RESEARCH ON PETROGLYPHIC EVIDENCES ON MEGALITHS OF MANIPUR

Huidrom Suraj SinghPhD Scholar

Department of HistoryManipur University

Abstract:

The present paper is an outcome of my researches undertaken in recent years particularly in Manipur and

Mizoram. Petroglyphic studies and researches have been gaining currency all over the world for over a century.

India has the third-largest concentration of rock art, after Australia and Africa. India boasts of world-renowned

rock art sites, such as the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Bhimbetka, and concentrations of rock art in India

are likened to those in areas such as southern Africa and Australia. The paper attempts to shed light on how

petroglyphic evidences could help in reconstructing and reconnecting the once flourishing culture and

traditions of the hill tribes of Manipur with special reference to the Nagas. The paper recounts the history of the

discovery of various megalithic remains, confirmation of a Megalithic Culture in Manipur by various

archaeologists, anthropologists and historians and the discovery of petroglyphs in their journeys.

Petroglyphs are often found associated with the megaliths in and around the hill districts of Manipur. Majority

of the petroglyphs are found in the Tamenglong district and Senapati district in Manipur. Petroglyphs are a

good source of information in understanding and supplementing the history of the group of people/tribes who

have no written records to supplement their existence and history at large. These evidences vividly reflect their

way of life, culture, tradition and religious belief system. Mutua Bahadur and State Archaeology Department of

Manipur have worked some pioneering researches in this parameter. Khoupum village and Tharon village of

Tamenglong district exhibits ample petroglyphs and associated remains. However, the advent of a new religion

in the form of Christianity in the hill districts of Manipur compounded by the adoption of modern lifestyles have

completely brushed off their age-old tradition and cultures under the carpet. All these factors have become the

limitations in understanding and reconstructing their history.

Key Word: Petroglyphs, Engravings, Taraangkai, Pheisoi, Taokwak, Fiyangu, Pakhangphal, Leishaphal.

INTRODUCTION

Between latitude of 23° 83'N – 25° 68'N and a longitude of 93° 03'E – 94° 78'E lies the state of Manipur. One of the smallest states in India, Manipur covers an area of 22,327 sq.km with one-tenth of its territory being covered by the hills. While Meiteis/Meeteis settled in the valley area of about 1,820 sq.km the tribes (broadly Nagas and Kukis) inhabited the hills. Like its neighbouring states of Nagaland, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, etc. Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken in the state. In this paper, an attempt will be made to throw some light on the different Petroglyphic evidences that are etched/carved/drawn on the megalithic remains so far discovered in the state of Manipur. While highlighting the megalithic cultures of Manipur, we will try to incorporate the significance of such drawings and carvings among the associated communities.

MEGALITHIC CULTURES IN NORTH EAST INDIA

It can be noted that the first report of megalithic remains of North East India was published by Godwin Austen, H.H. (1871-72). It was followed by G.B. Clarke (1874); P.R.T. Gurdon (1904 & 1907); T.C. Hodson (1911); Hutton, J.H. (1921); J.H. Hutton and J.P. Mills (1930). Besides these, Cecile Mawlong mentioned some earlier writers like H. Walters (1832), J.B. Hooker (1854) and T. Oldham (1854) for references made by them 1. In addition to the foreign scholars, writers and administrators, there are many local scholars; among them, David Roy (1963: 520-556): Dr H. Lyngdoh (1937); A. Bareh (1964); Fr.G. Costa (1971); K. Singh (1976); J.N. Choudhury (1978); O.K. Singh (1978: 491-496); N.C. ShadapSen (1981); Cecile Mawlong (1990: 8-16); Maurice G.Lyngdoh (1990); S.N.Rao (1991: 106-135) and B. Pakem (1992: 1-7) are worthy of mention.

Megalithic tradition, which is a worldwide phenomenon, has been practised by the Mizo2, Nagas, the Khasis and the Garos in the North-eastern part of India till recently. Expressions of thoughts and memories were incised on the megaliths. It is a significant feature through which the early history of the tribes mentioned above or groups of people and their society can be reconstructed. The word 'megalith' simply means a large standing stone, but the characteristics features of megalithism include the raising of upright stones, alignments, table-stones, cairns, etc. The use of wood or stone, or both, as memorials to the dead and the living, is also another characteristic feature of this tradition. The purpose and significance of the megalithic tradition in society differed from tribe to tribe and from culture to culture3.

