IJMS VOL 18, (1)-OK.indd

ISSN 0127-8983

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ISSN 0127-8983

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS/SENARAI PENYUMBANG

1. Ali Saleh Alarussi UUM College of Business

Un iversiti Utara M alaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected]

2. Mohamad Hisyam Selamat UUM College of Business Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected]

3. Mustafa Mohd Hanefah Faculty of Muamalat Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia Bandar Baru Nilai 71800 Nilai Negeri Sembilan Email: [email protected]

4. P. D. D Dominic Computer and Information Science Department Universiti Teknologi Petronas 31750 Tronoh Perak Darul Ridzuan Email: [email protected]

5. K. S Savita Computer and Information Science Department Universiti Teknologi Petronas 31750 Tronoh Perak Darul Ridzuan Email: [email protected]

6. P. A. Emelia Akashah Computer and Information Science Department Universiti Teknologi Petronas 31750 Tronoh Perak Darul Ridzuan Email: [email protected]

7. Melissa N. Gonzalez School of Business and Public Administration University of Houston-Clear Lake 2700 Bay Area Blvd. Houston, TX 77058-1098 Email: [email protected] 8. S. Senthil Kumar Survey No. 156/157 Dontanapalli Village Shankerpalli Mandal Ranga Peddy District Andhra Pradesh 501504 India Email: [email protected]

9. Masudul Alam Choudhury Department of Economics & Finance College of Commerce & Economics Sultan Qaboos University P.O.Box 50 Muscat 123 Sultanate of Oman Email: [email protected]

10. Rohani Md Rus UUM College of Business Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected] 11. Mohd Awang Idris Department of Anthropology & Sociology Universiti Malaya 50603 Jalan Lembah Pantai Kuala Lumpur Email: [email protected]

12. Maureen F. Dollard Centre for Applied Psychological Research City East Campus University of South Australia GPO Box 2471 Adelaide South Australia 5001 AUSTRALIA Email: [email protected]

13. Anthony H Winefi eld Centre for Applied Psychological Research City East Campus University of South Australia GPO Box 2471 Adelaide South Australia 5001 AUSTRALIA Email: tony.winefi [email protected]

14. Damaithan Al-Manjali UUM College of Arts and Sciences Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected]

15. Zulkhairi Md Dahalin UUM College of Arts and Sciences Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected]

16. Zakariah Abdul Rashid Department of Economics Faculty of Economics and Management Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang Selangor Darul Ehsan Email: [email protected]

17. Nooraini Kamarul Bahrain Department of Economics Faculty of Economics and Management Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang Selangor Darul Ehsan Email:

18. Arsaythamby Veloo UUM College of Arts and Sciences Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected]

19. Wirda Hasmin Zolkepli UUM College of Arts and Sciences Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: 20. Norlida Hanim Mohd Salleh School of Economics Faculty of Economics and Business Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 Bangi Selangor Darul Ehsan Email: [email protected] 21. Redzuan Othman School of Economics Faculty of Economics and Business Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 Bangi Selangor Darul Ehsan Email: [email protected]

22. Abdul Hamid Jaafar School of Economics Faculty of Economics and Business Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 Bangi Selangor Darul Ehsan Email:

23. Azman Ismail Faculty of Defence Studies and management Universiti Pertahanan Malaysia Kem Sungai Besi 57000 Kuala Lumpur Email: [email protected]

24. Cindy John Faculty of Sciences Cognitive & Human Development Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 934300 Kota Samarahan Sarawak Email: cindy_charlett @yahoo.com

25. Mohd Noor Mohd Shariff UUM College of Business Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected]

26. Mohd Na’eim Ajis UUM College of Law, Government and International Studies Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected]

27. Noor Faizzah Dollah UUM College of Law, Government and International Studies Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM Sintok Kedah Darul Aman Email: [email protected]

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

THE DETERMINANTS OF INTERNET FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE: THE PERSPECTIVE

OF MALAYSIAN LISTED COMPANIES Sal

ALI SALEH ALARUSSIMOHAMAD HISYAM SELAMAT

UUM College of BusinessUniversiti Utara Malaysia

MUSTAFA MOHD HANEFAHFaculty of Muamalat

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia

Abstract

This paper investigates whether Internet Financial Disclosure (IFD) can be explained by the elements of the company’s characteristics and dominant personalities in board committ ees. Ten variables have been tested using data collected from 194 Malaysian listed companies’ websites, namely, internationality, leverage, foreign shareholders, information technology (IT) experts, fi rm’s age, number of shareholders, listing status, dominant personalities in the audit committ ee, chairman of audit and nomination committ ees, and dominant personalities in the audit and nomination committ ees. It is found that IT experts, fi rm’s age, number of shareholders and listing status are signifi cantly aff ected by the level of IFD. However dominant personalities in the audit and nomination committ ees are negatively related to the level of IFD in Malaysia. The study provides some evidence to support the signalling theory and the cost and benefi t hypothesis in relation to Internet disclosure.

Keywords: Determinants; Internet fi nancial disclosure; listed companies.

Abstrak

Artikel ini mengkaji sama ada pendedahan maklumat kewangan melalui Internet boleh diterangkan oleh elemen ciri-ciri syarikat dan personaliti dominan dalam lembaga pengarah. Sebanyak sepuluh pemboleh ubah telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan data daripada Laman Web 194 syarikat Malaysia yang tersenarai iaitu dari sudut keantarabangsaan, keumpilan

2 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

(leveraj), pelabur luar, pakar teknologi maklumat, usia syarikat, bilangan pemegang saham, status penyenaraian, personaliti dominan dalam jawatankuasa audit, pengerusi jawatankuasa audit dan pelantikan serta personaliti dominan dalam jawatankuasa audit dan pelantikan. Dapatan kajian ini mendapati faktor pakar teknologi maklumat, usia syarikat, bilangan pemegang saham dan status penyenaraian mempengaruhi tahap pendedahan maklumat kewangan melalui Internet secara signifi kan. Walau bagaimanapun, personaliti dominan dalam jawatankuasa audit dan pelantikan berkait secara negatif dengan pendedahan maklumat kewangan melalui Internet di Malaysia. Dapatan kajian ini menyokong teori pemberitahuan dan hipotesis kos serta faedah berkaitan dengan pendedahan melalui Internet.

Introduction

Since the 1990s, companies are utilizing the Internet as a medium to disclose their information. Currently, the level of Internet disclosure varies between companies worldwide. This phenomenon has att racted many academic researchers in the disclosure fi eld. It is argued that Internet reporting is the effi cient instrument to communicate information to external users at a minimum cost. Information on the Internet can be presented in diff erent forms of dynamic presentations such as draws, multimedia, audio, video and others (Ett redge, Richardson & Scholz, 2002; Ashbaugh, Johnstone & Warfi eld, 1999).

Despite the growing usage of the Internet in the fi nancial market, IFD is still at the infancy stage in developing countries such as Malaysia (Hassan, Jaff er & Johi, 1999; Noor Azizi, Mahamad & Adon, 2000; Mitchell, Ho & Pei, 2000; Khadaroo, 2005). This study intends to contribute to this gap by studying the information disseminated via the Internet by Malaysian companies since only a few studies have examined IFD in the Asian countries. The diff erence between this study and previous studies is that it considers the Malaysian-listed companies’ unique variables, namely, size-based listing status (Yatim, Kent & Clarkson, 2006) and foreign-controlled companies (Mok, Lam & Cheung, 1992; Lam, Cheung & Yam, 1994). These characteristics may infl uence the trend of IFD amongst Malaysian-listed companies. The understanding on the determinants of IFD among Malaysian-listed companies could assist policy makers in improving Internet fi nancial reporting in Malaysia.

Therefore, this paper aims to investigate factors that infl uence the extent of IFD in Malaysia. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 provides an overview of IFD development,

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 3

while Section 3 reviews the factors that aff ect IFD. The research method is described in Section 4. Section 5 presents the results of this research. Finally, Section 6 provides the conclusions, limitations, and recommendations for future research.

The Development of Internet Financial Disclosure

The nature and the extent of the disclosure problem involves a consideration of the persons to whom the disclosure is being made, an assessment of user needs and the medium of disclosure which is used to communicate with the user groups (Kreps, 1990). The main concern is that accounting reports should have information which is necessary to the users so that they would not be misleading (Moonitz , 1961). It has been argued that equity markets require comprehensive and transparent disclosures of the fi rms’ value and their performance in order to run effi ciently (Levitt , 1999; Richardson & Welker, 2001).

Modern corporations have adopted various mechanisms, including voluntary disclosure, to mitigate the eff ects of information asymmetry. Theoretically, agency theory predicates that as confl icts arise from the separation of ownership and control of a company, shareholders would like to have assurance that their equity is not subjected to any misuse or expropriations by the management. The management, in order to alleviate this problem, undertakes several actions including voluntary disclosures and establishes governance mechanisms (Xiao, Yang & Chow 2004; Marston & Polei, 2004). This leads to an increase in the cost of dissemination and management may use other channels to disclose the company’s information in order to reduce the agency cost. Empirical studies on Internet voluntary disclosure suggest that managers voluntarily enhance the visibility of their companies’ fi nancial profi les to: (1) reduce agency costs or contracting costs (Chow & Boren, 1987; Debreceny, Gray & Rahman, 2002 ); (2) reduce the cost of capital (Botosan,1997); (3) enhance the value of the company (King, Pownall, Waymire, 1990; Yeo & Ziebart, 1995; Frankel, Johnson & Skinner, 1999); (4) enhance the level of transparency (Lodhai, 2004); (5) enhance communication with companies’ stakeholders (Hassan et al., 1999); (6) record higher market liquidity (Welker, 1995); and (7) increase the interest shown by institutions and analysts in the companies’ stocks (Lang & Lundholm, 1996; Healy, Hutt on & Palepu, 1999). Nazli and Mohd Ghazali (2008) conducted interviews with twenty-seven market participants in Malaysia and found that the existence of other channels of communication is one of the factors infl uencing voluntary information disclosure in annual reports.

4 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

Portes and Rey (2005) argue that companies started to report via the Internet as traditional paper-based disclosure has its limitations. The increase in global investments and investors results in paper-based disclosure becoming more expensive and limited in capacity to reach investors in timely manner. In contrast, Internet disclosure has been found to be cost eff ective, fast, fl exible in format, and accessible to all types of users within and out of national boundaries (Debreceny, Gray & Rahman, 2002). Thus, the Internet has more benefi ts than other media of disclosures such as newspapers, journals or other printing media. The Internet off ers easy and equal access to all fi rms’ information and increases the image of the fi rms through creative and innovative presentation on the website. In other words, the more information disclosed by a fi rm, the more chances the fi rm will present itself.

In a more advanced usage of the Internet, some companies employ technological advances to display information such as streaming audio and video on their websites (Rosli Mohammed et al., 2003). Streaming audio allows interested individuals to listen to analysts’ conference classes, annual meetings and similar presentations; to broadcast conference calls live, or to provide an archive of presentations from which the Internet user can select. Some companies also provide video together with the streaming audio (Hurtt , Kreuze & Langsam 2001).

The investors that are concerned with return on investment will not use historical fi nancial data as a means to evaluate companies’ future performance. Instead of that, they will search and consider recent and real-time indicators of management competence such as the ability to support and increase customer loyalty and retain and leverage the knowledge of employees (Wheeler & Elkington, 2001). Internet fi nancial disclosure can also improve timeliness and verifi ability (Debreceny, et al., 2002). Timeliness is improved by increasing the frequency of disclosure, and verifi ability is improved by using hyperlinks to multiple sources of information.

In short, IFD creates eff ective and interactive communication with the investors. This in turn adds real value to the stakeholders and facilitates the companies in controlling their marketplaces.

The Determinants of Internet Financial Disclosure

A large number of studies in diff erent countries att empted to study Internet reporting such as Ett redge et al. (2002) in the USA, Marston

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 5

and Polei (2004) in Germany, Laswad, Fisher and Oyelere, (2005) in New Zealand, Marston (2003) in Japan, Xiao et al. (2004) in China, Khadaroo (2005) in Malaysia and Singapore, and Debreceny et al. (2002) in 22 countries. However, only a few of them examined factors that infl uence the extent of Internet reporting. Some studies examined only one factor such as company size (Allam & Lymer, 2003) or industry type (Hussainey & Al-Nodel, 2008). Other researchers examined two factors such as company size and capital ownership (Pirchegger & Wagenhofer, 1999) or company size and industry type (Craven & Marston, 1999). Several researchers such as Xiao et al. (2004), Tariq (2001), and Da Silva and De Lira (2004) examined many factors. They came up with diff erent determinants and factors that aff ect the extent of IFD. These determinants were in the form of internal determinants such as fi rm size, internationality, leverage, shareholders, IT experts and corporate governance mechanism or external determinants such as regulations and government roles. However, there was no consistency in the fi ndings due to the diff erent nature of the studies.

In this study the researchers examine the relationship between IFD and internal determinants from the Malaysian perspective as the aim of this research is to investigate IFD from the organizational perspective. Emulating Xiao et al. (2004), Tariq (2001), and Da Silva and De Lira (2004), the factors of internationality, leverage, foreign shareholders, IT experts, fi rm’s is age, number of shareholders, and corporate governance mechanism are selected. These factors are examined because they have signifi cant eff ects on IFD in other countries (Xiao et al., 2004; Tariq, 2001; Da Silva and De Lira, 2004). The factors also have a similarity with the Malaysian company structure (Haniff a & Cooke, 2002). For corporate governance mechanism, the researchers examine the factors of dominant personalities in the audit committ ee, chairmen of audit and nomination committ ees, and dominant personalities in the audit and nomination committ ees. These mechanisms are selected because they are critical issues in Malaysian corporate governance (Haniff a & Cooke, 2002). As Bursa Malaysia has two boards, the listing status factor is proposed as one of the determinants. The descriptions of each determinant are off ered in the following ten subsections.

Internationality

When an organization becomes famous and is known globally, the extent of its information disclosure will be increased due to the increase in foreign stakeholders and the obligation to fulfi l diff erent

6 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

requirements and regulations in diff erent countries (Bureau & Raff ournier, 1989; Susanto, 1992; Cooke, 1992; Meek, Roberts & Gray, 1995; Raff ournier, 1995; Hashim & Mohd Saleh, 2007). This in turn, requires multinational companies to voluntarily disclose more fi nancial and non-fi nancial information for two reasons: (1) to eliminate information asymmetry that rise due to the existence of worldwide scatt ered users; and (2) to fulfi l the minimum regulation requirements of diff erent countries that the company has operations in and thereby many stakeholders (Debreceny et al., 2002). In addition, the fi nancial reports need to be prepared in many versions to fulfi l the language diversity of worldwide users.

Multinational companies are always the screen of many interested investors who would like to optimize return on investment (Marston, 2003). According to them, multinational companies are always more transparent in disclosing information than local companies. From the organizational perspective, multinational status provides an opportunity to lower the cost of capital due to strong image and reputation amongst interested investors worldwide. These positive image and reputation lead multinational companies to voluntarily disclose more fi nancial and non-fi nancial information (Debreceny et al., 2002; Marston, 2003). This higher disclosure is made to alleviate information asymmetry and build strong image and reputation amongst investors.

To fulfi l the above worldwide demands using paper-based disclosure is not economical. This is because paper-based disclosure is more expensive and limited in capacity to reach worldwide investors in timely manner. In contrast, Internet disclosure has been found to be cost eff ective, fast, fl exible in format, and accessible to all types of users within and out of national boundaries (Debreceny et al., 2002). Marston and Polei (2004) stated that Internet disclosure reduces disclosure costs because there is no need to involve the printing media, such as newspaper and journals, which is very expensive due to the many countries involved. Worldwide users also create a situation where a group of users require similar information to make decisions. IFD is considered as the best solution to fulfi l the higher information disclosure need of worldwide users as it reduces repeating work, which is inherent of paper-based reporting (Oyelere, Laswad & Fisher, 2003). In addition, since it is very diffi cult for multinational companies to know every interested investor in diff erent countries, it is economical and logical to use the Internet as a medium to disclose information as it provides global access at anytime and at a lower cost (Marston, 2003).

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 7

Based on the above discussions, this study att empts to examine the impact of internationality on IFD. Internationality is measured by using the exports-on-sales ratio (emulating Garcia and Monterrey, 1992; Raff ournier, 1995). Therefore, the proposed hypothesis to be tested is:

H1: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is positively related to the level of international activity of the company.

Leverage

The results of the impact of leverage on the extent of voluntary disclosure are mixed. Naser, Al-Khatib and Karbhari, (2002) and Laswad et al. (2005) found a positive relationship between them. This result supports the argument that more debts in the company’s fi nancial capital force the creditors to ask for more information due to higher information asymmetry. However, Haniff a and Cooke (2002), Chow and Boren (1987), Ahmed and Nicholls (1994) and Dichev and Skinner (2002) found no signifi cant association between them. In other words, the creditors will not ask for higher information disclosure when evaluating a loan application of a highly borrowing company. This is because leverage does not represent business risk level (Dichev & Skinner, 2002). Nevertheless, it is argued that the creditors are able to eff ectively evaluate the strength and potential of a company if they are provided with adequate voluntary fi nancial and non-fi nancial information.

As the Internet is the most cost-eff ective medium to enhance voluntary disclosure and in turn level of transparency (Lodhai, 2004; Hassan et al., 1999), it is the cheapest way to fulfi l creditors’ information requirement and ultimately convince them to approve the loan. On top of this is that the creditors can get access to clients’ websites easily and at any time. This facility could increase the image and reputation of the borrowers and, in turn, high credence for them. In other words, IFD can be used as a means to convince the creditors to approve the loan and ultimately increase the company’s leverage. Thus this research argues that there is a potential positive relationship between leverage and IFD. This leads to the following hypothesis:

H2: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is positively related to leverage.

Previous studies have measured leverage in terms of debt to equity ratio (Roberts, 1992; Katsuhiko, Akihiro, Yasushi & Tomomi, 2001). Another measurement of leverage is by comparing the total of long-

8 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

term liabilities to the total of assets (Haniff a & Cooke, 2002; Laswad et al., 2005; Alsaeed, 2005). This study follows the latest measurement, that is by using the percentage of long-term liabilities on total assets. This is because it is the most commonly used measurement in the fi nancial literature (Haniff a & Cooke, 2002; Laswad et al., 2005; Alsaeed, 2005). Foreign Shareholders

Haniff a and Cooke (2002) found a signifi cant positive relationship between foreign ownership and the level of paper-based disclosure. The results support the argument that the higher foreign ownership is in an organization, the higher information asymmetry will be, and, it is critical if the regulations of the investment receiving country are not well understood. This in turn, pushes foreign shareholders to ask for more information, which is initially not required by the regulations, and eventually leads to more voluntary disclosure (Leung, Morris & Gray 2005). The best way to fulfi l that requirement is through the Internet as it is available everywhere (Lodhai, 2004). Xiao et al. (2004), however, found no signifi cant relationship between foreign ownership and Internet disclosure by the companies in China. This discrepancy motivates the researcher to study the impact of foreign ownership on the extent of voluntary disclosure on the Internet in other countries. In other words, this study examines the impact of having foreign shareholders in Malaysian companies on the extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet. This variable is measured by using the ratio of the total shares that are owned by foreigners to the total number of issued shares (Haniff a and Cooke, 2002). Thus the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is positively related to the percentage of foreign shareholders.

