on International Sale of Goods does not require writing to enforce a contract
Satisfying the Statute of Frauds
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• Parol evidence rule provides that, when parties enter a written contract they intend as a complete integration (final statement of agreement), a court will not allow evidence of prior or contemporaneous statements to alter or contradict terms of written contract
• Parol evidence is admissible to explain ambiguities or allegations of fraud
The Parol Evidence Rule
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Rights of Third Parties
“The best minute I spend is the one I invest in people.”
Kenneth Blanchard, The One Minute Manager (1993)
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Learning Objectives
• Assignment of Contracts
• Delegation of Duties
• Third-Party Beneficiaries
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• Sometimes a person who entered into a contract must transfer contract rights or duties to another person (third party)
• Transfer of a right under a contract is called an assignment
• Appointment of another person to perform a duty under a contract is called a delegation
Overview
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• Assignment will not be effective if it:– Is contrary to public policy
– Violates a non-assignment clause in a contract• See Managed Health Care Associates v. Kethan
– Adversely affects obligor in significant way– Involved a personal relationship or element
of personal skill or character
Limitations on Assignment
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• Assignment extinguishes assignor’s right and transfers it to assignee, but delegation of a duty does not extinguish the duty owed by delegator to obligee– Delegator remains liable to the obligee unless
obligee agrees to substitute new party for delegator by novation
– In an effective delegation, performance by the delegatee will discharge the delegator
Limitations on Delegation
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• Duties not delegable if delegation: – Is contrary to public policy– Violates non-assignment clause in
contract– Adversely affects obligee in significant
way– Involved a personal relationship or
element of personal skill or character
Limitations on Delegation
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• If parties to a contract intended to benefit a third party, courts permit third party (third-party beneficiary) to enforce the contract– Referred to as third-party beneficiary– See Locke v. Ozark City Board of Ed.
• Incidental beneficiary is one obtaining a benefit as unintended by-product of a contract– No rights under contract
Third-Party Beneficiaries
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