According to Gordon Childe4, the term (megalith) was first introduced by antiquarians in the middle of the 19'" century, to define a class of monuments in western and northern Europe, consisting of large undressed stones bearing Celtic names such as dolmens, cromlechs, menhirs etc. These names were subsequently adapted to term complex stone structures, widely distributed over Europe, the Mediterranean region, some parts of western Asia, Japan and south-east Asia including India.

MEGALITHIC CULTURE IN MANIPURLike other neighbouring states, Manipur is endowed with rich megalithic cultures. The remains of

which are still lying at different corners of the state and have become the subject of research in the last few decades. Megalithic remains are found at Mao-Maram, Langka, Makhel of Senapati district, Khoupum, Pallong and Bhalok villages of Tamenglong district, Churachandpur district, Ukhrul district, etc. Sporadic remains of the Megalithic Culture are also found in the valleys of the state. But the major concentration of the said culture is found in the Naga inhabited areas of the hill districts in particular and the Kuki-Chin inhabited areas in general. T.C first reported the discovery of megalithic sites in Manipur. Hodson in 1900 and J.H. Hutton in 1928-29 and constitutes a new chapter in the Indian Archaeology. Before that time, it was generally presumed that the Megalithic culture was confined to the south Indian states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu5.

P. Binodini can be regarded as the first among the local scholars to have classified the remains of our Megalithic culture on scientific line. On the broader perspective, megalithic remains were reported by a crowd of academicians that include Mutua Bahadur, Gangmumei Kamei, O.K. Singh and L. Kunjeshwori Devi, to name a few. Binodini has classified the megalithic remains of Manipur based on morphology as well as their functions. However, no efforts have been made or attempted at least in the context of Petroglyphs present on the megalithic remains in Manipur till now.

P. Binodini classifies the megalithic remains of Manipur based on morphology as6;

1. Flat stones or capstones,

2. Menhirs, alignments and avenues,

1 Binodini Devi, P.,”Megalithic Culture of Manipur”, Delhi, 2011, p.52 https://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.122/A, “Short Report on Megaliths and Petroglyphs on Natural” 3 Malsawmliana, “Megalithic Culture of Mizoram”, New Delhi, Research India Press, 2017, p.114 Quoted in KM Srivastava, “New Horizons of Indian Archaeology”, New Delhi, 1998, p.1565 Binodini, P., “Megalithic Culture of Manipur”, New Delhi, 2011, p.66 Binodini, P., ”Megalithic Culture of Manipur”, New Delhi, 2011, p.36

3. Cairns (with or without stone circles),

4. Stone circles,

5. Dolmens,

6. Stone seats and

7. Miscellaneous Types.

She further divided the monuments based on their functions as7;

1. Memorials stones/commemorative stones.2. Stone seats/Resting stones,3. Watchtower,4. Religious stones,5. Gravestones,6. Witness/Judiciary stones,7. Village foundation stone and8. Village gate.

Majority of the Megalithic sites in Manipur are found in the hilly districts inhabited by the Nagas and Kukis respectively. Megaliths are abundantly discovered or scattered in all the districts of Manipur irrespective of their validations in the present-day context.

PETROGLYPHS AS ANCIENT ROCK ART

Prehistoric rock arts have been studied by various art historians, anthropologists, archaeologists and historians such as Robert G. Bednarik, Paul Tucon, V.S. Wakankar, Ross Mairi, Y. Mathpal, Erwin Neumeyer and others. Their work has been very useful in understanding:

1. The subject matter of prehistoric art.2. The techniques.3. Relative technology.

It is a kind of encyclopedic work with novel interpretations on various individual scenes, hunting-gathering, fishing, dance, rituals, isolated animal portraits, and geometric designs. But unfortunately, it is not always clear to the reader the contextual relationship between different painting scenes or overall world views of the people also expressed through them. Rock art is a term which denotes prehistoric manmade markings, etchings or engravings on natural stones. Similar terms include: "rock carvings", "rock – engravings”, "rock inscriptions", "rock drawings" and "rock paintings". It is possibly the only direct authentic source of visual evidence to decipher the world of early man. Their views, both of environment and social realities are expressed through visual imagery. Paintings and engravings drawn by Stone Age man on bare rock surface in naturally formed caves and shelters are the earliest ‘written’ documents of man.