IT Experts

The existence of technological services undertaken by IT experts such as web designers and systems analysts in the information system department are necessary if a company intends to off er Internet disclosure (Lodhai, 2004). The responsibility to design and maintain the website such as uploading and updating information is usually given to the IT experts. The website, unlike paper-based reporting, has many IT features and formats such as PDF, hyperlink, audio, video and others that require IT experts to operate. This is to ensure that the website provides the needed information eff ectively and

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 9

effi ciently. Debreceny et al. (2002) examined the association between the existence of technological services and the extent of voluntary disclosure through the Internet and found a signifi cant positive relationship between them. In addition to this, the cost of designing and maintaining the website is high (Joshi & Jawaher, 2003; Lodhai, 2004) – especially if it is outsourced. Thus, the role of IT experts in the information system department is important to help the company to have a website and disclose its information on it at a minimum cost and to att ain ideal IFD practice. In short, there is a potential relationship between the extent of IFD and the existence of IT experts in Malaysian-listed companies. The involved variable is measured by using dummy measurement. The proposed hypothesis is as follows:

H4: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is infl uenced by the existence of IT experts.

Firm Age

There are some studies that concentrate on time factor as a determinant of voluntary disclosure. For example, Haniff a and Cooke (2002) examined the impact of listing age on the level of voluntary fi nancial disclosure amongst Malaysian-listed companies. The result was quite surprising where listing age showed a high positive correlation with disclosure. A similar result was also obtained by Alsaeed (2005). Camff erman and Cooke (2002) stated that the age of a company has a signifi cant impact on the extent of Internet disclosure. This is because old companies usually have bigger operations in terms of geography, turnover and capital (Haniff a & Cooke, 2002). To assist them in disseminating fi nancial information to diversifi ed stakeholders, they utilize the electronic version of the annual report (in addition to the printed version) as value-added service to the stakeholders (Debreceny et al., 2002) and as a means to reduce costs (Botosan, 1997). Eventually, the level of disclosure on the Internet is dramatically increased.

As fi rm’s is age has never been tested from the perspective of Internet disclosure, this study aims to examine it by counting the number of operating years since the company was listed on the stock exchange. In other words, the impact of the fi rm’s is age on the extent of IFD will be examined in this research. The proposed hypothesis is as follows:

H5: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is infl uenced by the fi rm’s is age.

10 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

Number of Shareholders

Oyelere et al. (2003) found out that the spread of shareholding (large number of shareholders in diff erent countries) has a signifi cant positive relationship with the extent of voluntary fi nancial disclosure on the Internet by New Zealand-listed companies. This is normal as the best medium to fulfi l each group of shareholders’ information needs at a minimum cost is the Internet (Botosan, 1997). A huge number of shareholders, inside and outside a country, will increase the demand for more information. This increase leads to an increase in information asymmetry and ultimately agency cost (Oyelere et al., 2003). To reduce information asymmetry and agency cost to a minimum cost, the management normally opts for Internet disclosure (Chow & Boren, 1987).

However, the level of IFD in Malaysia might be diff erent. This is because the number of shareholders in many Malaysian-listed companies is relatively small. Claessens, Djankor and Lang (2000) uncovered that Malaysian companies that are controlled by a family has increased from 57.7% to 67.2%. The phenomenon of a low number of shareholders has made the separation of ownership and control to be limited and in turn reduces the need for Internet disclosure. Nevertheless, Naser et al. (2002) state that there is no signifi cant relationship between the number of shareholders and the extent of voluntary disclosure; thus, reducing the need for IFD. In this case there is a chance that the level of IFD amongst Malaysian-listed companies might be higher in spite of the small number of shareholders. Therefore, it is interesting to examine the impact of the number of shareholders on the level of Internet disclosure from the Malaysian perspective. The following hypothesis is proposed:

H6: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is infl uenced by the number of shareholders.

Listing Status

In Bursa Malaysia, there are two types of listing boards: the main board and the second board. The main board companies must have a minimum paid-up capital of RM60 million while the second board companies are those that have a minimum paid-up capital of RM40 million (Yatim, Kent & Clarkson, 2006). The main objective of the second board is to enable the companies that do not meet the main board listing criteria to get capital from the public (Bursa Malaysia, 2010). In other words, most of the second board listed companies are relatively new compared to the main board listed companies.

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 11

Wong (1996) stated that, as newcomers in the industry, the business operations of second board listed companies are not as complex as that of the main board listed companies and thus require less stringent requirements on transparency. Abdul Samad (2002) said that the competition amongst the main board companies is stiff er than those of the second board as investors are keen on them. In this case, the number of main board investors is much higher than the second board investors. All these phenomena illustrate that the need for more information disclosure is critical amongst main board companies than second board companies. Wallace, Naser and Mora (1994) supported this by discovering a signifi cant positive relationship between listing status and the extent of voluntary disclosure.

Implicit in the above defi nition of main and second boards is the possible infl uence of company size on information disclosure. The agency theory and cost-benefi t analysis indicate a positive relationship between company size and information disclosure (Craven & Marston, 1999). Chow and Boren (1987) argue that agency costs are higher in the large companies due to the following reasons: (1) they are under pressure to disclose fi nancial information to avoid speculative trading of their shares (Ku Nor Izah, 2003); (2) they are desperately in need of external funds (Ett redge et al., 2002); (3) they are more complex and therefore information users are asking for more disclosure; and (4) they are more visible in the society and therefore, need to disclose more information to reduce political costs (Marston, 2003). To reduce higher agency costs large companies have to voluntarily disclose more information to increase investors’ confi dence and ultimately stabilize share price.

From the above discussion it can be seen that there is no contradiction between listing status and company size in terms of their relationship with the increase in information disclosure. Instead both of them are complementary to each other. The authors, however, decided to highlight listing status as the element of study because it had not been tested in previous studies. As the Internet has been found to be cost eff ective, fast, fl exible in format and widely accessible for voluntary disclosure (Debreceny et al., 2002), it is more adorable amongst main board companies (large companies) than second board companies (small companies) of Bursa Malaysia. In other words, this study intends to examine the impact of an organization’s listing status in Bursa Malaysia on the extent of voluntary fi nancial disclosure on the Internet. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H7: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is infl uenced by a fi rm’s listing status.

12 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

Dominant Personalities in the Audit Committ ee

The role of the audit committ ee is critical in the decision-making process because it has the authority to examine sensitive issues and irregularities and report to the board with recommendations. The board ultimately makes decision after examining the report meticulously. The primary objective of the audit committ ee is to assist the board of directors in fulfi lling its responsibilities in relation to the accounting and the reporting practices of the company and its subsidiaries and to determine the adequacy of the company’s administrative, operating and accounting controls (Haron, Jantan & Pheng 2005; Cohen, Gayner, Krishnamoorty & Wrisent, 2007). The audit committ ee also reviews the adequacy and the eff ectiveness of the corrective actions that are taken by the management in resolving reported audit issues and discusses the appropriateness of adopted accounting policies and treatment and assumptions that are raised by the external auditors (Collier, 1997). Thus, highlighting the audit committ ee’s views on the company’s internal control strength in the fi nancial report, which is voluntary in nature, could increase investors’ confi dence and ultimately the share price (Cohen et al., 2007).

Although disclosing the company’s administrative, operating and accounting controls is a platform for the audit committ ee to promote fi nancial transparency and in turn might expose management weaknesses and mistakes, its practice is not advisable from the eyes of a person who is holding both the posts of chairman of the company and chairman of the audit committ ee concurrently. This is evident from Mangena and Pike (2004) who uncovered that if the chairman of the company holds several positions in the company’s committ ees, including the audit committ ee, the decision on voluntary disclosure was negatively aff ected. That person may use his/her position to refuse such strategy. This is in tandem with PricewaterhouseCoopers (2000) who said that if the chairman of the company is also the chairman of the audit committ ee, the independence of the audit committ ee is being compromised and ultimately aff ect its function – low voluntary disclosure.

As the Internet is the most cost-eff ective way for voluntary disclosure (Debreceny et al., 2002), its usage might not be so encouraging under the above circumstance, which is the chairman of the company is also the chairman of the audit committ ee. Under such a scenario the company will not allow the audit committ ee to disclose the current strength of its internal control on the website as it would tarnish the reputation of the management. Thus, this study att empts to provide empirical evidence regarding the extent of voluntary fi nancial

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 13

disclosure on the Internet in case the chairman of the board directors is also the chairman of the audit committ ee of the company. Thus the following hypothesis is proposed:

H8: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is infl uenced if the chairman of the board of directors is also the chairman of the audit committ ee of the company.

Chairman of the Audit and the Nomination Committ ee

The role of the audit committ ee is as discussed above. On the other hand, the duties of the nomination committ ee are reviewing annually the att endance and performance of individual directors, reviewing and recommending the compensation of directors, recommending qualifi ed nominees for nomination or election as directors, developing and overseeing corporate governance principles for the corporation and performing other duties that may be assigned to the committ ee (Vafeas, 1999). In short, the audit and the nomination committ ees are functioning as a monitoring body for the board of directors.

As a monitoring body, the role of the audit and the nomination committ ees in the process of deciding the level of information (including voluntary one) to be disclosed in the fi nancial report is quite signifi cant (Vafeas, 1999; Haron et al., 2005; Cohen et al., 2007). Chtourou, Bedard & Courteay (2001) said that if the chairmen of the audit committ ee and the nominating committ ee are not the same person, their independence might be enhanced and in turn will support any motion that aims to increase the company’s transparency, including voluntary disclosure. However, if the chairman of the audit and the nomination committ ee is the same person, there is a tendency that he/she will collaborate with the board of directors to conceal any misuse or expropriations by the management. To reduce negative perception amongst shareholders on this matt er, the board of directors increases voluntary disclosures and appoints diff erent chairman for the audit and the nomination committ ees (Xiao et al., 2004; Marston & Polei, 2004). This eventually leads to the increase in cost of information dissemination and the company may use other channels to disclose information in order to reduce the agency cost. Empirical studies on voluntary disclosure suggest that managers voluntarily enhance the visibility of their companies’ fi nancial profi les through the Internet (Debreceny et al., 2002; Lodhia, 2004; Hassan et al., 1999). Thus this research argues that there is a potential relationship the between chairmen of the audit and the nomination committ ees and IFD. Thus the following hypothesis is proposed:

14 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

H9: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is infl uenced if the chairman of the audit committ ee is also acting as the chairman of the nomination committ ee in the corporation.

Dominant Personalities in the Audit and the Nomination Committ ees

As discussed above, there is a clear demarcation between the function of the audit committ ee and the nomination committ ee. Each committ ee is responsible for critical and sensitive tasks and therefore must be separated. This is to ensure that the quality of the company’s internal control is always at a satisfactory level. The chairman of the company, on the other hand, is responsible for ensuring that the board is always running eff ectively, the organizational members obtain relevant information and the company’s policies are always observed. It is expected that independency might be lower if the chairman of the company is also holding the position of chairman of both the audit and the nomination committ ees. As the disclosure decision is under the responsibility of the chairman of the company, appointing him/her as the chairman of both the audit and the nomination committ ees may negatively aff ect the extent of disclosure. This is because that strategy causes the level of internal monitoring to be low, and a lack of balance of power (Shivdasani & Yermack, 1999). As the Internet is the most cost-eff ective way for voluntary disclosure (Debreceny et al., 2002), its usage might not be so encouraging under the circumstance where the chairman of the company becomes the chairman of the audit and the nomination committ ees. Thus this study att empts to provide empirical evidence regarding the extent of voluntary fi nancial disclosure on the Internet in case the chairman of the board directors is also the chairman of the audit and the nomination committ ees of the company. Thus the following hypothesis is proposed:

H10: The extent of fi nancial disclosure on the Internet is infl uenced if the chairman of the board of directors is also the chairman of the audit and the nomination committ ees of the company.

Research Design

The authors, in this study, intend to examine the determinants of IFD by Malaysian public-listed companies on the Bursa Malaysia’s main and second boards. The data for this research is secondary in nature and obtained from two sources: (1) the companies’ websites; and (2) the companies’ annual reports. Since the study is related to Internet disclosure, only companies that have websites will be selected as the

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 15

population of the study. The total number of companies that have websites is 505 out of 849, which represents 59%. Based on Sekaran’s (2000) schedule for sampling, 201 out of 505 companies that have websites are chosen randomly after excluding fi nancial companies due to their diff erent regulations. Since the number of companies under each industry is not similar, the disproportionate stratifi ed random sampling is argued to be the most appropriate sampling technique in this research (Sekaran, 2003).

The websites are either linked to Bursa Malaysia or individual websites. The data are collected during the second half of 2006. The explanation of the data is as follows:

The data for the dependent variables consist of 15 items (most frequent items used in the earlier studies) that represent the index for the fi nancial disclosure (Table 1 shows a sample of the earlier studies that was used to extract the items). The disclosure index is adopted from the diff erent published academic papers. A score sheet is utilized to determine the score of the level of disclosure amongst the selected companies. These items represent the fi nancial information that is disclosed through the Internet annual report, Internet quarterly report and other places on the website. It is recorded one (1) if the company discloses the item on its website and zero (0) if does not. In short, the score sheet is fi lled up according to the disclosed items on the companies’ websites.

The data for the independent variables are extracted from the companies’ 2005 annual reports. Several score sheets are used to measure each of the independent variables according to its scale of measurements (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio).

Table 1

Index Items of Financial Information Disclosed on the Internet: A Comparison with Prior Studies

N Items A B C D E F G H I J

1 Financial highlights 1 1 1 1 1 12 Current press release or news 1 1 1 1 1 13 Current share price 1 1 1 1 1 14 Share performance chart 1

(continued)

16 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

N Items A B C D E F G H I J

5 Operation review 16 Financial review 1 17 Financial calendar 1 18 Annual Report 1 1 1 18-1 Directors and Management Report 1 1 1 1 1 18-2 Balance Sheet 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18-3 Income Statement 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18-4 Cash Flow Statement 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18-5 Statement of Shareholders’ equity 1 1 1 18-6 Accounting Notes 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18-7 Auditor’s Report 1 1 1 1 1 1 18-8 Segmental Report by Region 1 1 18-9 Shareholder structure 19 Annual Report for the past years 1 110 Half-year Report 1 1 1 111 Quarterly Report 1 112 Balance Sheet in Quarterly Report 1 113 Statement of Income in Quarterly Report 1 114 Cash Flow Statement in Quarterly Report 1 115 Accounting notes in Quarterly Report 1 1

A= Deller et al. (1999), B= Pirchegger and Wagenhofer (1999), C= Debreceny et al. (2002), D= Ett redge et al.(2002), E= Marston (2003), F= Marston and Polei (2004), G=Xiao, Yang, Chow (2004), H= Alarussi (2005), I= Fathilatul (2005), J= Menes-Da-Silva and Christencen (2004).

However 7 companies are excluded from the sample because they show outliers in the analysis. This is because any company that shows more than 3.00 in the standardized residual, the company is omitt ed (Sekaran, 2000). The regression model is utilized to fi nd out the results of this study and this is in tandem with the previous studies (e.g. Chen & Jaggi, 2000; Ho & Wong, 2001; Camff erman & Cooke, 2002; Archambault & Archambault, 2003; Oyelere et al., 2003; Marston & Polei, 2004; Gul & Leung, 2004; Laswad et al., 2005).

Results

Descriptive statistics, such as frequency distributions, cross tabulations and measures of central tendency, represent the frequency of occurrence of each score value (Sekaran, 2000). The skewness and

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 17

kurtosis ratios are also calculated to check whether the dependent variable is normally distributed. According to Sekaran (2000), both skewness and kurtosis values must be between +/– 2 before one variable can be declared as normally distributed. Table 2 shows that the value of skewness and kurtosis of IFD is 0.219 and –1.462. The standard errors of skewness and kurtosis values are 0.175 and 0.347 for IFD. All these fi gures show that normality exists in the dependent variable, and therefore multiple regression analysis can be applied on it.

Table 2

Descriptive Statistics for Dependent Variable

Statistics IFD * Statistics IFD %

MeanStandard Deviation SE MeanMinimumMedianMaximum

6.0804.7820.3430.005.00

15.00

SkewnessSE Skewness

KurtosisSE Kurtosis

0.2190.175

–1.4620.347

* Financial Disclosure Index

The frequency for IFD index items is shown in Table 3. From Table 3 it can be seen that 60%–63% of companies disclose some fi nancial information on the websites. 62.9% of the companies disclose both current release and news operation review items. 60.8% of the companies disclose their annual reports and 58.8% of the companies disclose fi nancial highlights item. These are the most common disclosed items on the websites. This is followed by the annual reports for the past years (51%), quarterly reports (46.9%) and its contents such as statement of income, balance sheet, cash fl ow statement and accounting notes. However, only 12.4% companies are concerned with half year reports and 7.7 % are concerned with performance charts. As that information is critical for the investors, the fi nding shows a signifi cant defi ciency in the style of IFD amongst Malaysian-listed companies.

Executing the bivariate correlation procedure on the research data generates the correlation amongst the independent variables and between the independent variables and the dependant variable. This is illustrated in the following Table 4. As stated above, Pearson

18 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

product-moment correlation coeffi cient “r” is computed. A relatively high correlation amongst the independent variables is found and considered as a presence of multicollinearity which should be eliminated before any further analysis is undertaken such as regression analysis. Therefore, in order to detect the severity of multicollinearity, the variance infl ation factors (VIFs) method is utilized and the result of the test shows that no multicollinearity problem exists amongst the predicted variables as the largest VIF value is 5.672, which is far below the maximum threshold (VIF =10) (as suggested by Hair, Anderson, Tatham & Black, 1998); and, therefore it is possible to run regression analysis.