Rock Art is intimately associated with the oral tradition and belief system of the people, which includes their world-views, religious expressions, ideas as well as mythologies. Consequently, Rock Art not only provides a clear view on the relationship with economic resources, technological achievements, ideology and social activities in various periods of cultural heritage but also that their studies immensely contribute to the overall understanding of the past and how this past has shaped the present and is likely to influence the future.

PETROGLYPHS ON MEGALITHIC REMAINS OF MANIPUR:

Quite unfortunately, the majority of the megaliths that are distributed in various hilly areas of the state do not bore distinctive carvings or etchings that can be regarded as petroglyphs in a broader perspective. Nevertheless, it does not necessarily mean that the megaliths of Manipur are devoid of carvings or etchings. Rock engravings and carvings seem to be concentrated to a few area and community in Manipur.

As it is impossible to cover the whole of megalithic sites for the present study, we have selected those sites that are generally considered to be rich in Petroglyphs. Traces of petroglyphs are found in the megalithic remains of Khoupum in Noney District, Salangthel in Churachandpur District, Tharon village, Pallong village,

7Binodini, P. op.cit.p. 46

Tamenglong Khunjao and Phalong/Bhalok village of Tamenglong District and Langka village of the Saitu-Gamphazol Sub-Division of Senapati district (see map below). The megalithic remains of Mao-Maram areas, Willong village of Senapati, Lakhamai of Ukhrul District and that of Aimol Khullen, Chandel District do not produce more or less any engravings or carvings.

Map-1 Major Rock Art sites of Manipur

A. PETROGLYPHS OF TAMENGLONG DISTRICT

Tamenglong district is bounded by Nagaland state on the North, by Senapati district on the north-east, by Churachandpur district on the south and by Imphal West district and Assam state on the west. The district covers an area of 4391 km8. It is home to the ethnic tribes of Zeliangrong comprising of the Zemeis, Liangmeis, Rongmeis and Puimeis. Tamenglong district of Manipur has topography of irregular wrinkle with turbulent rivers, waterfalls, caves, lakes, and dense tropical forests covering the land. It is the rainiest district of the state receiving an average of 3336mm of annual rainfall. The month of July gets the most rain, and it remains dry in December.

Of the sixteen (16) districts, Tamenglong district is home to the maximum number petroglyphs that are under discussion in this study. It produces numerous exciting rock engravings of different animals, birds,

8 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamenglong_district

objects, ornaments, motifs and figurines. Important sites associated with rock engravings that are covered under this study include the villages of Pallong, Phalong, Tharon and Tamenglong Khunjao (see map no.3).

a) FIYANGU, THARON VILLAGE:The State Archaeology Department, while conducting an ethno-archaeological survey of Tharon

village, discovered the engraving, in the latter part of 1980-819. Engravings are found on the bed of the Fiyangu stream, north-west of the Tharon cave. Naorem Sanajaoba simply put that the rock engravings of Fiyangu stream at Tharon is the first of its kind in North-Eastern India10. Altogether, four (4) groups of engravings can be seen on the Fiyangu.

1. Two typical Kabui Chief Houses11 and rows of 43 buffalo heads are engraved on the stream-bed. In between, image of two buffaloes/Mithuns at each end are engraved depicting the prized possession of a hero who is again carved out just below the row of buffaloes. Apart from the above figures, images of four animals (most likely pigs/boar/goats) are also engraved thereby representing the domesticated animals that could have been reared in the area. The engravings are not sincere, bold and protruded enough from the parent rock surface so that they are visible ideally and stylistically.