Table 3

The Frequency of Internet Financial Disclosure Index

N Financial Characteristics

Frequency Percent N Financial Characteristics

Frequency Percent

1 Current release or news

122 62.9 9 Cash fl ow statement in Quarterly report

80 41.2

2 Operation review

122 62.9 10 Accounting notes in Quarterly report

66 34

3 Annual report 118 60.8 11 Current share price

47 24.2

4 Financial highlights

114 58.8 12 Financial review

31 16

5 Annual reports for the past years

99 51 13 Financial calendar

28 14.4

6 Quarterly report

91 46.9 14 Half year report

24 12.4

7 Statement of Income in Quarterly report

81 41.8 15 Share performance chart

15 7.7

8 Balance sheet in Quarterly report

80 41.2

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 19

Tabl

e 4

The C

orre

latio

ns a

mon

gst I

VS a

nd b

etw

een

IVS

and

DV

IFR

Inte

rLe

vFo

r. Sh

ar.

Leve

l te

chFi

rm

Age

No

of

Shar

esLi

stin

g st

atus

Cha

ir o

f co

and

audi

t co

m

Cha

ir o

f au

dit a

nd

nom

com

Cha

ir o

f co

audi

t and

no

m c

om

Pear

son

Cor

rela

tion

IFR

1.00

0.0

28.1

30.0

81.4

15**

*.2

71**

*.4

01**

*.3

50**

*-.0

14.0

50-.3

40**

*

Inte

rnat

iona

lity

1.00

0.1

15.0

45.0

34-.1

01.0

18.1

27-.1

24-.1

05-.0

27

Leve

rage

1.

000

-.028

.139

-.029

.175

*-.0

21-.0

12-.0

23-.0

05

Fore

ign

shar

ehol

der

1.00

0.0

04.2

46**

.177

*-.1

97**

-.011

.083

.067

Info

rmat

ion

tech

nolo

gy e

xper

t1.

000

.071

.192

**-.0

54-.0

09.0

67-.1

93**

Firm

Age

1.00

0.2

11**

-.144

-.013

.081

-.096

No

of S

hare

hold

ers

1.00

0-.2

46**

-.056

-.023

-.177

**

List

ing

stat

us1.

000

-.096

-.133

.193

**

Cha

irm

an o

f co.

and

aud

it co

m.

1.00

0.7

36**

.184

**

Cha

irm

an o

f aud

it an

d no

m c

om1.

000

.350

**

Cha

irm

an o

f co

audi

t and

nom

com

1.00

0

***C

orre

latio

n is

Sig

nifi c

ant a

t the

0.0

1 le

vel (

2-ta

iled)

*

*Cor

rela

tion

is S

ignifi c

ant a

t the

0.0

5 le

vel (

2-ta

iled)

*Cor

rela

tion

is S

ignifi c

ant a

t the

0.1

0 le

vel (

2-ta

iled)

20 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

In tandem with the previous studies of voluntary disclosure, (e.g. Cooke, 1989; Hossain, Tan & Adams 1994; Raff ournier, 1995), and due to one dependent variable and ten independent variables, multiple regression analysis is used to test the hypotheses. The results from the regression show that several variables have signifi cant positive relationships with IFD. These variables are IT experts, fi rm is age, number of shareholders and listing status. However, dominant personalities in the audit and nomination committ ees show a signifi cant negative relationship with IFD. The rest of the variables do not show signifi cant relationship with the extent of IFD (see Table 5).

Table 5

Multiple Regression Analysis of Determinants of Internet Financial Disclosure

Independent Variables Predicted Sign

Coeffi cients t-statistics VIF

Company characteristicsInternationality + 0.053 .947 1.061Leverage + 0.068 1.209 1.065Foreign shareholders + -0.049 -.838 1.151IT experts + 0.312 5.434 *** 1.118Firm’s is age + 0.250 4.217 *** 1.191No of shareholders + 0.217 3.635 *** 1.207Listing status + 0.204 3.490 *** 1.156Dominant personality in Board committ eesChairman of Company and Audit Committ ee ? -.051 -.616 2.302

Chairman of Audit and Nomination Committ ees ? .112 1.264 2.675

Chair. of Com, Audit and Nomination Committ ees ? -.213 -3.355 *** 1.363

Constant -3.324ANOVA 0.000Durbin Watson 1.838Std. Error 3.531F Value 16.202Sig. F 0.000R Square 0.478Adjust R Square 0.448

*** signifi cant at 1% level ** signifi cant at 5% level * signifi cant at 10% level

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 21

The productive ability of analysis is R2 = 0.478 and adjusted R2 = 0.448 which is respectable.

Discussion

The above results suggest that a company’s characteristic variables which are IT experts, fi rm’s age, number of shareholders, listing status and dominant personalities in the audit and nomination committ ees are signifi cant variables for the extent of IFD in Malaysia. This fi nding is not surprising for several of reasons. Firstly, since the paper investigates Internet disclosure (the most advanced technology in communication) it is expected that the companies that have many IT experts are more likely to disclose more fi nancial information through their websites. Secondly, old companies are more familiar with Internet disclosure than recent companies. Based on the signalling theory, old fi rms are generally disclosing more information in order to diff erentiate themselves from the newcomers on the stock exchange (Morris, 1987; Watt s & Zimmerman, 1986; Skinner, 1994). In addition, as the old fi rms have more control over the market, they are in a bett er position to provide reliable forecasts (Hughes, 1986). Therefore, it is normal to observe that old companies disclose more fi nancial information than new companies. Thirdly, it is logical to observe that the number of shareholders has a signifi cant positive relationship with IFD since the Internet has wide coverage and low reporting-cost compared to other printing media. These advantages in turn, motivate the companies that have a large number of shareholders to use the Internet as a medium for disseminating their fi nancial information.

Fourthly, listing status is a new variable and has never been tested before in previous studies. The results of regression analysis indicate that if the companies are listed on the main board of Bursa Malaysia, they are more likely to have websites to disclose more fi nancial information on them than their counterparts on the second board. In other words, there is a gap between the companies that are listed on the main board and the companies that are listed on the second board. This gap in turn, infl uences the level of transparency and the usage of advanced technology such as the Internet. Nevertheless, it is not surprising to observe this phenomenon because of the diff erent requirements of Bursa Malaysia in relation to the main and the second boards. The diff erence is because the companies listed on the main board usually are big companies (fi nancial capital of more than RM60 million) and therefore capture more public and government concern

22 IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011)

in relation to the level of transparency, technology development and environment. This results in the policy makers of Bursa Malaysia to set more strict requirements and regulations for main board companies. Internet reporting is an option to fulfi l all the requirements in a cheap and fast manner.

Last but not least, the results of regression analysis reveal that the level of IFD is negatively aff ected if the chairman of two committ ees (audit and nomination) is also the chairman of the company. In this case the chairman infl uences the independence of the two committ ees which in turn impede them from fulfi lling their responsibilities eff ectively. This is normally followed by a low level of information being disclosed.

From the analysis, it can be seen that signifi cant support can be found for hypotheses H4, H5, H6, H7 and H10, However, there is no support for hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H8 and H9. Nevertheless, information disclosure involves the human judgment element and therefore can never be explained completely by the company’s characteristics. Within this context, however, the paper provides some evidence to support the signalling theory and the cost and benefi t hypothesis in relation to disclosure.

Conclusion

This paper examines the relationship between ten variables and the extent of IFD by Malaysian-listed companies. The results provide evidence that there is a signifi cant positive relationship between IT experts, fi rm’s is age, number of shareholders, and listing status, and the extent of IFD. However, dominant personalities in the audit and the nomination committ ees aff ect the level of IFD in a negative manner. The rest of the variables did not show any signifi cant relationship with IFD. From the results it is suggested that the Malaysian government should give more att ention to the issue of dominant personalities in the audit and the nomination committ ees in order to boost IFD. The criteria for the appointment of the chairmen of the audit and the nomination committ ees should also be regulated by the government agencies involved. In short, the results of this research highlight several characteristics that can be exploited to promote transparency and technology usage. The regulatory bodies can also make IFD as mandatory. All these can assist the Malaysian government in realizing its ambition to be a developed nation by 2020.

IJMS 18 (1), 1–29 (2011) 23

Due to limited time and cost, this study has examined the level of IFD cross-sectionally using 2005 data. The limitation of this method is that it ignores any changes in the level of fi nancial disclosure from one year to another. In other words, any increase of decrease on the level of disclosure (as it is voluntary in nature) will not be considered in the cross-sectional method as it only measures the level of disclosure for the year of study. This results in the fi ndings being not hundred percent accurate and reliable. More robust results could be obtained by using the longitudinal study approach. It is important to examine whether time plays any role on the IFD.

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IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

CHOOSING A NEWSPAPER FOR ADVERTISING USING THE WEIGHTED EXPOSURE MATRIX

METHOD — A MALAYSIAN CASE STUDY

P. D. D. DOMINICK. S. SAVITA

P. A EMELIA AKASHAHComputer and Information Science Department

Universiti Teknologi Petronas

Abstract

Advertising is one of the marketing strategies to promote products to consumers. Many advertising vehicles are available off ering interesting advertising packages. The key objective of this study is to fi nd which Malaysian newspaper is the bett er option to advertise your products or services in the newspaper so as to maximize your reach of the audience. Here the researchers selected two popular newspapers – The Star and Harian Metro – for this research and analysed them based on the lowest cost for advertising per 1000 exposures using the weighted exposure matrix method. The result of this study shows that important factors such as cost, reach, frequency and target audience play important roles in selecting the best newspaper as the preferred advertisement vehicle.

Keywords: Advertisement; cost per thousand exposures; media, newspaper.

Abstrak

Salah satu strategi untuk mempromosikan produk kepada pengguna adalah melalui kaedah pengiklanan. Pelbagai jenis pengiklanan yang ditawarkan kepada syarikat untuk mempromosikan produk mereka termasuk yang menawarkan pelbagai pakej yang menarik. Menerusi kajian ini, kaedah matriks pemberat pendedahan akan digunakan bagi tujuan untuk mendapatkan alternatif terbaik untuk membuat pemilihan bagi menentukan media mana yang paling baik untuk dipilih sebagai medium pengiklanan. Dua jenis surat khabar di Malaysia (The Star dan Harian Metro) dipilih sebagai sampel dan dengan menggunakan kaedah matriks pemberat pendedahan, perbandingan akan dibuat untuk menentukan pilihan yang

32 IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

terbaik berdasarkan kos terendah. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk mencari media di Malaysia yang menawarkan kos terendah per 1000 pendedahan bagi tujuan pengiklanan.

Kata kunci: Pengiklanan; kos per 1000 pendedahan; media; surat khabar.

Introduction

Advertising is one of the most important factors in our society and modern economy to boost the sales of the company (Tellis, 2003). David and Kim (2000) stated that advertisements can be placed in any type of media; printed, electronic or web. Tellis (2003) suggested that in a single day consumers will see at least 100 to 1000 advertisements from various sources.

One of the marketing strategies to sell products to consumers is through advertising. Tellis (2003) reported that advertising could infl uence one’s thought, decision, preference and also att itude. With such a big impact on the consumers, companies are willing to pay big amounts of money in order to get their advertisements placed in any of their preferred media. Companies that produce or sell many types of products or provide services are most likely to advertise more. As a result, the advertising cost that they need to bear will be huge. According to Philip (2003), this can be considered as one of the crucial investments before they gain profi t from their products or services.

Tellis (2003) stated that advertisements will and can create new demands as well as needs from the current and prospective customers. Generally, consumers will purchase goods that they see in advertisements based on the att ractiveness of the information presented. Not only that, it may lead to possibilities of purchasing the products or services due to the persuasion and the trust built via the advertisements.

Media companies will always try to off er att ractive advertising packages. For example, it is cheaper to choose a package with several numbers of exposures rather than to choose the one with only one-time exposure. Krugman (as cited in Tellis, 2003) suggested that a few exposures (e.g. three exposures) may be enough for an advertisement to be eff ective since the fi rst advertisement will draw the att ention of the consumers, the second will make the consumers like the brand or product being advertised and the third will persuade consumers to buy the advertised product.

IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011) 33

Literature Review

The marketing programme is most important for any organization to promote their products; so choosing the right vehicle to communicate the promotional message should be carefully considered (David and Kim, 2000). Information can be generated from the advertisement which will benefi t the consumers. However, among all the advertisements that the public see out there, some will be misleading (Philip, 2003). Since the study will be carried out on the advertisements in Malaysian newspapers, the most important factor to consider is the demand for the newspapers themselves. The newspapers with the most number of readerships will have a strong demand for advertisements (Jonas & Sten, 2000). Newspaper companies defi nitely can generate profi t out of this endeavor. Newspapers with higher number of readership will charge more for their advertising space, yet more companies would still request for their advertising service (Jonas & Sten, 2000).

The total expenditure in the Malaysian advertising market for the year 2008 had increased to RM 6.2 billion; a total growth of 13 percent compared to the previous year (Liew, 2009). Among the entire advertising media in Malaysia (television, newspapers, point-of-sale, internet, magazines etc), newspapers have become the biggest contributor to the growth of the advertising market in the country, with shares of 54 percent and with a growth of 8.3 percent (Liew, 2009). This growth is a good sign for the media, but at the same time it gives some impact to any organization that needs to spend more of their budget for advertising, since the cost of advertisement is increasing. The organization with a limited budget allocated for advertising purposes would have to consider the lowest option available, especially in choosing the newspaper which off ers the best package at the lowest rate.

Table 1

Total Advertising Expenditure by Media in Malaysia in 2007 and 2008

Media2007 2008

Growth Rate(RM’000) Share (RM’000) Share

Newspapers 3,065,289 56.1% 3,320,832 53.9% 8.3%Television 1,799,079 32.9% 2,161,195 35.1% 20.1%Radio 241,088 4.4% 291,518 4.7% 20.9%

(Continued)

34 IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

Media2007 2008

Growth Rate(RM’000) Share (RM’000) Share

Magazines 166,164 3.0% 156,117 2.5% –6.0%Outdoor 108,162 2.0% 95,892 1.6% –11.3%Point of Sales 57,855 1.1% 73,935 1.2% 27.8%Internet N/A N/A 32,110 0.5% -Cinema 26,267 0.5% 27,398 0.5% 4.3%Total 5,463,904 100.0% 6,158,995 100.0% 12.7%

Source: Liew, 2009

Table 1 shows the advertising expenditure by media in Malaysia in 2007 and 2008. We can understand that, every year the amount of investment for advertising expenditure is increasing. Also the above table shows that interest on television and radio advertisements is increasing compared to newspaper and magazine advertisements. Malaysia has quite a number of newspapers; Utusan Malaysia, Berita Harian, Harian Metro, The Star, and New Straits Times to name a few. The statistics for Bahasa Malaysia and English dailies (“Malaysia Newspaper”, 2009) based on the survey for Malaysian Newspaper Readership for the year 2007 is as below:

Bahasa Malaysia dailies:

1. Harian Metro – 1.98 million readers

2. Berita Harian – 1.27 million readers

3. Utusan Malaysia – 1.10 million readers

English dailies:

1. The Star – 1.12 million readers

2. New Straits Times – 0.33 million readers

Several general environmental factors may aff ect a fi rm’s decisions in any media selection situation – whether in domestic or non-domestic markets (Dominic, Savita & Akashah, 2009). The most frequently mentioned factors are type of product, target audience, budget size, cost effi ciency, reach and frequency, and competitors’ advertising (Coulter & Sarkis, 2005). All the factors will be discussed below as stated in Dominic et al., 2009.

IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011) 35

A. Target Audience

In every media selection situation, the task of the advertiser is to develop a defi nite understanding of the market for their product (Nowak, Cameron & Krugman,1993). To select the medium to carry the message after identifying the group of consumers to whom the message is to be targeted is important for every advertisement. This, however, may not be as simple as it seems especially when it is recognized that an optimal medium may not be available in some areas of the world (Jeannet & Hennessey, 2004).

B. Budget Size

Advertising budget allocations may limit the fl exibility of media choice in both domestic and non-domestic markets. Often the budget is not large enough to allow year-round advertising (Sissors & Baron, 2002). Sometimes the budget may have to be split between markets, taking into account the communication objectives of the company or brand.

C. Reach Frequency

This factor refers to the number or the percentage of a population group exposed to a media schedule within a given period of time. The frequency is the number of times people (or homes) are exposed to an advertising message, an advertising campaign, or a specifi c media vehicle. The period of issuance of a publication may be on daily, weekly or monthly basis. Closely tied to media budget is the reach and frequency factor. When a media budget is very high, it may be possible to achieve both high reach and high frequency. Often, however, the cost is too high to do both (Sissors & Baron, 2002). In many countries, a broad variety of national, regional and international media must be used to reach the majority of the market. However, this tactic often spreads the advertising budget too thin, thereby sacrifi cing frequency (Dahringer & Muhlbacher, 1991).

D. Cost Effi ciency

Sissors and Baron (2002) state that most advertisers att empt to select the medium that can deliver their message to their prospective customers with a minimum of waste or reach their target audience most eff ectively and effi ciently (Belch & Belch, 2007; Mueller, 2004). In general, a non-domestic campaign is more expensive than a domestic one.

36 IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

E. Impact

The impact factor can be defi ned as the qualitative value of an exposure or eff ect through a given media to the customers based on the placement of the advertisement in a newspaper. However, the researcher had taken the impact factor as a quantitative factor for calculation in percentage.

F. Total Number of Exposure

This is the reach multiplied by the average frequency; this measure is referred to as the gross rating points.

Total number of exposure = Reach X Average frequency

G. Weighted Number of Exposure

This is the reach multiplied by average frequency multiplied by average impact.

Weighted number of exposure = Reach X Average frequency X Average impact

Methodology

In our survey, we considered both categories (Bahasa Malaysia and English dailies) which have the highest number of readers. The study was carried out for Harian Metro and The Star. For this research, the properties of the newspapers that were taken into consideration are: (1) National Edition, (2) Main Paper (3) Run On Pages (ROP) Display, and (4) Black and White Printing. Based on the ROP concept, the advert will be placed at any available space in the main paper, except for the fi rst page of the paper. If a specifi ed page of the paper is chosen, a loading fee will be charged. The insertion fee and loading fee of the advert need to be paid in full where the required page also needs to be booked in advance; at least 1-2 weeks before the printing date.

Data collection was conducted through distribution of questionnaires to potential newspaper readers. The respondents were chosen based on random sampling where 120 respondents participated in the survey; 50 of whom were females and 70 were males of diff erent age groups, educational background and level of education. The minimum

IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011) 37

level of education among the participants is Diploma. Type of news and advertisements placed in the papers are the primary factors that lead the readers to purchase the newspapers and read the advertisements more than once. According to the participants of the survey, the headlines and news in Harian Metro are more eye-catching and interesting respectively. Moreover, the types of advertisements in Harian Metro are much more to the liking of the audience/readers. The level of education is the secondary factor for the readers to choose the Bahasa Malaysia newspaper. Some of them preferred the national language as it is easier to read and understand the content of the news or advertisements. The researchers generalized that the readers chose their preferred newspapers based on the language used in the paper, apart from the types of advertisements.