Map-2 Petroglyph sites in Tamenglong District

9 Bahadur, M., “Manipuri Rock Carvings and Inscriptions”, Imphal, 1984, p.310Sanajaoba, N., “Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and ordeals of a Civilization, Vol.4”, Imphal, 1988, p.39511 A Chief’s house of the Rongmei/Kabui tribe is known as “Taraangkai”

Plate-1 Engravings of Traditional Village Chief House on Fiyangu stream-bed

Plate-2 Engravings of domesticated animals and village folks at Tharon

Plate-3 Petroglyph Of a cattle (Tharon village, Tamenglong)

2. Few meters above the stream we discovered engravings of human figurines represented by 33 stylized anthropomorphs in a row. Quite interestingly an image of a trumpet/beagle is also carved distinctly just above the row of human figurines. It could have been a later interpolation by the visitors or the people around the site. However, a close observation on the engravings can presumably tell that the people of the bygone times had the understanding of history so that their next generations could narrate or relate themselves of who they are and defend themselves of their posteriority and their inheritance of the rich culture and traditions.

Plate-4 Anthropomorphs/Band of Brothers, Tharon village

Plate-5 A trumpet on the bed of the Fiyangu stream

3. The third engraving appears to be a family with their domesticated animal. Two large pecking of possible male and female figurines can be seen. Beside them is a smaller engraving, possibly a child of the two standing apart. The images are drawn well inside a circle. Beyond this engraving, there lies a large circle without any other motifs or figurines within its circumference. The engravings might be the representation of the domain of the old Tharon village.

Plate-6 Petroglyph representing a family, Fiyangu stream, Tamenglong

Plate-7 A large circle representing the domain of early Tharon village

4. Another beautiful engravings found in the bed of Fiyangu is a massive horns of a buffalo/Mithun with a male figurine separated by a straight line. It is believed to be the individual who had killed the animal and engraved his achievement. The technique employed on this petroglyphs seem to be incision and pecking as the worked area is not deep and bold.

Plate-8 A hero with his killed (depiction of a huge Mithun horn)

5. Similar engravings of head and horns of buffaloes are also found in the main centre of the Tharon village. Depiction of several domesticated animals such as pigs, dogs, boars etc. could be seen on memorial stones that are erected. It is said that a successful or prosperous individual who had reaped a good harvest than others in a particular season used to throw a grand feast in the village. A large animal (pig/cow/Mithun) was slaughtered, and its meats were distributed to every household. The number of meats thus distributed was counted and engraved on a rock for the sake of record. In this fashion, the villager who succeeded in producing more yield in the next season repeats the same practice of offering a grand feast to the whole village by throwing sumptuous feast, meats and drinks. The one who could hold larger than their predecessors were regarded well with respected in the village.

Plate-9 A typical menhir with engravings of various animals and motifs, Tharon village

Plate-10 A counting table (for distributed meats)

b) PALLONG/PANRONG:

A recent discovery at Pallong village have brought to the Petroglyphic world a new exciting clue about the Rongmei Nagas’ ways of life in the remote past. The petroglyphs of Pallong represent a typical engraving

of footmarks all over the surface of rock table. The site being deep into the jungle remains a virgin for a long time unknown and untouched by the academics and specialists. There is a water body over the large rock surface which is believed to be a Female Goddess. It measures about 4 feet in breadth and 7 feet in length. People of this old village tend to believe that there is a female genital organ-like structure beneath the rock that is covered by the water. People do believe that the water remains covered all the year-round. As tradition goes- whenever somebody tries to empty the water body rain begins to start in a few moments/minutes. It fills up the rock pit known as “Taokwak”12(see photo), and the persons who were involved in this act met with some sickness or even with a fatal dead. Villagers believed that the water symbolizes a wrapper (Feishoi) to cover the private part of the Goddess. Moreover, the water thus covering the Goddess is believed to work wonders to any ailments like itching, cracked heel, boils etc.

Plate-11 Taokwak (Stone plate/dish)

Around the water body, there are engravings of footmarks depicting an absolute taboo. It was narrated that the footmarks (see photo below) were of the newlywed-to- be bride.13 The girl who was going to be married soon came over there with her close friends and village elders to seek the blessings of the Goddess. There the footmarks of the bride-to-be are drawn with some sharp tools of which we have no concrete evidence or information (even from the village elders). After offering due respect to the Goddess, the party would move on to a nearby cave to enjoy with some cooked foods/menu and enjoy a game of tug of war. However, it is said that no male footmarks were carved on these rocks around the water-body. It is very confounding and difficult to locate the exact cave that is associated with the tradition. And it seems that the very cave is nowhere to be seen. Of course, this practice was considered with great importance among the community members and particularly the girls and women.