Numerical Illustration

The objective of this paper is to identify which newspaper – The Star or Harian Metro – is as the most cost-eff ective newspaper based on the placement of the advertisement using the weighted exposure matrix method in order to achieve the lowest cost per thousand exposures.

Cost / 1000 exposures (CPTE) = (Cost incurred / weighted exposures) / 1000

Facts and assumptions for this research:

1. The target population size is 120.

2. Number of “The Star” readers is 50.

3. Number of “Harian Metro” readers is 70.

The following list of variables can be identifi ed:

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition front page quarter size (black), C11

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition front page half size (black), C21

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition front page full size (black), C31

38 IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition middle pages quarter size (black), C12

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition middle pages half size (black), C22

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition middle pages full size (black), C32

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition last page quarter size (black), C13

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition last page half size (black), C23

Cost of ad on ROP of Main National edition last page full size (black), C33

Reach of the ad for each type= {R11, R12 ,……, R33}

Frequency of the ad for each type ,{F11,F12,…..,F33}

Impact of the ad, I

Weighted exposure of ad of each type {WE11,WE22, …, WE33}Cost per 1000 exposures (CPTE)

The Star

The size of The Star newspaper is 37cm * 8 columns. Therefore, The Star newspaper is known as a Tabloid newspaper. Each of the column size is 3.3cm. The minimum column size of the advertisement is two columns. The calculation of quarter, half and full size advertisements is as follows:-

Quarter = 12cm * 2 columns Half = 18.5cm * 4 columns Full = 37cm * 8 columns

The basic rate for an advertisement is RM63.90 based on the four properties of the papers discussed earlier. The price excludes the government tax of 5% and a loading fee as the advertisement will be placed at any available space in any of the newspaper pages.

IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011) 39

Reach, frequency and cost of advertising for The Star are as given below in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4 respectively.

Table 2

The Star Reach Matrix

ROP (Front page) ROP (Middle page) ROP (Last page)

Quarter page 20 5 8

Half page 25 7 10

Full page 30 9 11

In Table 2, the description of the value 20 in row 1, column 1 is, out of 50 target audience the possibility of reach is 20. Likewise, based on the position of the advertisement in the newspaper and the size of the advertisement the reach may vary from 5 to 30.

Table 3

The Star Frequency matrix


Quarter page 3 1 2

Half page 4 2 3

Full page 5 3 4

In Table 3, the value 3 in row 1, column 1 represents the number of times a reader of a specifi c newspaper may view the advertisement at any given time in a period of one day. Likewise, based on the position on the newspaper and the size of the advertisement the number of times the advertisement is viewed may vary from 1 to 5.

Table 4

The Star Exposure Matrix


Quarter page 60 5 16

Half page 100 14 30

Full page 150 18 44

In Table 4, the value 60 in row ,1 column 1 is calculated from Tables 2 and 3. It is simply the multiplication of 20 and 3. Likewise, based on

40 IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

the position in the newspaper and the size of the advertisement the exposures vary from 5 to 150.

The next step is to calculate the weighted exposure for the advertisement in the newspaper. For that the researchers assumed an impact (I). For The Star, it is assumed as 0.75.

Table 5

The Star Weighted Exposure Matrix


Quarter page 45 3.75 12

Half page 75 10.5 22.5

Full page 112.5 13.5 33

In Table 5, the value 45 in row 1, column 1 is calculated from Table 4 and the impact value for The Star newspaper is 0.75(60* 0.75= 45). Likewise, the remaining values were calculated and presented in Table 5.

Table 6

The Star Cost (RM) of the Advertisement Matrix


Quarter page 1,610.28 1,610.28 1,610.28

Half page 4,965.03 4,965.03 4,965.03

Full page 19,860.12 19,860.12 19,860.12

In Table 6, the value 1610.28 in row 1, column 1 is calculated from the standard sizes of the advertisements in the newspaper for a quarter-size page multiplied by the basic rate for an advertisement in The Star newspaper with an additional amount of 5% tax leading to the above value. A similar calculation is done for half page and full page.

For example, Quarter = (12cm * 2 columns * RM63.90) + 5 % GST = RM1,610.28

Half = (18.5cm * 4 columns * RM63.90) + 5 % GST = RM4,965.03

Full = (37cm * 8 columns * RM63.90) + 5 % GST = RM19, 860.12

IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011) 41

Harian Metro

The size of the Harian Metro newspaper is 33cm * 8 columns. Harian Metro is also known as a tabloid newspaper. Each column size is 3.0cm. The minimum size of the advert is 30cm.

The calculation for of quarter, half and full size ads are as follows:-

Quarter = 17cm * 4 columns Half = 17cm * 8 columns Full = 33 cm * 8 columns

The basic rate for an advertisement is RM41.00 based on the four properties of the papers discussed earlier. The price excludes the government tax of 5% and a loading fee as the ad will be placed at any available space in any of the newspaper pages.

Reach, frequency and cost of advertising for Harian Metro are as given below in Table 7, Table 8 and Table 9 respectively.

Table 7

Harian Metro Reach Matrix



Half page 35 10 15

Full page 40 10 20

In Table 7, the description for the value 25 in row 1, column 1 is, out of 70 target audience the possibility of reach is 25. Likewise, based on the position of the advert in the newspaper and the size of the advertisement the reach may vary from 5 to 40.

Table 8

Harian Metro Frequency Matrix


Quarter page 3 1 2

Half page 4 2 3

Full page 5 3 4

42 IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

In Table 8, the value 3 in row 1, column 1 represents the number of times a reader of a specifi c newspaper may view the advertisement at any given time in a period of one day. Likewise, based on the position on the newspaper and the size of the advertisement the number of times the advertisement is viewed may vary from 1 to 5.

Table 9

Harian Metro Exposure Matrix



Half page 140 20 45

Full page 200 30 80

In Table 9, the value 75 in the row 1, column 1 is calculated based on Tables 7 and 8. It is simply the multiplication of 25 and 3. Likewise, based on the position in the newspaper and the size of the advertisement the exposures vary from 5 to 200.

The next step is to calculate the weighted exposure for the advertisement in the newspaper. For that the researchers assumed an impact (I). Here, for Harian Metro, it is assumed as 0.90.

Table 10

Harian Metro Weighted Exposure Matrix


Quarter page 67.5 4.5 18

Half page 126 18 40.5

Full page 180 27 72

In Table 10, the value 67.5 in row 1, column 1 is calculated from Table 9 and the impact value for the Harian Metro newspaper is 0.90(75* 0.90= 67.5). Likewise, the remaining values were calculated and presented in Table 10.

In Table 11, the value 2927.40 in row 1, column 1 is calculated from the standard sizes of the advertisements in the newspaper for a quarter-size page multiplied by the basic rate for an advertisement

IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011) 43

in the Harian Metro newspaper with an additional amount of 5% tax leading to the above value. A similar calculation is done for half page and full page.

Table 11

Harian Metro Cost (RM) of the Advertisement Matrix


Quarter page 2,927.40 2,927.40 2,927.40

Half page 5,854.80 5,854.80 5,854.80

Full page 11,362.20 11,362.20 11,362.20

For example, Quarter = (17cm * 4 columns * RM41.00) + 5% GST = RM2,927.40

Half = (17cm * 8 columns * RM41.00) + 5% GST = RM5,854.80

Full = (33cm * 8 columns * RM41.00) + 5% GST = RM11,362.20

Cost comparison between The Star and Harian Metro

Consider fi rst page quarter size alone:-

The Star

Weighted exposure = 45 (Table 5)

Cost incurred = RM1,610.28 (Table 6)

Cost incurred for that exposure = 1,610.28/45 = RM 35.78

Cost/ 1000 exposure = 35.78/1000 = RM 0.036

Harian Metro

Weighted exposure = 67.5 (Table 10)

Cost incurred = RM 2,927.40 (Table 11)

Cost incurred for that exposure = 2,927.40/67.5 = RM 43.37

Cost/ 1000 exposure = 43.37/1000 = RM0.043

44 IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

A similar calculation for all the eight possibilities of positions and sizes are calculated and presented in the Table 12(a) for The Star and in Table 12(b) for Harian Metro.

Table 12(a)

CPTE for The Star


Quarter page 0.036 0.430 0.134

Half page 0.066 0.473 0.221

Full page 0.177 1.471 0.601

Table 12(b)

CPTE for Harian Metro


Quarter page 0.043 0.065 0.016

Half page 0.046 0.325 0.144

Full page 0.063 0.043 0.158

Table 12(c)

Optimal Choices of The Star and Harian Metro


Quarter page The Star Harian Metro Harian Metro

Half page Harian Metro Harian Metro Harian Metro

Full page Harian Metro Harian Metro Harian Metro

In Table 12(c), the decision to select The Star was based on the comparison between the values on Tables 12(a) and 12(b). The lower CPTE is selected for implementation. For example, the CPTE for a quarter page in the front page of The star is 0.036 and the CPTE for a quarter page in the front page of Harian Metro is 0.043. The lower value is for The Star. According to Table 12(c), Harian Metro provides less cost per thousand exposures in all diff erent sizes and diff erent locations except for quarter size in the front page.

IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011) 45

For a given budget amount, the management has to make a tradeoff decision between the number of exposures inserted in any lowest print newspaper and the budget to be allocated for advertisement in the printed media.

No. of exposures for a given period = Budget allocated* Weighted exposure/ Cost incurred.

For a given budget amount of RM 100,000, the number of exposures for The Star and Harian Metro on the diff erent environments are calculated as below:

Table 13

Cost Comparison between The Star and Harian for any Budget

Features The Star Harian Metro

Front page Quarter size ad 100000 * 45 / 1,610.28 = 2,795 100000 * 67.5 / 2,927.40 = 2306

Middle page Quarter size ad 100000 * 3.75 / 1,610.28 = 233 100000 * 4.5 / 2,927.40 = 154

Last page Quarter size ad 100000 * 12 / 1,610.28 = 745 100000 * 18 / 2,927.40 = 615

Front page Half size ad 100000 * 75 / 4,965.08 = 1,511 100000 * 126 / 5,854.80 = 2152

Middle page Half size ad 100000 * 10.5 / 4,965.08 = 212 100000 * 18 / 5,854.80 = 307

Last page Half size ad 100000 * 22.5 / 4,965.08 = 453 100000 * 40.5 / 5,854.80 = 692

Front page Full size ad 100000 * 112.5 / 19,860.12 = 567 100000 * 180 / 11,362.20 = 1584

Middle page Full size ad 100000 * 13.5 / 19,860.12 = 68 100000 * 27 / 11,362.20 = 238

Last page Full size ad 100000 * 33 / 19,860.12 = 166 100000 * 72 / 11,362.20 = 634

Based on Table 13, we understand Harian Metro generates more exposures than The Star within the given budget of RM100,000 except for quarter size in front page, middle page and last page. From the above calculation, the decision makers should be able to identify the page and the size of the advertisement for the given budget. Moreover, if the company considers exposures as the criteria, then placing the ad in the front page half size advertisement generates more exposures for Harian Metro. On the other hand, for The Star, the best value for money would be an ad in quarter size also on the front pages. As discussed earlier, the researchers have generalized that the readers chose their preferred newspapers based on the language used in the paper – apart from the type of advertisements in the newspaper that they are looking for (eg. job vacancies advertisement). These are

46 IJMS 18 (1), 31–47 (2011)

among the factors that need to be considered by the company in choosing the best option for advertising apart from the cost of the advertising itself.

Conclusion

The result of this study shows that important factors such as cost, reach, frequency and target audience play important roles in selecting the best newspaper as the preferred advertisement vehicle. The method presented in this research paper off ers an effi cient alternative to choose the lowest cost of printed media advertisement per thousand exposures. This method could be used by companies to prepare their advertising budgets to choose the newspaper that off ers the best package for their advertisement placement. The study on internet advertising could be future research as the option for the companies to place their advertisements.

References

Belch, G., & Belch, M. (2007). Advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing communications perspective (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Coulter, K., & Sarkis, J. (2005). Development of a media selection model using the analytic network process. International Journal of Advertising, 24(2), 193–215.

David, S. W., & Kim, S. F. (2000). Cultural values and advertising in Malaysia: Views from the Industry. Asia Pacifi c Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 12, 3–16.

Dahringer, L., & Muhlbacher, H. (1991). International marketing: A global perspective. Reading, MA: Addition-Wesley.

Dominic, P. D. D., Sugathan, K. S., & Akashah, E. (2009). Choosing among media alternatives for advertising: A case study. Proceeding of First International SEARCH Conference.

Jeannet, J. P., & Hennessey, H. D. (2004). Global marketing strategies (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Miffl in.

Jonas, H., Sten, N. (2000). Price competition, advertising and media market concentration. Retrieved from htt p://www.ne.su.se/paper/wp00_03.pdf

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Malaysia Newspaper Readership. (2009). Retrieved from htt p://www.geocities.com/Malaysia _newspaper

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Mueller, B. (2004). Dynamics of international advertising: Theoretical and practical perspective. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.

Nowak, G. J., Cameron, G. T., & Krugman, D. M. (1993). How local advertisers choose and use advertising media. Journal of Advertising Research, 33(6), 39–49.

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Sissors, J. Z., & Baron, R. B. (2002). Advertising media planning (6th ed.). Chicago, IL: McGraw-Hill.

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IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

REVISITING CLASSIC NEEDS THEORY:DOES MASLOW EXPLAIN MEXICO’S MAQUILADORA WORKERS’ NEEDS?

MELISSA N. GONZALEZSchool of Business and Public Administration

University of Houston-Clear Lake

Abstract

Maslow’s hierarchical theory of needs has considerably infl uenced additional research streams that base needs as forces of human behaviour. While the applicability of Maslow’s hierarchy has been scrutinized throughout the needs research, it still stands as the most researched and most cited needs theory in existence. The purpose of this recent att ention to a needs theory is to “test” the applicability of Maslow’s Hierarchy to a sample of maquiladora workers and their needs. A qualitative fi eld study was conducted to discover the applicability of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to the needs of maquiladora workers. Semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were used in gathering responses from lower-level maquiladora workers. Content analysis was used. According to the qualitative results, Maslow’s Hierarchy does not explain the needs of lower-level maquiladora workers. In addition, actual needs based on the interviews were uncovered and discussed.

Keyword:

Introduction

Maslow’s hierarchical theory of needs has considerably infl uenced additional research streams that base needs as forces of human behaviour. While the applicability of Maslow’s hierarchy has been scrutinized throughout the needs research, it still stands as the most researched and most cited needs theory in existence. As motivation theories, need theories suggest the kinds of things people desire from life or work. Needs may be defi ned as internal states experienced by an individual that shape and control behaviour. Need theories tell us that diff erent things energize people to do something; the theories do not indicate what people do. They particularly focus on what needs people are att empting to satisfy and what from the

50 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

organization will satisfy those particular needs. One particular theory integrates something from each of those types of theories and has set the foundation in the subsequent development of other theories in the management literature. This theory is the hierarchy proposed by Maslow (1970) as a general theory of personality development (Schneider & Schmitt , 1986).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

While Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is widely acknowledged, there is minimal research evidence to support it (Fey, 2005; Udechukwu, 2009; Wahba & Bridwell, 1976). Its att ractiveness is that it makes available both a theory of human motives by classifying basic human needs in a hierarchy, and a theory of human motivation that relates these needs to general behaviour. Maslow (1970) proposed that his need categories are structured in a hierarchy based on the probability of importance. The hierarchy of needs is as follows, in ascending order: the physiological needs, the safety needs, the belongingness or love needs, the esteem needs, and the need for self-actualization (Maslow, 1970, pp. 35–47). The model also stipulates that although individuals pursue self-actualization levels, they do so only after the lower level needs have been met. Thus, explaining why Maslow hierarchically categorizes needs according to their priority for satisfaction. Table 1 identifi es and defi nes each factor.

Determining these particular needs is necessary in predicting an individual’s behaviour whether att raction will occur and if retention can be sustained. Maslow argued that the fi ve basic needs are “instinctoid” and that his needs are “more universal” for all cultures than other desires or behaviours (Maslow, 1970, pp. 54).

Table 1

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model (Maslow, 1970)

Maslow’s Need Levels Description

Self-actualization The ultimate need that dominates once lower-level needs are met. This need motivates an individual to realize his or her potential, continue self-development, and be the best one can be.

Esteem The need for recognition and status. This need drives an individual to want to be respected by other, self-confi dent, and appreciated.

(continued)

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 51

Maslow’s Need Levels Description

Affi liation (Social) The need for belonging, for giving and receiving att ention, and for friendship.

Security The need for personal safety, security, and protection.

Physiological The need for basic needs, like food, water, shelter, and clothing.

Unfortunately, Maslow based his statements entirely on the assumption of U.S. individuals’ needs. In an early and only review of the research on Maslow’s model, Wahba and Bridwell (1976) determined that “there is no consistent support for the hierarchy proposed by Maslow” (pp. 224). They follow this statement by emphasizing that there is “no clear evidence that human needs are classifi ed in fi ve distinct categories, or that these categories are structured in a special hierarchy” (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976, pp. 224).

However, to completely ignore Maslow’s model is not the solution. The results of the review should be viewed with caution, partly because the nature of the theory makes it diffi cult to test empirically as well as methodological and measurement problems of the studies. For instance the majority of the studies reviewed used a rank-order system in categorizing needs. Based on Wahba and Bridwell (1976), this may not be a “valid test of Maslow’s need hierarchy, since rank ordering is not a Maslow concept”. In addition, the scales used did not indicate acceptable reliability coeffi cients and their construct validity was questionable. As a result, modifi cations of the model may be necessary when applying the model to other individuals from other countries. In relating U. S. individuals’ needs to inducements off ered by the organization, Maslow’s hierarchy can be used to identify what types of inducements may satisfy an individual’s particular need. In addition, the need hierarchy theory has tried to explain the dominance of particular needs between diff erent people at the same time, as well as within an individual over time (Wanous & Zwany, 1977). This theory can prove indispensable when focusing on the needs of employees and ultimately in the retention of employees in the organization.

International Need Studies

In the international realm, needs investigation utilizing Maslow’s Hierarchy has been conducted. For instance, Slocum, Tapichak, and Kuhn (1971) conducted a classic research that was to be the fi rst

52 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

empirical study using operative (non-supervisory) employees in two countries, U.S. and Mexico. Prior to this, cross-cultural studies were limited to upper-level managers and supervisors (Haire, Ghiselli, & Porter, 1965; Ivancevich, 1969). Slocum et al., (1971) specifi cally examined the eff ect of culture on operatives’ need satisfaction. Using the Porter need satisfaction questionnaire (1961) based on Maslow’s theory of needs, workers from both countries were asked to rate “characteristics or qualities” related to their job (Slocum et al.,1971, pp. 438). For each item (12 in all), the workers were asked to rate his or her answer on a seven-point scale answering the following: How much of the characteristic do you think should be connected with your job?; How much of the characteristic is there now connected with your job?; How important is this characteristic to you? The fi rst question’s rating was to measure the worker’s expected level of rewards. The second was to measure need fulfi llment, and the third was taken as an indicator of importance placed on each item. The results indicated that the U.S. workers were “generally much less satisfi ed than their Mexican counterparts” (Slocum et al., 1971, pp. 439).

Diff erences were found in the average need importance scores in all 12 need items. The Americans, stated self-actualization needs as not very well satisfi ed ranking it fourth; whereas, the Mexican workers considered self-actualization need to be highly satisfi ed and ranked it fi rst. Social need was ranked fi rst by the U.S. workers and third by the Mexicans.

With regards to importance, security need was ranked as most important in both countries and the self-actualization need came in second. Interestingly, social needs was the least important to the Mexicans and third most important to the Americans. This study introduced the concept that operatives’ (lower-level workers) responses diff er from managers based on the same need satisfaction questionnaire. In addition, the data from these two groups of operatives diff er from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and results from managers’ need as stated by previous studies (Haire, Ghiselli & Porter, 1965; Ivancevich, 1969). More importantly, these results indicate that “culture signifi cantly aff ects need satisfaction and importance for operative employees” (Slocum et al., 1971, pp. 443).

However, methodological issues play a major part in validating this and other cross-cultural studies. Slocum et al., (1971) merely translated U.S. based questionnaire, and distributed it to plant employees in Mexico. This action defi es all procedures related to conducting cross-cultural research. Nevertheless, its exploratory and groundbreaking fi ndings outweigh this limitation.

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 53

Fey (2005) utilized Maslow’s need theory to determine motivation levels of Swedish and Russian middle managers. In the lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy, Russian managers, are motivated by salary level; whereas Swedish managers, who further up in the hierarchy, are motivated by having an enjoyable working environment. Thus, these results provide strong support for Maslow’s hierarchy theory.

Pathak and Tripathi (2010) in their research on Indian workers used Maslow’s hierarchy in att empting to understand turnover in the insurance industry. They determine that Indian workers pursued to satisfy “multiple levels of needs simultaneously” primarily seeking social and esteem needs (pp. 16). They conclude an individual’s motivation varies according to the “nature and potency of the unsatisfi ed portion of his/her individual hierarchies of needs” (pp. 16). This conclusion is contradicting based on Maslow’s regression principle.

Rajagopal and Abraham (2009) also utilized Maslow’s hierarchy in predicting the higher order needs of Indian information technology (IT) employees. They also concluded a contradiction to Maslow’s theory due to the importance of higher-order needs of IT employees prior to satisfying lower-order needs.

Clark and McCabe (1972) studied the importance Australian managers placed on the various needs they are att empting to satisfy through their jobs and the extent to which the needs are being satisfi ed. Utilizing the same questionnaire as in Slocum et al., (1971), based on Maslow’s need classifi cation system initiated by Porter (1961), the job characteristics were exactly like the previous studies (Slocum et al., 1971) with the exception that an additional characteristic was entered in the “Autonomy Need,” that of “Opportunity for participation in methods and procedures”.

For each item (13 in all), the manager was asked to rate his answer on a seven-point scale answering the following: How much is there now?; How much should be there?; How important is this to me? Similar to a study replicated (Haire, Ghiselli & Porter, 1963), Australian managers viewed self-actualization as the most important need. Like the previous study, for all managers including Australia, self-actualization was the least satisfi ed. This was followed in order by autonomy, social, security, and esteem. According to the authors of the study, Maslow’s classifi cation of needs appears to “fi t the human condition” (Clark & McCabe, 1972, pp. 632). Nevertheless, there were many disparities with lower-level needs among the fi fteen countries.

54 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

Similarities were clearly seen among the Anglo-American countries: England, US, and Australia.

Blunt (1973) replicated an earlier study (Clark & McCabe, 1972) by conducting a study using managers from South Africa. Compared to the previous studies of other managers surveyed, Blunt’s (1973) study found that South African managers were much less satisfi ed than managers from USA, Australia, Denmark, Germany, France, and Italy. In addition, security needs caused more dissatisfaction than social ones. As Maslow’s theory predicted, South African managers att ached the greatest importance to self-actualization needs. Interestingly, South African managers did not diff er from managers in other countries with regard to the ordering of need importance.

Howell, Strauss, and Sorenson (1975) conducted a study similar to Blunt’s (1973) and Clark and McCabe’s (1972) using middle managers in Liberia as their sample. Security need had the largest dissatisfaction as well as the highest need importance score. The results of this study indicate that need importance rankings are similar to those in earlier studies; however, need satisfaction ranking scores are not.

Reitz (1975) tested Maslow’s hierarchy of needs hypothesis that “higher-order” needs are more important than “lower-order” needs. Using blue-collar workers at twenty-six industrial plants across eight countries-United States, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Japan, Thailand, Turkey, and Yugoslavia, he found that the need for self-actualization was ranked as most important across all twenty-six plants. In addition, in each of the eight countries, more educated workers tended to rank security needs as less important than did their less-educated workers. Results have to be cautiously viewed since the same survey, the Need Preference Inventory developed by Beer (1968), was used in all eight countries. This instrument consisted of 30 items and each item was related to one of the fi ve categories of needs suggested by Maslow (1970). This study did not consider the importance placed on including other items that may be deemed important to the particular culture being investigated.

In response to a previous study that showed that managers from India att ached moderate to high importance to higher-level needs (Haire et al., 1963), Jaggi (1979) conducted an empirical study to invalidate the earlier study. His hypothesis for the study was: Indian managers att ach greater importance to lower-order needs than higher-order needs. Utilizing a modifi ed version of Porter’s questionnaire based on Maslow’s need hierarchy, Indian managers were asked to indicate what they considered to be their most important reason(s) for working

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 55

in the current fi rm. The hypothesis was rejected due to results indicating that neither the higher-order nor the lower-order needs are likely to be dominant for the sample. The Indian managers ranked the needs in the following order: autonomy, physiological, esteem, social, and security. However, a problem found in the study creates a ranking problem; thus results should be viewed cautiously. To facilitate codifi cation, authors assumed that if a respondent identifi ed levels four and fi ve (upper-level needs) as his highest level of need, then needs at lower levels were fulfi lled and his need expectation had reached the higher-order level. This assumption is one of the major fl aws of Maslow’s hierarchy as indicated by motivation literature (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976; Lawler & Sutt le, 1972; Wanous & Zwany, 1977). It states that higher-level needs will be pursued only if lower-level needs have been satisfi ed.

In investigating need satisfaction among 248 Mid-eastern managers, Badawy (1980), utilized Porter’s need satisfaction instrument that contains thirteen items categorized into a Maslow-type hierarchy of needs and relating to general characteristics of the respondent’s work environment using a seven-point Likert type rating scale. The job characteristics are exactly like the previous studies (Slocum et al., 1971; Clark & McCabe, 1972; Blunt, 1973) with the exception that an additional characteristic was entered in the “Autonomy Need,” that of “Opportunity for participation in methods and procedures”. Findings revealed that Mid-eastern managers were highly dissatisfi ed with the ‘opportunity to participate in sett ing goals’. Maslow’s (1970) need of autonomy was considered the least satisfi ed need, followed by self-actualization, esteem, social, and security needs. Self-actualization was considered the most important need and it was also the second most dissatisfi ed need. The need hierarchy is clearly not cross-culturally based and that culture aff ects the hierarchy of needs for managers (Badawy, 1979).

Global Applicability of Needs Theories

In the global arena, managers must avoid imposing domestic American management practices and theories on their international business practices (Adler, 1997). Since motivation and work behaviour issues are not restricted to cultural boundaries, the eff ect of motivational aspects on an individual’s job performance needs to be reexamined. Tannebaum (1980), discussing the diffi culty surrounding the analysis cross-cultural research, stated that even the assumption that members of an organization are motivated by the organization’s rewards and incentives may not apply in all cultures.

56 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

Along these lines, Hofstede (1980) argues that many Western terms (for instance, “achievement”) cannot even be translated into other languages, thus an indication of their lack of appropriateness for use in those cultures. An example of this is in McClelland’s (1961) cross-national study, where he measured motivation for achievement to be higher in the United States than in Turkey. The measure captures what appears to be a U.S. concept of achievement in terms of material and career success. Country to country, the cultural diff erences can aff ect job performance (Silverthorne, 1992). In the international spotlight, research has focused on comparing motives between American and Chinese employees (Fisher & Ya Yuan, 1998), as well as U.S., Russia, and the Republic of China employees and managers (Silverthorne, 1992).

With regard to needs, international studies include Reitz ’s (1975) examination of the importance of fi ve categories of needs among workers in eight countries (U.S., Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Japan, Thailand, Turkey, and Yugoslavia); Badawy’s (1980) investigation of Mideastern managers’ needs; Stephens, Kedia, and Ezell’s (1980) comparative study of U.S. and Peruvian managers; Jaggi’s (1979) study of Indian managers’ need importance; and Buera and Glueck’s (1979) need satisfaction study of Libyan managers. To date, there is limited research that looks specifi cally at what actually att racted current employees to select the organization they are currently in as well as what aspect of the organization or job motivates them to remain in their current position (Pathak & Tripathi, 2010). As a result determining which needs individuals are trying to satisfy becomes important and worthy of investigation.

In sum, research involving these theories concentrated on their applicability to current employees. Their focus was that in order to motivate a current employee to contribute eff ective input to a job and perform at a high level, their supervisor must determine what needs the employee is trying to satisfy at work and make certain that the employee receives outcomes that help satisfy those needs. Thus, most studies had employees rank job att ributes in order of most important (Jurgensen, 1978; Feldman & Arnold, 1978), or asking employees what motivates them and comparing it to what managers thought their employees would say (Kovach, 1987).

With regard to international applicability, Hofstede (1980) reports the development of a “motivational map of the world” that does not support the idea of a universal order of needs. Jelavik and Ogilvie (2010) specifi cally question Maslow’s global generalizability while

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 57

Redding (1980) also addresses the applicability of Western-derived theories that focus on the individual (through the esteem and self-actualization concepts) to non-Western cultures in which the focus is on affi liation and relationships.

Thus, organizational strategies will have diff erent eff ects in diff erent countries. These diff erences may not only aff ect the initial att raction but also aff ect an individual’s turnover intentions. Organizations must be sensitive to the real needs of potential applicants and att empt to monitor them continually in order to att ract and eventually maintain lower turnover rates. Thus, in order to test Maslow’s applicability to another culture and level of workers, no lists or surveys were given like in previous studies, but actual interviews were conducted with lower-level maquiladora workers in Mexico. With the upcoming plans to increase auto manufacturing plants in Mexico (Black, 2010), understanding workers’ needs is more critical than ever.

Data Collection and Sample

The data collection instrument in this study was one-on-one semi-structured interviews with 75 lower-level maquiladora workers. The interviews were conducted in Spanish and tape-recorded. Since qualitative studies investigating lower-level workers were limited (Sargent & Matt hews, 1997; Kenney, Goe, Contreras, Romero & Bustos, 1998), the questions developed are based on relevant literature and similar studies. The open-ended interview questions used in the study are in Appendix A (English version) and Appendix B (Spanish version). The maquiladora plants selected were a convenience sample of fi ve. The seventy-fi ve workers (15 workers from each plant) were selected by a systematic random method from the fi ve maquiladoras. A systematic sampling plan was followed in order to randomly select fi fteen workers from each of the fi ve plants resulting in a total of seventy-fi ve interviewed workers. A modifi cation of the sample process was made using purposive sampling in order to obtain gender diversity to best refl ect the actual lower-level workers’ workforce gender ratio. The sampling frame consisted of a list of lower-level workers obtained from the plant or HR manager one week prior to interviews were conducted; and sample members were identifi ed by selecting every kth person in the sampling frame. When a “selected” employee was absent, the next name on the list was selected. As a result, 46 females and 29 men were identifi ed as study participants. Interviews were translated and transcribed by the researcher. A back-translator was also used to ensure the accuracy of the translations.

58 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

Results

In doing a qualitative study it is important to fi nd the “meaning” of these fi ndings derived from our data through theoretical comparisons (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Considering that no formal hypotheses were given, a general discussion of the fi ndings coupled with the theory in question will be discussed.

Physiological Needs

Maslow describes physiological needs as “homeostasis” such as hunger and thirst. He does not go into a “laundry list” of what entails physiological needs, but he does mention “these needs are the most preponent of all needs” (pp. 37). With respect to our particular sample, they are indeed “preponent.” Based on the interviews, the worker’s basic needs include monetary–type inducements (i.e. pay, benefi ts, bonuses, overtime) as well as transportation, job availability, health and cafeterias.

Regardless of which maquiladora I was in, the interviews were encompassed with the pleas of how basic needs were not being met and the workers’ desire for the plant management to focus on these particular insuffi ciencies. A female worker commented on the situation, “I don’t think I am ever going to make enough.” In U.S. literature, this demand would be considered “ground-breaking” since basic necessities are considered “adequately satisfi ed” (Porter, 1961, pp. 1). Even so, in maquiladora literature, pay was not seen as a retention method (Miller, Hom & Gomez-Mejia, 2001). This is contradicting the interviewed workers’ comments that repeatedly stated that low pay (a lack of a basic necessity) was the driving force to leave a particular maquiladora and that a higher pay was an att raction to go to another plant. A female worker stated, “This friend (in the plant) told me that we should go to the other plant that paid more money and so we went. I had to go to the plant that paid the most.” An increase in monetary-related inducements like pay, bonuses, and overtime were continuously mentioned as “needed” for survival and for thoughts of leaving not to surface. Additional comments focused on the workers’ pressures to not have their pay reduced, for instance, a male worker mentions the following, “I don’t want to be late, or absent or do anything that will decrease my pay. I really need the money.”

Safety Needs

Maslow (1970, pp. 39) mentions safety needs as “security; stability; dependency; protection; freedom from fear, from anxiety and chaos;

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 59

need for structure, order, law, limits; and strength in the protector.” To a certain extent, some of these elements may be characterized under the need for patronage (i.e. dependency, protection, and strength in the supervisor). One can make the comparison between those specifi c factors and the supervisor’s obligation and dutiful responsibilities to the workers that are apparent with this particular sample.

Belongingness and Love Needs

Considering all the inducement categories that involve a familial or affi liation aspect (co-workers, family, social events, and networks), there is no doubt that this particular need is very important to the worker. Earlier sections have brought to terms the collective nature of Mexicans and this particular characteristic is carried into the workplace. Workers enjoy a good time in the workplace and enjoy being with their co-workers “outside” of work like during breakfast, lunch and afternoon breaks. Due to the long hours of work involved in a maquiladora, this time given to interact with each other is the only time they have to relax with their friends. After-work social activities are virtually none, especially for the women with the added responsibilities of child-care and home maintenance.

However for the men, a new trend is surfacing due to the demands of work endured by both the husband and the wife. For many working couples, child-rearing responsibilities have to be shared equally. They rely on working in diff erent shifts (preferably in the same plant, since shift hours diff er among plants) in order to take turns caring for their children without the expense of child-care. As a result, the need for “adult” conversation and social activities during working hours is necessary.

Esteem Need

Maslow (1970, pp. 45) claimed “all people in our society have a need for a stable, fi rmly based, usually high evaluation of themselves for self-respect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others.” This need includes the desire for recognition, att ention, importance, status, and appreciation. If this need is not met, feelings of helplessness and failure develop (Maslow, 1970).

These feelings of helplessness and failure were unfortunately present while speaking to the workers. The sentiments of “failure” and “lost opportunities” fi lled the majority of the conversations. Many of the male workers desired opportunities to perform other more challenging jobs; specifi cally for the recognition they felt they deserved for their

60 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

continuous high levels of work performance and seniority. For many workers, several years had gone by without an indication of how they were doing or even an opportunity to do something else. For instance, a female worker stated the following, “There are people here that have been here for 5–6 years and they are in the same position.” More importantly, for these workers who are members of a very low socio-economic class in Mexico, their desire for recognition or promotion was based mainly on the monetary increases that go along with these inducements. A male worker commented the following, “The weekly pay we get is barely enough for the necessities, so we depend on the over-time to buy other things.” One could argue that for these workers recognition and promotion are just a means to fulfi l lower level physiological needs. The following comment expressed by a male worker sums it up, “This (monetary bonuses) also motivates us to work harder. We know that if we work harder and make more production, we can receive more money.”

Self-actualization Need

According to Maslow (1970, pp. 46), self-actualization refers to a “man’s desire for self-fulfi llment, namely to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially.” While the need to self-actualize was not expressively clear throughout the interviews, there was a clear indication that a need to learn and develop was present. The idea of improving oneself was apparent in many of the interviews. To become “self-actualized” is for the individual to perform at high levels in what the person is “fi tt ed” for and to be content (Maslow, 1970). Unfortunately, for many lower level maquiladora workers, they are not contented with what they are doing. This is clear due to the high negative responses in the “Job” inducement category. For the majority of the maquiladora workers this level may never be reached due to their discontent of the job and not having a choice in the job they are performing. Relating to this theme, a woman worker stated the following comment, “Many don’t like it here, but where else are we going to work?”

Summary of Maslow’s Hierarchy

While Maslow never claimed his theory to generalize all cultures, he did have confi dence in that his proposed needs would be similar. Thus, it is clear that one could fi t Maslow’s needs to “coincide” with the needs evident in the workers’ interviews. But what is important to emphasize is that unlike US –based samples who seek upper-level

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 61

satisfaction like esteem and self-actualization needs (Kovach 1987; Slocum et al.,1971; Wanous & Zwany, 1977) this particular sample seeks lower-level physiological needs. Thus, for this theory to be useful to lower-level workers, lower-level needs must be emphasized. The needs expressed by the workers were overwhelmingly concentrated on basic necessities. A worker commented, “The thing is that in Mexico it is just for the food. You earn just to get by, just for food.” Another worker stated a similar conclusion, “I have a responsibility to myself, I need to work in order to eat.” As mentioned earlier, this particular need is usually “forgott en” or assumed met by organizational leaders.