12Taokwok meaning stone plate/dish in Rongmei dialect13 As narrated by the locals

Plate-12 Footmarks engraved on the rock surface, Pallong village

c) TAMENGLONG KHUNJAO:Moving some 8 km to the north of Tamenglong headquarter is the village of Tamenglong Khunjao.

Several megalithic remains consisting of stone alignments, cairns, menhirs and gravestones are found scattered in and around the village. Very few megaliths are found to be associated with distinctive engravings on the surface. The engravings/petroglyphs are mostly of buffaloes and game board (see photos below).

Plate-13 Engravings of Buffaloes, Tamenglong Khunjao

Plate-14 A game board, Tamenglong Khunjao

d) PHALONG NAMKAO:

Phalong or Bhalok (popularly known among the Meiteis) also yields some new yet similar Petroglyphic evidences. The village is located some 9km away from the district headquarter via Tamei road. In one of the rock panel at Phalong Namkao engravings of human figurines, seven on each side of a Chief or a hero can be seen. Right above the figurines, one can also observe some engravings in Bengali script with numbers (which reads 1942) implying that the carvings could have been done in the written time frame. It was told that the engravings were made by one Anal fellow who used to travel to the village and continued to live for some two (2) years at a stretch. It seems that the artist was well versed in rock carvings though not perfect and could have been well acquainted with metal tools as he came across the Imphal valley.

Here again, the engravings were done in commemoration of headhunting tradition. Carvings of head/skull can be seen vividly in the middle of the stone surface. In the installation ceremony of the stone animals were offered and served to the villagers. Figures of animals, birds, snakes and geometric figures are also engraved. Besides the slab, there is a raised platform carefully arranged with smoothened stones in various shapes and sizes one over another. It is learnt that the sitting arrangement judiciously served the purpose of an Assembly of the village elders as and when required. On other days, people of every age come out for beautiful sunny leisures.

Plate-15 Engravings at Phalong/Bhalok village

B. PETROGLYPHS FROM KHOUPUM, NONEY DISTRICT

Khoupum (24.6676 0 N, 93.5054 0 E) in Noney district is one of the Rongmei inhabited areas where megaliths are found associated with petroglyphs. There used to be as many as fifty engraved stones on the hill ranges of Khoupum in the past. However, today those stones are displaced and discarded by the inhabitants knowingly or unknowingly. L. Kunjeshwori Devi did a brief if not a proper scientific investigation report on the engravings of Khoupum in 1984. The purpose of these rock engravings seem to bear anything significant to the present day settlers of the village as many of them have shifted down to the Khoupum valley leaving the sites neglected and unattended. A recent visit to the site (Khoupum Chingkao) reveals more or less similar engravings that were observed at Tamenglong Khunjao and Tharon village. These engravings include footprints of children and adults, game board, gong, wine jar, gun, sword, counting lines, measuring figures, oblong shield, cross, symbols of female genital organ, variety of flowers, spearhead and animals, dish, etc.14 Moving northward for some 8 km on the sloppy side of the hills we come to witness a large rock of 3.4-foot width with illegible inscriptions on it (see photo 15). The inscriptions appear to be in early Meitei script. Nevertheless, nothing can be said with certainty about the author or the artist and the intention.

Plate-16 Inscriptions on the rock, Khoupum Chingkao

Plate-17 A rock engravings at Khoupum Chingkao

14Sanajaoba, N., “Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization, Vol.4, Imphal, p.395

Plate-18 Engravings of Female Genitalia, Khoupum

C. PETROGLYPHS OF SALANGTHEL, CHURACHANDPUR DISTRICT

Salangthel is another site that owns some Petroglyphic evidences in the state. It is a deserted Rongmei/Kabui village in the Henglep sub-division in Churachandpur district bordering Thamnapokpi village near Moirang about 50 km south-west of Imphal. The discovery of megalithic monuments was first published by Mutua Museum in 1989. It is generally believed that the local population of Salangthel fled due to the onslaught of another tribe, i.e. Kuki. At present one can find some sporadic villages of Kukis below this deserted village. The altitude of the site is about 1400 m above sea level.