While an att empt was made to try to apply a current needs theory to this particular sample, it was unsuccessful. It is clear that these theories are not totally applicable to this sample and should not be applied. Any prescription for att empting to satisfy the needs of the lower-level maquiladora workers should adhere specifi cally to the specifi c worker’s characteristics (Hulin & Triandis, 1981).

The Discovery of Maquiladora Workers’ Needs

In conducting this qualitative study, the underlying needs of the lower-level maquiladora workers were uncovered. By way of the interviews and transcripts, an att empt was made through the mode of discovery in determining the maquiladora workers’ needs. The needs developed are “Need for Basic Necessities,” “Need for Patronage,” “Need for Relationships,” “Need for Stability/Order,” and “Need for Development.” These needs will be discussed in the following sections.

Need for Basic Necessities

This need was developed due to the obviously low standards of living experienced by all lower-level maquiladora workers. Their claims and pleas for the inability to make ends meet was unmistakably clear throughout the interviews. For instance, a woman stated her need for additional money, “Everything I make goes to pay the (children’s) school and the day care also. I will not have any money left after making those expenses.” Another worker stated, “Well, the workers need money, it really is not enough to live.” But what are “basic necessities” for the maquila worker?

Based on the interviews, basic needs are anything related to money (pay, bonuses, overtime, and benefi ts), health (health, medical facilities, and plant conditions), job (transportation, job availability,

62 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

and security), and food (cafeteria). A male worker stated his frustration in providing for his family, “Pay has not changed much in nine years.” Another worker stated her lack of providing the basic necessities for her family, “What they pay us is not enough.”

Need for Patronage

The “need for patronage” or sponsorship was clearly detrimental in predicting the likeliness for a worker to remain in the plant. Confi dently one can state that “need for patronage (sponsorship)” is extremely high and very important for lower level workers in the workplace. A male worker made the following comment, “Supervisors and managers need to keep their eyes open to what is going on with the workers.”

For the maquiladora workers, the supervisor is expected to provide for them and look after them like a “father-fi gure.” A worker mentioned his thoughts on supervisors, “I think if it is going to aff ect us, they (supervisors) need to tell us. Even if they think it may not aff ect us, they need to let us know.” The more assistance, respect, and att ention they receive from their immediate “leader,” the more the workers’ trust and admiration strengthens towards him. A worker mentioned the following advice to supervisors, “Gett ing to know the worker bett er makes the worker trust you and want to work for you.” A male worker mentioned what he would do with his workers if he were a supervisor, “I would listen to them and take what they say into consideration. I would trust them in what they say and I would try to work with them as much as possible.”

Need for Relationships

The importance of this need to the workers is highly signifi cant according to the interviews. For many of the maquiladora workers, relationships and camaraderie amongst each other is of major importance. For especially the female workers, the friendships gained with their co-workers are most essential to their job satisfaction. A female worker stated her motivation to come to work, “I’m already gett ing used to the job and especially my friends. That’s what makes me get up early and come to work.” Co-workers have infl uence in making the workplace a good or bad place to work in. A female worker stated, “We work many hours together, so we cherish our friendship for the sake of our job.” Another worker mentioned, “I like my work, but the relationship I have with my co-workers is very important to the job and if they don’t respect me I don’t need to be

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 63

here.” Having social events like Halloween and anniversary parties, and providing soccer teams are events that the workers look forward to participate in.

Need for Order (Stability)

Lower-level workers certainly place importance on stability and order in the workplace. Throughout the interviews, workers consistently frown on uncertainty of rewards and changes in their work environment.

In the interview conversations, anxiety and nervousness were clearly indicated based on changes in policies, layoff s, or merely uncertainty of receiving rewards. A worker stated her feelings about the uncertainty of layoff s, “We did not know anything about the layoff s, and who was next.” A worker expressed her thoughts, “They tell us to be patient and that there will be changes. What changes will occur? They haven’t told us anything, so many grow impatient and leave. They should give us a time frame, so we know.”

Need for Development

The last dimension extracted from the interviews is “need for development.” One can safely state that lower-level workers want to improve their lives through being promoted, being moved to new and diff erent positions, and being involved classes inside or outside of the plant. A male worker expressed his desire to move to a higher position, “Well, I do like it here and I do plan on staying here. There is going to be opportunities for bett er positions with more pay later. So I want to “superar”, move up to a higher post. I know that I can do it.” This was for the sake of learning new and diff erent tasks and ultimately being rewarded fi nancially (we are back to basic necessities). A male worker stated, “I would like an opportunity to move up. I don’t want to stay in the same level.” A female worker stated, “I want to improve myself, for my family and their well-being.” This desire to improve their profi ciency and knowledge was clear in the majority of the interviews. A male worker stated the following, “For the ‘confi anza’ people, they do pay all the school costs. And that’s my goal. I want to move up to a ‘confi anza’ position so that they will pay all my school costs in order to learn English.”

While some, especially women, seemed satisfi ed in their present situation, they expressed their desire to gain from their experiences in the maquiladora. A female worker stated, “I like to be moved to

64 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

diff erent jobs, that way I can learn new things.” A female worker thought about the possibility of moving to a higher position upon receiving more education, “With more education and the years I have here, I think that I would take a higher position. I know that my supervisor values the work I do.”

Summary and Conclusion

The dimension of the needs of lower-level workers extracted by way of the interviews is as follows in order of importance.

Need for Basic Necessities

Need for Order/Stability

Need for Patronage

Need for Development/Improvement

Need for Relationships

Only one need, Need for Relationships, is exactly the same as the “belonging and love needs” as stated by Maslow (1970). While the others may show “some” similarities (i.e. safety needs has qualities as “need for patronage”), the bott om line is that the needs dimensions extracted from the interviews and categories are distinctive and unique to this particular sample.

Based on the consistent remarks referring to basic needs, this particular need is of the highest importance to the workers and based on the fi ndings, these needs are not being met by the maquiladoras. This fi nding contradicts a previous statement, “organizations have done a bett er job of satisfying the basic needs of their workers” (Kovach, 1987, pp. 59).

Many studies, unfortunately, have not tested an organization’s att empt to satisfy “physiological needs.” For instance, Porter (1961, pp. 1) did not include any questions relating to “the most preponent needs, physiological needs” in his study due to those particular needs being “so adequately satisfi ed”. Thus, how does one imply that basic needs like physiological needs are satisfi ed if the questionnaires/survey surrounding the studies are not addressing these particular needs? In this study it was evident, based on the interviews, that basic needs were not being met by the maquiladoras.

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 65

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Appendix AInterview Questions (English version)

DemographicsGenderAgeMarital statusChildren or dependentsEducation

Previous Employment1. How many jobs and types of jobs have you had including this

one?2. Is this your fi rst maquiladora job? If not, how many have you

worked in?3. What was your previous job? How long was your stay?4. What did you like about your previous job? 5. What did you dislike about your previous job?6. Why did you leave?

Current Employment7. Why did you want to work in a maquiladora?8. How long have you worked in this maquiladora?

68 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

9. How did you hear about this job?10. Why did you want to work at this particular maquiladora?11. What did you fi nd att ractive about this particular maquiladora?12. Tell me some things you like about your job.13. Tell me some things you do not like about your job.14. If you could change something about your job, what would it

be?15. Do you have relatives/friends working in this fi rm?16. Why do you think they work here?17. Have you had friends/relatives that have left this maquila?18. If yes, why did they leave?19. Do you have relatives/friends working in other maquiladoras? 20. Why do you think they work there?21. What are some good things that they have mentioned about

their jobs?22. What are some bad things that they have mentioned about their

jobs?23. Do you have relatives/friends working in other types of jobs

instead of maquiladoras?24. What are some good things that they have mentioned about

their (non-maquila) jobs?25. What are some bad things that they have mentioned about their

(non-maquila) jobs?

Organization26. What are some things that you like about the maquila you work

at?27. What are some things that you do not like about the maquila

you work at?28. If you could make changes, what would they be?29. Regarding friends or relatives that have left the maquila, what

could the organization have done to keep them from leaving?

Future30. How likely is it that you will stay in this maquila?31. Where do you see yourself in three years? 32. What would you like to learn?33. What would your friends in the maquila like to learn?34. What position would you like to have?35. What position would your friends like to have?

IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011) 69

Appendix BInterview Questions (Spanish version)

Características Generales

GeneroEdadEstado CivilNinos o dependientes? Nivel de educacion

El Empleo Previo1. ¿Cuantos y que tipo de empleos tuvo en el pasado?2. ¿Es su primer trabajo con una maquiladora? (¿Si no, cuántos?)3. ¿Qué era su ultimo trabajo? ¿Cuánto tiempo estuvo en su

ultimo trabajo? 4. ¿Qué apreció usted acerca de su ultimo trabajo?5. ¿Qué no apreció usted acerca de su ultimo trabajo?6. ¿Por qué se salió?

El Empleo7. ¿Por qué quiso usted trabajar en una maquiladora?8. ¿Cuánto tiempo tiene trabajando en esta maquiladora?9. ¿Cómo oyó usted acerca de este trabajo?10. ¿Por qué quiso usted trabajar en esta maquiladora particular?11. ¿Qué encontró usted atractivo acerca de este maquiladora

particular?12. Dígame diez cosas que le gusta acerca de su trabajo.13. Dígame diez cosas que no le gusta acerca de su trabajo.14. ¿Si podría cambiar usted algo acerca de su trabajo, qué sería?15. ¿Tiene usted parientes/amigos que trabajan en esta

maquiladora?16. ¿Por qué piensa usted que ellos trabajan aquí?17. ¿Ha tenido usted amigos/parientes que han dejado este

maquila?18. ¿Si sí, por qué se salieron?19. ¿Tiene usted parientes/amigos que trabajan en otras

maquiladoras?20. ¿Por qué piensa usted que ellos trabajan allí?21. ¿Qué son algunas cosas buenas que ellos han mencionado

acerca de sus trabajos?22. ¿Qué son algunas cosas malas que ellos han mencionado acerca

de sus trabajos?

70 IJMS 18 (1), 49–70 (2011)

23. ¿Tiene usted parientes/amigos que trabajan en otros tipos de trabajos en lugar que maquiladoras?

24. ¿Qué es algunas cosas buenas que ellos han mencionado acerca de sus trabajos?

25. ¿Qué es algunas cosas malas que ellos han mencionado acerca de sus trabajos?

La Organización26. ¿Qué son algunas cosas que usted aprecia acerca de la maquila

en la que usted trabaja?27. ¿Qué son algunas cosas que usted no aprecia acerca de la

maquila en la que usted trabaja?28. ¿Si podría hacer usted cambios, qué serían?29. ¿Con respecto a los amigos o parientes que han dejado

esta maquila, qué podrían haber hecho los directores para mantenerlos como empleados?

Futuro30. ¿Que probable es que usted permanecerá en esta maquila?

(¿Qué es la probabilidad que usted permanecerá con la organización?)

31. ¿Dónde se ve usted en tres años? 32. Que te gustaria aprender?33. Amigos en esta maquila: que les gustaria aprender?34. Qual posicion te gustaria tener?35. Amigos en esta maquila: Qual posicion les gustaria tener?

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AS MODERATOR BETWEEN

PERSON-ORGANIZATION (P-O) FIT AND WORK ATTITUDES

S. SENTHIL KUMARIBS, Hyderabad, India

Abstract

Although the positive eff ect of Person-Organization fi t (P-O fi t) on work att itudes is well known, research into the environmental factors that aff ect P-O fi t’s salience in predicting work att itudes is in its infancy. This study examined the moderating eff ects of organizational culture in the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes such as job satisfaction, and organizational commitment in the national culture context. Results from a sample of 173 managerial-level employees from 7 organizations in India suggest that organizational culture either strengthens or weakens the positive relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes depending upon its alignment with national culture. In the Indian cultural context, it is found that people and control-oriented organizational cultures that are isomorphic with national culture weaken the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes. Whereas creation and market-oriented cultures that are non-isomorphic with Indian national culture strengthen the positive relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes. Results of this study have implications in employee selection, socialization and organizational culture management.

Keywords: Person-organization Fit; organizational culture; national culture; job satisfaction; organizational commitment.

Introduction

Beginning with Lewin’s (1951) proposition that behaviour is a function of both person and environment, researchers have developed various theoretical models to explain organizational behaviour. Traditionally the construct of Person-Organizationt Fit (P-O Fit) has been used to analyse the relationship between individuals and the organizational environments in which they fi nd themselves (Kristof, 1996). P-O fi t is defi ned as similarity between

72 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

the characteristics of people and the corresponding characteristics of organizations (Chatman, 1989; Kristof, 1996) and distinguished from other forms of Person-Environment fi t such as Person-Job fi t, Person-Vocation (P-V) fi t (e.g., Holland, 1985), Person-Group (P-G) fi t (e.g., Guzzo & Salas, 1995) and Person-Job (P-J) fi t (e.g., Edwards, 1991). The basic premise of the (P-O) fi t theory and research is that when characteristics of people and work environment are matched, positive organizational outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and reduced turnover intentions would result.

Although the term “person-organization (P-O) fi t” has been used to describe the congruence between individual and organizational goals; individual needs or demands and organizational systems or supplies; and individual personality and organizational climate (see Kristof, 1996), the majority of P-O fi t research has been focused on the similarity between individual and organizational values (Cable & Judge, 1996, 1997; Chatman, 1991; O’Reilly, Chatman & Caldwell, 1991). In particular Chatman and her colleagues worked on value congruence as a prominent one among others. Chatman (1989) proposed a model of person-organization fi t with specifi c theoretical propositions on antecedents, processes and consequences of the model. Since then several studies have provided theoretical justifi cation as well as empirical evidence for the positive association between P-O fi t and organizational outcomes. Results of these studies have generally shown signifi cant positive relationships between P-O fi t and work att itudes such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Chatman, 1991; O’Reilly et al., 1991).

Human resource practices aff ect employees’ work att itudes fi rst and these cognitions will in turn elicit desired organizational behaviours such as low absenteeism, organizational citizenship behaviour, and work performance. Work att itude predisposes an individual to behave in a particular way. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are widely researched examples of work att itudes. Job satisfaction is a general work-related att itude. It refers to the overall att itude that an employee has towards both the job content and its context. The context typically includes pay, promotion, recognition, communication, co-workers, supervisors, and benefi ts. Organizational commitment refers to the strength of the employee’s involvement and identifi cation with the organization. Organizational commitment includes the three components: aff ective, continuance and normative (Meyer, Allen & Smith, 1993). The aff ective component describes how the employee is emotionally att ached to the organization and

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 73

thus wishes to remain with it. The continuance component refers to the extent to which the employee perceives the need to stay in the organization. The employee may want to stay in the organization because he or she needs the pay, benefi ts, or cannot fi nd another job. The normative component refers to the perceived obligation on the part of the employee to stay in the organization. Research suggests that organizational commitment is directly related to employee involvement, intention to stay with the organization as well as job performance (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Since both job satisfaction and organizational commitment have been identifi ed as “important variable(s) in understanding the work behaviour of employees in organizations” (Mowday, Steers & Porter, 1979, pp. 225) the current study examines how P-O fi t aff ects these work att itudes.

Research Objective

Since P-O fi t is assessed on a variety of individual and organizational characteristics, the relevance of fi t on any of these characteristics is dependent upon how important that characteristic is to the individual and the organization (Kristof, 1996). P-O fi t’s positive eff ect may be moderated by environmental characteristics such as organizational culture and national culture. If organizational culture itself exerts considerable infl uence over individual work behaviour then P-O fi t may become less relevant in predicting work att itudes. The research objective of the current study is to examine the moderating eff ects of certain types of organizational culture, depending upon their alignment with the characteristics of national culture, on the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes.

Signifi cance of the Study

Macro level variables such as national culture, socio-economic conditions, particularly labour market conditions that prevail in a country may also infl uence P-O fi t’s eff ects on work att itudes. Most of the studies of P-O fi t have been carried out in the U.S. where the social, economic, political and cultural characteristics are vastly diff erent from developing countries. The American approach to work is that loyalty from employee to the organization or from the organization to the employee tends to be based on self-interest, and is short lived and nonexistent in most instances (Friedman & Friedman, 1980). Many Americans derive individual identity with his/her occupation/career rather than the organization. Given the number of employment opportunities, att racting and retaining employees is a challenging

74 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

task. In such a context, P-O fi t is often touted as a predictor of favourable work att itudes, job performance, lower absenteeism and turnover (Bowen, Ledford & Nathan, 1991).

However, the nature of organizational problems that managers in developing economies face are diff erent from that of developed economies. Unlike in developed economies, the immediate concern for managers in developing economies is organizational survival rather than competitiveness via human resources (Pieper, 1990). Nyambegera, Daniels and Sparrow (2001), in a study conducted in African context, have shown that individuals value themselves and not the P-O fi t which are important in predicting job involvement in the context of developing countries. They argue that in a developing economy context that is characterized by high levels of unemployment, excess supply of cheap unskilled labour, the managers’ chief concern would be organizational survival. In the Indian context, results of a recent research (Budhwar & Sparrow, 2002) suggest that, due to the severe pressure created by continuous liberalizations of economic policies and the increasing presence of foreign players, the question of immediate survival has become more important among Indian organizations. In such situations P-O fi t as presented in developed economies may not matt er in predicting employees’ work att itudes.

It is not clear then that constructs such as P-O fi t can predict work att itudes in developing contexts such as India. Recent research conducted with Indian and U.S samples by Westerman and Sita (2005) suggests that the eff ects of P-O fi t may not only be aff ected by the organizational environment but the national culture as well. In their study, the congruence between a student’s preferred classroom environment and the perceptions of the actual work environment was found to be a signifi cant predictor of student satisfaction and performance only in the U.S group and not in the Indian sample. The authors further observed that the norms of high power distance and collectivistic behaviour in India may facilitate conformity and suppression of individual diff erences in work environment att itudes and behaviours, thus reducing the relationship between P-O fi t and work place outcomes. Since their study was conducted in the higher educational institutions, further empirical studies are required before we extend the results to build theory on the interaction among organizational culture, national culture and P-O fi t in the organizational context. Although it is intuitively appealing to expect macro-level factors such as national culture, economic and labour market conditions to reduce the importance of P-O fi t, it is also plausible to reason that certain meso-level factors such as organizational culture to counteract the forces of macro-level factors so that P-O

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 75

fi t’s salience is increased. Clearly understanding the predictability of P-O fi t in the developing countries context can help in implementing suitable human resource management practices. The present study assumes signifi cance in extending this line of research by examining the moderating eff ects of organizational culture in the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes within the macro-level context of Indian national culture.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section, a review of the literature leading to the hypotheses is presented. Then the operationalization of variables and the method to test the hypotheses are presented. After that the data are described and results are discussed. Finally the paper concludes with a discussion on research fi ndings as well as directions for future research.

Literature Review

Person-Organization (P-O) Fit and its Eff ect on Work Att itudes

Research interest on Person-Organization fi t is an outgrowth of the idea that organizations have cultures that may be att ractive or unatt ractive to certain types of individuals (Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983). P-O fi t is conceptualized either with a supplementary perspective or a complementary perspective (Kristof, 1996). A supplementary fi t occurs when organizational characteristics such as culture, values, goals, and norms are aligned with individual characteristics such as personality, values, goals and att itudes. A complementary fi t results when an organization fulfi ls an individual’s needs, desires and preferences and/or an individual has the abilities to meet organizational demands. The dynamic process that leads to the supplementary type of P-O fi t was described by Schneider’s (1987) att raction-selection-att rition (ASA) framework, which posits that similar people are att racted to and then selected and retained by the organization. Researchers typically examined P-O fi t from the supplementary fi t perspective. P-O fi t is defi ned as the “congruence between the norms and values of organizations and the values of persons” (Chatman, 1989, pp. 339).

Employee att itudes related to job satisfaction and organizational commitment are the most important and frequently studied variables due to their signifi cant implications to the fi eld of organizational behaviour and human resource management. Job satisfaction is defi ned as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience.” (Locke, 1976, pp. 1300). Job satisfaction represents an employee’s global evaluation of the work,

76 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and co-workers support. Research evidence shows that job satisfaction aff ects employee work behaviour signifi cantly. Job satisfaction is found to be positively related to job performance (Harter, Schmidt & Johnson, 2002), customer satisfaction (Griffi th, 2001) and inversely related to absenteeism (Scott & Taylor, 1985) and turnover (Griff eth, Hom & Gaertner, 2000).

Organizational commitment refers to the strength of the employee’s att achment to the organization. Organizational commitment can be defi ned as “the relative strength of an individual’s identifi cation with an involvement in a particular organization” (Mowday et al., 1979, pp. 226). Organizational commitment includes the three components: aff ective, continuance and normative (Meyer et al., 1993). The aff ective component describes how the employee is emotionally att ached to the organization and thus wishes to remain with it. The continuance component refers to the need level of the employee to stay in the organization. The employee may want to stay in the organization because he or she needs the pay, benefi ts, or cannot fi nd another job. The normative component refers to the perceived obligation on the part of the employee to stay in the organization. Organizational commitment is directly related to employee involvement, intention to stay with the organization as well as job performance (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Research has shown strong support for the positive eff ects of P-O fi t on job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Chatman, 1991; O’Reilly et al., 1991).

Organizational Culture

Beginning with Pett igrew’s (1979) work on culture as an anthropological concept that can be used in organizational analysis, the construct of organizational culture has received a great deal of att ention among management researchers. Organization culture has been defi ned as the widely shared and strongly held values by the employees (Chatman & Jehn, 1994), and shared perceptions of work practices (Hofstede, 2001). Since values act as the core elements of culture whereas norms, symbols, rituals and other culturally-related activities support them (Enz, 1988), organizational culture can be said to exist when the members of the organization share some common values (Weiner, 1988).

National Culture

On a national level “culture” refers to a set of values, beliefs, assumptions, expectations, perceptions and behaviours that is commonly shared by most of the people in a society. Hofstede (1991,

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 77

pp. 5) defi ned culture as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group of category of people from another.” He described national cultures of diff erent countries using fi ve dimensions: individualism-collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity, short-term vs. long-term orientation.

Interaction Eff ects

Research interest in the interaction eff ects of P-O fi t with organizational culture on organizational outcomes has grown since the research conducted by Sheridan (1992). His study investigated the infl uence of organizational culture values on the retention rates of 904 college graduates hired by six large accounting fi rms in the USA over a six-year period. Results showed that turnover rate was high in the cultures emphasizing att ention to detail and stability values to those cultures emphasizing team orientation and respect for people values. Although this study did not measure individual values, the interpretation of the results made by Sheridan (1992) suggested that P-O fi t may have less infl uence on organizational outcomes than situational eff ects such as specifi c organizational cultural values. Further empirical support to Sheridan’s (1992) assertion was provided by a study conducted in Taiwanese context (McKinnon, Harrison, Chow & Annue, 2003). P-O fi t was shown to be less eff ective on work att itudes than innovation, respect for people, stability and aggressiveness-oriented organizational culture thus indicating some cross-cultural generalizability of Sheridan’s (1992) fi ndings as well.

Research evidence on the infl uence of national culture on organizational culture is sparse. Organizational theorists have long argued for the plausibility of organizational culture to refl ect the national culture characteristics. Much of the support for the argument is rooted in institutional, population-ecology, and contingency theories (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Meyer & Rowan, 1977). According to the proponents of these theories, organizations must be isomorphic with their environments in order to survive and prosper. Organizational culture is largely shaped by widely held beliefs and values of the members of the organization (Chatman, 1991). Since national cultures aff ect individual values (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1993) and beliefs (Smith & Thomas, 1972), one may expect some sort of isomorphic relationship between organizational culture and national culture. Jabes and Gruere (1986) argue that an organization’s members will hold values that tend to be, on average, similar to those of their nation’s culture. Hofstede’s (1985) research

78 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

showed that organizational value system exhibited national culture characteristics.

Although environment creates pressures on organizations to move toward isomorphism, there are other forces, both internal and external, that act on organizations to develop non-isomorphic relationship with their environment. The argument that organizations develop separate identity which distinguishes them from the environment through boundary-maintaining mechanisms (Aldrich, 1979; Argyris, 1964; Katz & Kahn, 1966) suggests that organizational culture need not be aligned with national culture. Further organizational cultures may diff er from national culture because of the infl uence of: a) industry characteristics (Gordon, 1991; Chatman & Jehn, 1994), b) task and market characteristics (Hofstede, 2001) and c) absence of institutional alternatives (Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983). In this regard, results of recent empirical research suggest that the relationship between organizational culture and national culture is rather complex than simple. In a study aimed to examine whether organizational cultures replicate national cultures, Nelson and Gopalan (2003) found that some organizations tend to be isomorphic through replicating national culture characteristics, some had cultures that are reciprocally opposite to national cultures while others had cultures that are independent of national culture. We can see then, that organizations vary in their intent, processes, and capacity to nurture their cultures in alignment with national culture.

The basic premise of this paper is that P-O fi t’s positive eff ect on work att itudes may be contingent upon the nature of organizational culture dimensions and their alignment with national culture. P-O fi t may not predict work att itudes to the extent that organizational culture is isomorphic with national culture. This is because organizational cultural values themselves and not the P-O fi t, will engender positive associations with work att itudes (McKinnon et al., 2003). Hence it may be expected that in the presence of organizational cultures that are isomorphic with Indian national culture, P-O fi t may lose its salience in predicting work att itudes.

However, if organizational culture is strong (i.e., those with an identifi able set of norms, values, and beliefs; Schein, 1992) and non-isomorphic to the characteristics of national culture, then P-O fi t may assume importance in predicting positive work att itudes. This is because while organizations strive to create their own unique and strong cultures which are diff erent from the prevailing national culture values, they may often achieve high levels of P-O fi t through careful selection and highly institutionalized socialization processes

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 79

(Chatman, 1991; Cable & Parsons, 2001). Pascale (1985) discussed how strong culture fi rms use the socialization process to achieve high levels of P-O fi t. He observed that strong culture fi rms “rely heavily on the informed applicant deselecting himself if the organization doesn’t fi t with his personal style and values”(pp. 29). Further, results of recent research indicate that the national culture infl uence is stronger on personally-held managerial work values (Ralston, Holt, Terpstra & Cheng, 2008). If organizational values are diff erent from that of personal values, then individuals will be more likely to change their personal values only when they confront organizations that have strong cultures (Chatman, 1989). Hence it is logical to expect the organizations to rely heavily on their selective hiring, socialization, and rewarding processes in order to develop cultures that are non-isomorphic with national cultures. People’s response to P-O fi t is increased only in such organizations because “…the more clearly organizational values and culture can be identifi ed and the more explicitly they are hired for, measured, and rewarded, the more important P-O fi t should be…” (Kristof & Jansen, 2007, pp.128). Hence it may be expected that in the presence of organizational cultures that are non-isomorphic with national culture, P-O fi t may gain its salience in predicting work att itudes.

Using Quinn & Rohrbaugh’s (1983) competing values framework, organizational culture dimensions as proposed by the Organizational Culture Profi le (OCP) (O’Reilly et al., 1991) can be classifi ed into four groups: a) creation, b) people, c) control and d) market. The competing values framework consists of two dimensions: a) fl exibility vs. stability and b) internal oriented vs. external oriented. Creation types of organizational cultures are fl exible and external oriented. People-oriented cultures are fl exible but internal oriented. Control-oriented cultures are internal focused but stability is maintained. Market- oriented cultures are stability focused but external focused. Two of the OCP dimensions described norms regarding Creation: a) innovation – This dimension includes three values describing norms of risk taking, openness to change and being experimental in the organization; b) fl exibility – This dimension includes fi ve values that describe norms of adaptability and not being constrained by many rules. Two dimensions describe norms regarding people: c) team orientation – This dimension includes fi ve values describing norms regarding collaboration and supporting each other in the organization; d) People-orientation dimension includes three values describing interpersonal relationship, respecting individual’s right and fairness in dealing with people in the organization. Two dimensions describe norms regarding control: e) stability – This dimension includes three values describing predictability and security of employment.

80 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

Four dimensions describe norms regarding market: f) att ention to detail - This dimension includes four values that describe analytical, precision and detail orientation in the organization; g) performance orientation - This dimension includes four values that describe norms of high expectations for performance; h) decisiveness – This dimension includes three values describing decisive orientation in the organization; i) competitiveness - This dimension includes four values that describe aggressive competition; and j) organizational reputation - This dimension includes six values describing corporate social responsibility and organizational reputation. Since both internal and external stakeholders are aff ected by organizational reputation, one can classify this dimension into both people and market types of organizational culture. The following section describes the development of hypotheses specifi c to Indian cultural context.

Hypothesis Development

India is a republic in South Asia. It is the second-most populous country in the world with its population crossing 1 billion mark in June 2000. Economic reforms since 1991 have transformed it into as one of the world’s fastest growing economies. However, it still suff ers from high levels of hunger, poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy, and unemployment (Economic survey, Government of India, 2008–09). According to the United Nations Development Program Statistical Update (2009), India is ranked at 134 out of 182 countries in the world in terms of Human Development Index (HDI). The prevailing values, beliefs, and behavioural patt erns which form part of Indian national culture can be att ributed to several factors. Feudalistic values promoted by British, during their rule over India for more than a century, along with the caste system promoted hierarchy, status consciousness, power distance and low individualism in India (Saini & Budhwar, 2004).

Individuals in India derive their identity based on family and caste membership. The group is considered to be more important than the individual (Prakash, 1994; Tripathi, 1988). Collective goals are prioritized over individual goals and desires. Hierarchy and status shape relationships which are usually long lasting. . The Indian social and cultural environments place high value on strong family ties, giving respect to elderly people resulting in greater dependence on others. Thus interpersonal relationship assumes greater importance in people management in India (Saini & Budhwar, 2004). Since Indian national culture values inter-personal relationship and group ties, it is expected people-oriented organizational culture will negatively moderate the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes.

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 81

Hypothesis 1: Organizational culture moderates the positive relationship between P-O fi t and organizational commitment and job satisfaction in such a way that the relationship will be weaker when the culture is more oriented towards people.

While Sheridan’s (1992) study found that the cultural dimension stability is positively associated to a higher turnover rate among the employees in his Anglo-American cultural context. One of the three values comprising Stability is security of employment. It may be argued that, due to cultural diff erences between the U.S and India, the importance given to the value of security of employment varies between the employees in the U.S and the Indian fi rms. The U.S. is a highly individualistic and short-term oriented culture. In this culture, Hofstede (2001) notes that “the relationship between employer and employee is primarily conceived as a business transaction, a calculative relationship between actors on a “labour market.” Americans tend to identify themselves by their occupations or professions (Adler, 1997). Employees are more loyal to their profession than to their organization. Job hopping and layoff are fairly common. However, India is a low individualist (collectivist) and long-term oriented culture (Hofstede, 2001). In this culture, employees have a moral involvement with their organization and place more emphasis on their job security. Employers and employees are more inclined to show loyalty and develop long-term relationships although job hopping has become increasingly common among the younger generation (Gopalan & Stahl, 1998). Moreover given the relatively high uncertainty-avoidance nature of Indian culture (Kanungo & Mendonca, 1994), it is expected that control-oriented organizational culture such as control to negatively moderate the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes.

Hypothesis 2: Organizational culture moderates the positive relationship between P-O fi t and organizational commitment and job satisfaction in such a way that the relationship will be weaker when the culture is more oriented towards control.

Kanungo and Mendonca (1994) have shown signifi cant cultural diff erences between Indian and western countries on the basis of Hofstede’s (1991) four initial dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity. India is positioned relatively high on uncertainty avoidance and power distance and relatively low on individualism and masculinity dimensions. Relatively high uncertainty avoidance implies an unwillingness to take risks and more resistance to organizational change. Further most

82 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

(if not all) Indians believe that life is predetermined (according to the principle of reincarnation which is a fundamental belief in Hinduism) and that change is relatively diffi cult to accomplish (Saha, 1992; Kuppuswamy, 1994). In a cultural environment where widespread sense of fatalism prevails, individuals have litt le perceived control over events because of their belief that things will happen anyway. In such context organizations may also be less proactive and innovation oriented. Since Indian culture is characterized by relatively high uncertainty avoidance and fatalism, it is expected that in the presence of creation-oriented organizational cultures such as innovation and fl exibility the salience of P-O fi t is increased to strongly predict work att itudes.

Hypothesis 3: Organizational culture moderates the positive relationship between P-O fi t and organizational commitment and job satisfaction in such a way that the relationship will be stronger when the culture is more oriented towards creation.

The relative low individualism implies that family and group are preferred over work outcomes (Sharma, 1984). Indians in general derive their identity based on family and caste membership. The relative low masculinity implies that employees value personalized relationships more than performance. Gopalan & Stahl (1998) have shown that for most, if not all Indians, work is a means to satisfy their family needs. Most of them value relationships and place less emphasis on material goods as they get older. Employment in India is considered to be an extension of social justice (Khandwalla, 1990). Gopalan and Stahl (1998) reporting general absence of strong work ethics in India, further observed that in the Indian context, “keeping people employed appears to be more important than achieving profi tability”. Hence it is expected that market-oriented organizational cultures such as performance, competitiveness, aggressiveness, outcome orientation and att ention to detail to positively moderate the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes.

Hypothesis 4: Organizational culture moderates the positive relationship between P-O fi t and organizational commitment and job satisfaction in such a way that the relationship will be stronger when the culture is more oriented towards market.

Thus given the Indian national culture context, in the presence of organizational cultures which are oriented towards people and control, a weaker relationship between P-O Fit and att itudinal outcomes may be expected, because treating employees with respect

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 83

will be part of organizational schemata and will lead to positive att itudinal outcomes irrespective of the levels of fi t. Hence misfi t may not signifi cantly aff ect positive att itudinal outcomes in the cultures where internal constituents – employees - are valued. Whereas market and creation-oriented cultural dimensions may be expected to enhance the positive eff ects of P-O fi t because only those individuals who also share these values will be satisfi ed, committ ed and tend to stay in the organization. With respect to organizational reputation, there is no obvious theory or no prior empirical research to support expectations of association with outcomes and hence it is treated as an empirical question. The interaction between national culture, organizational culture and P-O fi t is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Interaction between national culture, organizational culture and P-O fi t

Method

Sample

The criteria used to select organizations for this study were 1) organization size (workforce size), and 2) the number of years of existence. Organizational culture refers to the values that are widely shared among most of the employees and normally it takes considerable amount of time for the members to accept and practise those values before they get fi rmed up and embedded in the organizational way of doing things (Schein, 1983). Hence it was decided to select only those organizations which were in existence for more than fi ve years and had a workforce of 100 and more for this study.

National Culture

Personal Values

(IdealOrganizationalCulture)

PersonOrganization Fit

PerceivedOrganizational

Culture

(ActualOrganizationalCulture)

Work Attitudes1. Job Satisfaction2. Organizational

Commitment

84 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

Research on the relationship between industry characteristics and organizational culture suggests that variation in organizational culture may be more across industries than within them (Chatman & Jehn, 1994). Hence twenty-two organizations were randomly selected initially from diff erent industries located in southern part of India in order to obtain data on varied organizational dimensions. But only seven organizations had agreed to participate in this study. These organizations represented information technology (software development), pharmaceutical, textile manufacturing, marketing consultancy, fi nancial services, and automotive component manufacturing industries The characteristics of the organizations which had participated in this research varied in terms of organization size, total number of years of operation, and management philosophy. The size of the organizations, measured in terms of number of employees, ranged from 250 (fi nancial services) to 1450 (pharmaceutical). The total number of years of operation ranged from 8 to 16 years. Organizational structure ranged from mechanistic to organic. Since organizational culture is shaped by history, structure, and industry characteristics such as technology and growth, the sample of organizations was so chosen to refl ect the diff erences in these parameters.

The sampling strategy was to survey 20–40 employees chosen through the stratifi ed random sampling method from each of the organizations. Stratifi cation was done based on hierarchical level, gender, experience, and functional groups For the purpose of the study, only managerial-level employees who have had a minimum of one-year experience in their respective organizations were chosen to participate in this study. All the respondents were also assured of complete confi dentiality and anonymity of their data. Out of 198 fi lled-in questionnaires, 25 questionnaires could not be used due to incomplete data.

Operationalization of Variables

Since values are “fundamental and relatively enduring” (Chatman, 1991, pp. 459) and shape organizational culture that guides employees’ behaviours (Schein, 1992), this study operationalized P-O fi t as the congruence between individual and organizational values. This study used the Organizational Culture Profi le (OCP) of O’Reilly et al., (1991) to assess organizational culture and P-O fi t. The OCP is based on the Q-sort method (Bem & Funder, 1978; Block, 1978). The respondents sorted the 54 items into nine categories, ranging from most to least desirable (personal values), or from most to least characteristic (organizational values). To develop a profi le of the

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 85

organization’s culture, the respondents were asked to sort the 54 value statements according to the extent to which the items were characteristic of the organization. For each organization, a single profi le was created by aggregating the individual’s perceptions of organizational characteristics. For individual preference, individuals were asked to sort the value items according to their personal preferences for each value in their ideal organization. Then P-O fi t score for each individual was measured by correlating the individual preference (ideal) and organizational profi le (actual).