Rock art found in this area consists of line drawings of various shapes and sizes. They are in the form of animal figures, human footprints, cup marks, deep grooves and other symbols representing the sign of copulation, female genital organs and circular structures (probably Gongs). At a higher altitude towards the south, there is an engraved symbol of a female genital organ on a flat horizontal stone. There is another flat ridge, about 1km towards north of Salangthel, on which cluster of megaliths are found running north-south direction and crossed by another row of monuments running east-west direction. These are also some flat horizontal stones with footprints. These footprints are very much comparable with those found at Khoupum and Tamenglong.

Another site towards the north of Salangthel altitude about 1300 m. A.S.L. rows of megaliths running north-south and east-west direction are discovered. To the north of the above at the same altitude, there is a flat ridge. Adjacent to it, there is another row of megaliths running in a north-south direction and on a flat, horizontal stone, a footprint is also found (Mutua Museum 1965).

It is believed that Salangthel was once a very thriving settlement of the Rongmei tribe as such many social customs and traditions brewed over the years parallel to other Rongmei villages of the state. One such practice is the practice of etching footprints of the bride and bridegroom on the rock surfaces to mark their matrimonial alliance. Such markings are also found in Salangthel along with some other female genital symbols probably signifying the worship of female Goddess.

Besides, deep groove with a channel is also a unique finds of the Salangthel engravings. It is reasonably believed that the groove was used for keeping the hunted heads, and the channels were used to drain out the blood. Cup marks are believed to be used as a mirror once filled with water or a sort of game board. Moreover, the animal figurines might represent the number of animals slaughtered during the feast of merit occasion, which in turn might imply the social position of the individual.

Based on the myths and legends, it is believed that the stones/megaliths of Salangthel are changed from a group of people. There is another hypothesis that these megaliths were erected by Kabui Salang Maiba, a renowned Godly man cum physician of the time. He was highly respected and believed to have possessed magical powers. Moreover, that Salang Maiba brought a bag full of stone and dropped them at the sites where monoliths are standing today and thus transformed them with his magical powers.

D. PETROGLYPHS AT LANGKA, KANGPOKPI DISTRICT

One of the cognate tribe of the Zeliangrong Nagas, the Liangmai is mainly inhabited in the north-western part of Manipur. Like other Naga tribes, the Liangmai also has a tradition of erecting significant stone monuments, and it is seen that megalithism is still a living tradition. In other words, megalithic culture was well appreciated among the Liangmais. This assertion is fairly supplemented with the discovery of several megalithic structures in Langka and nearby villages.

Langka village inhabited by Liangmai Naga tribe is located at a distance of about 35km from Leimakhong. It comes under the administration of Saitu-Gamphazol sub-division of Senapati district-Sadar Hills West. It is situated on the North-Western side of the foothill of Koubru range. It lay within N35002.85’ latitude and E93046.57’ longitude and located at an altitude of about 1077 meters above sea level. The village is bounded by Khunkhu village in the east, Atangkhullen on the west, Lasan village (inhabited by Kuki tribe) on the north and Nurathen village on the south.

The Liangmai tribe of the Langka village used the term “Tusom” to denote megaliths. A large number of monoliths are found in and around the village. Generally the megaliths were by and large erected by the early settlers much before the advent of Christianity. The sizes of many such megaliths vary from one another, and those who erect large ones usually come from well to do families. The erection of megaliths was not a simple task for anyone as it was meant to be done on special occasions. It is informed that such stones were erected in commemoration of success in a war or hunting spree, to mark the boundary of a village, to mark a public gathering place, etc.

A total of five menhirs are found in the village of Langka. Out of which only is remarkable and significant for this study. The remaining megaliths do not possess any engraving or markings as such they can be considered slightly as petroglyphs. This particular menhir is supposedly a statue. Locally this statue menhir is known as Maningkamang Tusom. It was erected in memory of Maningkamang, a local hero who was wealthy, powerful and well respected in the village. The menhir has an engraved head of a human with distinctively carved ear and nose but without any headgear or ear-rings. However, if local taboo is to be believed it is said that the menhir possesses supernatural power and happens to make some “mooing sound” sometimes and is also believed to have formed its root.

NON PETROGLYPHIC SITES OF MARAM KHULLEN AND WILLONG

Maram is one of the exotic sites that cannot be left out in the study of Megalithic culture of Manipur. The area is well studied by P. Binodini Devi and Joseph Athickal in their respective academic works. Moreover, megalithic remains of Mao-Maram are mentioned in the works of T.C. Hodson, J.H. Hutton, L.W. Shakespeare, Naorem Sanajaoba Singh and G.P. Singh and it is all because of them that Manipur can find itself in the map of Megalithic World.

The megalithic remains of the area mentioned above have been discussed in numerous academic volumes. However, the present study identifies a specific area where it concerns much as a vigilant eye needs to. Mao and Maram tribes are much acquainted to the lithic culture since the time of their forefathers. At the same time, it is also known that the people of this area are also well versed in carvings and engravings of different motifs. Mutua Bahadur studies the employment of various tools in his work “Tribal Arts of Manipur”. Despite of marvellous monoliths, dolmens, cairns, menhirs, flat stones, etc. that have served various purposes in one way or other the Maram tribe of Senapati district lack the skill of engravings or carvings on the rock or stone surfaces and the reason of which is best known to them.

The Maram tribe carved unique features of animals, birds, musical instruments, tools, headgear, skull, etc. on the wooden posts and planks to depict the achievements and events of their day to day life. All these engravings can be seen vividly on the walls, façade and pillars of the Village Chief’s house.

Similarly, there are splendid and gigantic menhirs erected in rows and circle, cairns and dolmens in and around the village of Willong which is some 37 km away from NH-2 on the Maram-Peren road. Inhabited by

the Maram Naga, Willong offers an extensive collection of megaliths of varied shapes and sizes that had served the purposes of boundary pillars, sacred pillars, gateways, gravestones, foundation stones, village walls and seats of village assembly and many others. Unfortunately, despite the rich lithic culture, the megalithic remains of this village also reveal no sign of engravings.

Plate-19 Megalithic remains at Willong, Senapati

TABLE SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MANIPUR PETROGLYPHS

Sl. No. Types of engravings Location Remarks1. Human footprints (13 nos.) Pallong, Tamenglong district,

ManipurPoorly incised and engraved

2. Human footprints (12 nos.) Salangthel, Churachandpur district, Manipur

Fairly defaced

3. Counting symbol (line engraving) Lonbai, Salangthel Fairly defaced4. Sword, lotus, human footprint, head

of buffalo, musical instrument, wine pot, circle, flowers, counting table, animistic symbol,

Khoupum Chingkao, Tamenglong district, Manipur

26 nos. , displaced and unattended

5. Human footprint, Lifesize circle, wine pot

Poichengkhek, Khoupum Unattended but fairly engraved

6. Gun, sword, Gong, Game board (kei-yen)

Pengdondai Tao, Khoupum Unattended but Fairly engraved

7. Human footprints, Head of buffalo (lifesize), Cymbal, Gong, wine pot

Lengbang, Khoupum Defaced

8. Inscriptions on rock Chingkao, Khoupum Inscriptions in Bengali script but illegible

9. Inscriptions on rock boulder do Inscriptions in Meitei mayek but illegible

10. Female sex symbol (3 nos.), sword (2 nos.), armlets/bracelets (5 nos.), counting table (7 nos.), circle (6 nos), wine pot (3 nos.), head of buffalo, gong (2 nos.), head of buffalo, horns,

Khoupum Poorly maintained and unattended; Fairly engraved

gun, spear, beating stick, animals, birds, dish, shields

11. Kabui typical house (2 nos.), heads of buffalo (43 nos.) line engraving

Fiyangu, Tharon village, Tamenglong district, Manipur

12. Head of buffalo Anthropomorphic form, Single straight line15

do Folk Art

13. Female figurine, stray animals, buffaloes, head of buffaloes/cattle (30 nos.), male figurine,

Fiyangu stream bed, Tharon village, Tamenglong district

Precisely engraved in small sizes and numbers

14. Anthropomorphic form of a couple, trumpet, menfolk/warriors (20nos.) a lifesize horns of a buffalo

do

15. Human figurines, domesticated animals, counting tables (of meats distributed), game board (typically a kei-yen game), shields (2 nos.), horns of buffaloes (3 nos. in separate circular stones)

Tharon Village (Centre), Tamenglong district

Engraved on a menhir

16. Head of buffaloes with their long horns (6nos.), counting tables, gong

Tamenglong Khunjao, Tamenglong district

Fairly engraved on flat stone slabs

17. Sword, spear, straight lines, cross TharsongpathelKhoibu Maring, Tengnoupal district

18. Fire symbol, snake do19. Trap, elephant, basket, axe, spear,

sword, horse, shield, dart, gun, inscriptions

Bangai range, Tipaimukh, Manipur

Inscriptions are illegible16

20. Inscriptions Lakhamai, Ukhrul District, Manipur

Illegible

CONCLUSION

There is a tenable philosophy behind the erection and carvings of such monoliths by the tribal communities. The erection of monoliths has been a long tradition for the hill dwellers of the state. Stones/Monoliths were erected for

I. Religious purposesII. Feast of meritsIII. Commemoration IV. Social merits

Erection and engravings were done with specific rites and rituals under the guidance of the village or family elders. Specific stones were searched in the deep jungles or gorge and transported back to the village using sledges and ropes by the village youths. Refreshment was served on the way and till they reach the village. Similarly, it is more likely that engravings were made to immortalize their existence and culture so that the coming generations could refer themselves with.

It is interesting to notice that megaliths found in Kuki inhabited areas are found with no or less petroglyphs. The presence of many memorial stones and monoliths in and around the districts of Kangpokpi, Churachandpur and Chandel districts that are largely populated by this group strongly indicates that their ancestors were exposed to a certain lithic culture. However, their brotherly neighbours in Mizoram are found to be quite acquainted to a culture where they carved everything that they had seen and encountered in their day to day life on rocks and stones. The techniques that the Nagas in Manipur employed while carving the numerous petroglyphs are simple yet crude. Though the tools are no longer in use and ignorant to the present-day population possibility of iron tools cannot be ruled out. On the other hand, the valley which is largely populated

15 Bahadur, M., “Manipuri Rock Carvings and Inscriptions”, Imphal, 1984, p.30 16 Ibid, p.31

by the Meeteis appears to be more advance and selective in their engravings. Engravings of scripts both in archaic Meitei script and Bengali scripts can be seen anywhere around the valley. But these engravings could not be categorized as Petroglyphs since majority of the evidences are found associated with scripts (implying a historical legacy). Similarly, stone inscriptions are also encountered at Lakhamai village in Ukhrul district.

So far, limited research works have been done to cover the areas in discussion until today. Yet the light of a proper and scientific dating is to be shed to categorize and fix the timeline of such engravings and carvings and draw a comparison with the rest of the country and the world.

REFERENCES

1. A published essay by Pungdi P Celestine entitled “Hello, Tribal Affairs & Hills Dept. Seize the opportunity”.

2. Alexander Mackenzie, “The North East Frontier of India”, Delhi, 2005

3. Bahadur, M., “Manipuri Rock Carvings and Inscriptions”, Imphal, 1984

4. Bokul Mutum, “Megalithic Culture of Mao and Maram Nagas of Manipur”, in Sarthak Sengupta (ed), Tribal Studies in North-East India, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 2002

5. G.P. Singh, “Historical Researches into some Aspects of the Culture and Civilization of North- East India, New Delhi, 2009

6. G.P. Singh, “Historical Researches into some Aspects of the Culture and Civilization of North- East India, New Delhi, 2009

7. http://epao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp? src=education.Science_and_Technology.Some_ethics_to_ponder_in_Conservation_of_Monuments_and_Sites

8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamenglong_district

9. https://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.122/A , “Short Report on Megaliths and Petroglyphs on Natural”

10. Joseph Athickal, “Maram Nagas: A Socio-Cultural Study”, New Delhi, 1992

11. Malsawmliana, “Megalithic Culture of Mizoram”, New Delhi, Research India Press, 2017

12. P. Binodini Devi, “The Megalithic Culture of Manipur”, Delhi,2011

13. Proceedings of the Hon’ble Lt. Governor of Eastern Bengal and Assam, June 1910, Arch. Deptt.

14. Sanajaoba, N., “Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization, Vol.4, 2005

15. T. C. Hodson, “The Naga Tribes of Manipur”, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 1982 (reprint)

16. V. D. Krishnaswami, “Megalithic Types of South India”, Ancient India, vol. 5, 1949