Factor analysis of OCP (actual organizational characteristics) indicated seven organizational culture dimensions: respect for people, stability, innovation, performance orientation, competitiveness, att ention to detail, and organizational reputation.

Two measures of work att itudes – job satisfaction, and organizational commitment - were used in this study. Job satisfaction refers to an overall att itude that employees hold toward the job and job context. It may be either positive or negative. Job satisfaction was assessed using a three-item global satisfaction scale adapted from Cammann, Fichmann, Jenkins & Klesh, (1983). Organizational commitment measures the degree to which an individual identifi es and is involved in an organization. The aff ective component of organizational commitment (OC) was used in this study. The aff ective component of OC refers to an employee’s emotional att achment to the organization and it was measured by a nine-item scale adapted from Meyer et al. (1993).

Data Analysis

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the moderating eff ect of organizational culture in the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes. Individual-level hierarchical regression analyses were used to determine whether the eff ects of P-O fi t on the dependent variables are moderated by organizational culture variables A total of 14 hierarchical regressions (7 dimensions x 2 dependent variables) were used to test the hypothesis. In each case, the interaction term was added after demographic variables and moderating variables were included in the regression equation.

Moderating Eff ect of People-Oriented Organizational Cultures

It was hypothesised that the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes is weakened by relationship-oriented (people) organization

86 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

culture. Table 1 displays the hierarchical regression models used to test this hypothesis. Four separate regression analyses were performed to maintain suffi cient degrees of freedom. In each case, the interaction term was added after control variables, P-O fi t and moderating variables were included in the regression equation. If the change in the model R2 is signifi cant (i.e., explains additional variance), then the moderating eff ect is determined to be signifi cant. Table 1 illustrates that respect for people-oriented organizational culture is a signifi cant moderator of the relationship between P-O fi t and job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Table 1

People-Oriented Organizational Culture Moderated Regression Models.

VariablesJob

SatisfactionOrganizational Commitment

Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

Respect for people-oriented culture .289** .245 .741** .641 P-O Fit 1.457** 1.145 1.77** 1.045Respect for People X P-O Fit -1.013** -1.55**

R2 .441 (.406) .483 (.447) .370 (.325) .468 (.427)F 57.766** 22.679* 24.65** 26.10**Change R2 .043 .098

* p < .05 **p < .01

The results indicate that P-O fi t infl uences signifi cantly job satisfaction (β = 1.457 ,p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = 1.77 ,p < .01). In model 2 the respect for people x P-O fi t interaction term explained weaker relationship with job satisfaction (β = –1.013 ,p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = –1.55 ,p < .01). Thus Hypothesis 1, the weakening eff ect of P-O fi t on work att itudes in the presence of respect for people culture was supported.

Moderating Eff ect of Control-Oriented Organizational Culture

It was hypothesized that the relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes is weakened by control-oriented organization culture. Table 2 displays the hierarchical regression models used to test this hypothesis. The results indicate that P-O fi t infl uences signifi cantly job satisfaction (β = 1.5, p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = 1.43, p < .01). In model 2 the stability x P-O fi t interaction term explained weaker relationship with job

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 87

satisfaction (β = –1.084, p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = –.942, p < .01). Thus Hypothesis 2, the weakening eff ect of P-O fi t on work att itudes in the presence of stability culture was supported.

Table 2

Control-Oriented Organizational Culture Moderated Regression Models

VariablesJob


Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2Stability-oriented culture .224** .123 .146** .0965P-O Fit 1.5** 1.43** 1.047

Stability X P-O Fit -1.084** -.942**

R2 .456 (.422) .504 (.470) .407 (.369) .443 (.404)F 70.035** 13.774* 71.304** 9.251*Change R2 .266 .048 .296 .036

* p < .05 **p < .01

Table 3

Creation-Oriented Organizational Culture Moderated Regression Models

VariablesJob


Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2Innovation-oriented culture .451** .354** .016 0.004P-O Fit 1.57** 1.08**

Innovation X P-O Fit 3.077** 2.497**

R2 .449 (.415) .480 (.443) .415 (.378) .451(.395)

F 61.179** 18.357* 69.65** 11.601*Change R2 .236 .031 .285 .036

* p < .05 **p < .01

Moderating Eff ect of Creation-Oriented Organizational Culture

Hypothesis 3 proposed that the relationship between P-O fi t and job satisfaction and organizational commitment is strengthened by creation-oriented culture. Table 3 displays the hierarchical regression models used to test the hypotheses. The results indicate that P-O fi t infl uences signifi cantly job satisfaction (β = 1.57, p < .01) and organizational

88 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

commitment (β = 1.08, p < .01). In model 2 the innovation x P-O fi t interaction term explained stronger relationship with job satisfaction (β = 3.077, p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = 2.497, p < .01). Thus Hypothesis 3, the strengthening eff ect of P-O fi t on work att itudes in the presence of creation culture was supported.

Table 4

Market-Oriented Organizational Culture Moderated Regression Models

VariablesJob


Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

Performance orientation .290* .194* .227 .217

P-O Fit 1.057* .864* .904* .742

Performance orientation X P-O Fit 5.578* 4.796*

R2 .452 (.418) .481 (.434) .401 (.363) .431 (.374)

F 53.081** 12.268* 50.51** 14.964*

Change R2 .203 .029 .212 .030

Constant

Competitiveness .243 .145 -.074 -.047

P-O Fit .820** .645* .348* .314

Competitiveness X P-O Fit 1.281** .967*

R2 .441 (.406) .478(.419) .395 (.357) .419 (.369)

F 60.176** 24.802* 61.2** 20.672*

Change R2 .235 .037 .259 .024

Att ention to detail -.079 -.056 -.237* -.241

P-O Fit .159* -.074 .300* -.274

Att ention to Detail X P-O Fit .854** 1.035**

R2 .470 (.436) .504 (.469) .421 (.384) .471 (.434)

F 72.015*** 9.832* 70.288** 13.544**

Change R2 .267 .034 .285 .050

Organizational reputation .266* .212* .853** .745*

P-O Fit 1.71** 1.44* 2.73** 1.95*

Organizational Reputation X P-O Fit 3.31 ** 3.27 **

R2 .447 (.412) .474 (.425) .386 (.347) .412 (.359)

F 66.13** 12.786 53.1** 17.03

Change R2 .256 .027 .228 .026

* p < .05 **p < .01

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 89

Moderating Eff ect of Market-Oriented Organizational Cultures

Hypothesis 4 proposed that the relationship between P-O fi t and job satisfaction and organizational commitment is strengthened by market-oriented culture. Table 4 displays the hierarchical regression models used to test the hypotheses.

With respect to performance-oriented culture, the results indicate that P-O fi t infl uences signifi cantly job satisfaction (β = 1.057, p < .05) and organizational commitment (β = .904, p< .05). In model 2 the performance orientation x P-O fi t interaction term explained stronger relationship with job satisfaction (β = 5.578, p < .05) and organizational commitment (β = 4.796, p < .05).

With respect to competitiveness-oriented culture, the results indicate that P-O fi t infl uences signifi cantly job satisfaction (β = .820, p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = .348, p < .05). In model 2 the competitiveness x P-O fi t interaction term explained stronger relationship with job satisfaction (β = 1.281, p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = .967, p < .05).

With respect to att ention to detail-oriented culture, the results indicate that P-O fi t infl uences signifi cantly job satisfaction (β = .159, p < .05) and organizational commitment (β = .300, p < .05). In model 2 the att ention to detail x P-O fi t interaction term explained stronger relationship with job satisfaction (β = .854 , p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = 1.035,p < .01).

With respect to organizational reputation-oriented culture, the results indicate that P-O fi t infl uences signifi cantly job satisfaction (β = 1.71, p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = 2.73, p < .01). In model 2 the organizational reputation x P-O fi t interaction term explained stronger relationship with job satisfaction (β = 3.31, p < .01) and organizational commitment (β = 3.27, p < .01). Thus Hypothesis 4, the strengthening eff ect of P-O fi t on work att itudes in the presence of market cultures was supported.

Key Findings

The results suggest that the positive eff ects of P-O fi t on job satisfaction and organizational commitment are weakened by people-and control-oriented cultures, whereas creation-and market-oriented organizational cultures strengthened the positive eff ects of P-O fi t on job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

90 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

Limitations

The main limitation of this study is the reduced sample size for calculating cross-level actual P-O fi t. Unfortunately, this was largely due to the use of the OCP and the Q-sort methodology. As described earlier, using Q-sort methodology involves intensive personal interviewing and time on the part of the respondents. The respondents had to sort all the fi fty-four value statements into nine categories two times. This has largely restricted the possibility of involving a large number of respondents. Moreover, data was collected only from managerial-level employees who have had a minimum of one year experience in their respective organizations. This has further reduced the potential number of respondents in each organization. In spite of this limitation, this research has a number of strengths. First, this study used the commensurate measurement method to assess P-O fi t. The commensurate measurement method allows oneself to describe both person and organization with the same characteristics (values) thus increasing mutual relevance of the characteristics under investigation. Kristof (1996) suggested the commensurate measurement method for assessing supplementary fi t such as fi t between the person and the organization’s characteristics. Second, this study has used the ipsative method to assess the actual and the ideal organizational culture which is bett er than the likert-type scale because it is less prone to a social desirability bias.

Conclusion

This study examined how environmental factors aff ect the positive relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes. Specifi cally it was hypothesized that P-O fi t would lose its salience in predicting work att itudes under the infl uence of people-and control-oriented organizational cultures in the Indian cultural context. Further it was also hypothesized that creation and market oriented organizational cultures would strengthen the positive relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes. The results provide support to all the hypotheses and thus show preliminary evidence that environmental factors can strengthen or mitigate the eff ects of P-O fi t. Further the results of this study have theoretical implications for research on moderators of P-O fi t and to explore these, the results are reviewed in the light of initial expectations.

Implication for Theory

Researchers in the organizational behaviour fi eld have frequently argued that P-O fi t is positively associated with work att itudes

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(Chatman, 1989; O’Reilly et al., 1991). However, our results, along with evidence from other studies suggest that the eff ects of P-O fi t are contingent upon organizational culture dimensions and, more importantly, their alignment with national culture. More specifi cally, this study provides an empirical evidence for the weakening eff ects of P-O fi t in the presence of people and stability-oriented organizational cultures. People and stability-oriented organizational cultures are isomorphic with Indian national culture which is characterised by relatively low individualism, and high uncertainty avoidance (Kanungo & Mendonca, 1994). However, P-O fi t’s eff ect on work att itudes was strengthened by innovation, performance, competitiveness, and att ention to detail cultures. These cultures are non-isomorphic with Indian national culture in character. With reference to organizational reputation culture, there was no hypothesised relationship but this study explored this as an empirical question. Results suggest that organizational reputation culture strengthened the positive relationship between P-O fi t and work att itudes. Since organizational reputation culture is neither isomorphic nor diametrically opposite to Indian national culture values, we may extend the same logic used in non-isomorphic cultures in interpreting its interaction with P-O fi t. Kristof and Jansen (2007) in their review on moderators of P-O fi t eff ects pointed out that “what is missing at this point is a strong, theory-based rationale for what individual, environmental, and other factors that are likely to infl uence the impact of P-O fi t on individual outcomes” (pp. 128). This study contributed in this direction by developing a theoretical model for the impact of environmental factors such as organizational culture and national culture on P-O fi t and empirically testing it.

Implications for Managerial Practice

For management practitioners, this research has several implications. More specifi cally, insights from this study can be used in the areas of employee recruitment and socialization practices. Organizations, depending on their strategy, structure and control systems, may want to emphasize particular sets of values (culture dimensions) among its employees. If these values are congruent with national cultural values, then P-O fi t becomes redundant. In such case, it is suffi cient to strengthen their own cultures since they themselves would predict positive work att tidues whereas if the values are incongruent, it is important to focus on P-O fi t.

Further, organizations, depending on their strategy, may perceive certain aspects of national culture either to be functional or dysfunctional in gett ing the appropriate employee behaviour.

92 IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011)

P-O fi t assumes more importance, if organizations decide to erase or at least diminish the eff ects of the dysfunctional values that are embedded in the national culture. In such cases, they may choose to strengthen their own culture so that it will have an overriding eff ect on employees’ behaviour. For example, in India if an organization desires to encourage meeting deadlines, punctuality, risk taking, and open communication between managers and subordinates among its employees, it has to overcome the eff ects of national culture that may reinforce inappropriate behaviour. In such a case, increasing the levels of P-O fi t may help organizations to make their employees exhibit the right behaviour.

More specifi cally, in the Indian cultural context, if an organization intends to develop cultures that are oriented towards innovation, performance, competitiveness, and att ention to detail cultures, hiring for fi t with the organization’s culture assumes more signifi cance. Since national culture infl uences an individual’s work-related values (Hofstede, 1980), cognitive frames and att itudes (Laurent, 1986), these organizations may use selective hiring, systematic socialization and reward practices to counteract the infl uence of national culture on individual behaviour. These organizations may select only those who appear to hold values that match with their own, socialize them further to strengthen those common values, and reward them for exhibiting those values in their organizational activities. P-O fi t may get salience in this process and thus predicts work att itudes positively.

Managers in such organizations may use the three-step model as described by Bowen, Ledford and Nathan, (1991) to select employees to ensure high levels of P-O fi t. Ensuring a proper fi t will enhance the organization in the long term. Organizations with a strong orientation towards people, stability and organizational reputation orientation would not have to invest as much in selecting those that fi t, because it is not important. In addition to selection methods, socialization activities should also be planned according to the relevance of P-O fi t in a particular organization.

Results of this study suggest a number additional research questions which may be investigated in future. Only a few organizations were selected for this study because they seemed to emphasise diff erent organizational cultures by being in diff erent industries.

Such sampling strategy might decrease predictive ability of organizational culture, P-O fi t variables as well as interaction variables. However, replicating this study with a larger sample of fi rms chosen

IJMS 18 (1), 71–98 (2011) 93

from diff erent industries would improve generalizability of the fi ndings. Since the characteristics of Indian national culture alone are used in this study to deduce specifi c hypotheses, the present study can be classifi ed as an ethnocentric approach (Adler, 1983) in cross-cultural management research. Ethnocentric type of studies assume that management theories are culture specifi c; thus questioning their universal application. Since the present study provides preliminary evidence supporting such assumption, by showing the interaction eff ects of P-O fi t and national culture, future research studies can be designed in line with a polycentric approach where the universality is denied. Comparative data collected from organizations located in two or more countries would strengthen the fi ndings of this study.

Although, values have been used as the most common basis for measuring P-O fi t (Kristof, 1996), recent literature review recognizes P-O fi t as a multidimensional construct involving other characteristics such as goals, vocation, and job (Wheeler, Buckley, Halbesleben, Brouer & Ferris, 2005). They investigated how organizational culture interacts with these dimensions of P-O fi t, in predicting a range of employee behaviours including absenteeism, turnover, and employee performance.

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IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011)

THE FAMILY AS A SOCIOECONOMIC MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

MASUDUL ALAM CHOUDHURYThe School of Business

Cape Breton University, Canada

Abstract

The family is a social miniscule in every culture. It is a central theme of gender-development issue. As such it has a distinct and abiding eff ect on the nature of the socioeconomic order in terms of preference formation relating to the kinds of artifacts that get exchanged and thus play a key role in socioeconomic development. The totality of these issues comprises the study of the family as a socioeconomic management system. The inter-generational interaction and co-evolution of the family in concert with the social complex is diff erently explainable in neoclassical economic and Islamic contexts. Consequently, the triangular circular interrelationships between the individual, the household and the socioeconomic order leave diff erent eff ects in the above two paradigms. These in turn have profound infl uence on the future of socioeconomic development according to these paradigms. This paper formalizes an interrelationship between the inter-generational family and the socioeconomic order using the concept of circular causation of unity of knowledge in Islam and the methodological individualism in neoclassical economic theory. The intertemporal context of the theme is included with family extensions and their socioeconomic eff ects over populations of grandfathers and grandchildren.

Keywords: Microeconomics of family; socioeconomic management system; inter-generational endogenous preferences; culture and political economy.

Background and Objective

The individual and the household are the formative springs of socioeconomic relations at large, particularly in respect of gender-development issues. Such issues when studied in the context of self and institutional linkages assume the texture within management science, that is, the interactive decision-making in the family as a great institution are studied in the light of att aining the goals of

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perceived meaning of altruistic wellbeing. In such interaction, parents and children, their further lineage to extended family members, the community and inter-generationally, assume critical perspectives. Preferences behaviour and its study by mathematical mappings becomes rigorous scientifi c examination. Thus to study the family as an institution endowed by an objective goal and a system of interaction res extensa, involving preferences in their various forms of individual and family-related behaviour, convey the meaning of socioeconomic management system. In this paper we will undertake such a scientifi c study of the family as a socioeconomic management system.

In treating these agents as a social miniscule it is important to understand how the att itudes and values of the individual form the household and these then interact with the community and the socioeconomic order. Such a relationship in turn translates into socioeconomic development, which progressively can transcend to the national and global levels intra- and inter-generationally. Such ideas on community economic development have been highlighted recently by studies at the World Bank (2001) and UNDP (2000).

We will refer to the formation of values and att itudes at the microeconomic level as preference formation (Debreu, 1959). The study of preference formation will include our investigation of familial behaviour formed by and in turn aff ecting individual-family-socioeconomic decision-making and the nature of interaction in the contrasting paradigms of neoclassical economics and Islam.

Firstly, we will examine the economics of the family in the light of neoclassical economic theory a la Becker (1989). This theory is criticized in view of its loss of interactive process due either to methodological individualism or dominant hegemony of a decision maker. Consequently, we will show that the causal relationships between the individual, household, and labour market and community socioeconomics are governed by and in turn generate similar kinds of relationships premised on methodological individualism and hegemony (Ben-Porath, 1980).

Secondly, we will present the contrasting theory of interactive preference formation of individuals within the family both intra- and inter-generationally (Choudhury, 1996). This approach is contrary to the neoclassical meaning of utilitarian values and methodological individualism. Consequently, the circular causal interrelationships between individuals, households and the socioeconomic order will accordingly be of an interactive and co-evolutionary type. To study

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this formalism we will introduce a methodological framework of analysis, which we will refer to as the interactive, integrative and evolutionary (IIE) model of unity of knowledge in the systems context (Choudhury, 1995). Reference to such a model is derived from the centrally governing premise of oneness of God in Islamic belief and conduct of life and thought. The precept of divine oneness is interpreted here in terms of a systemic unity of knowledge (i.e. participation, complementarities and linkages) as established by the Qur’an (Choudhury, 1999).

A Socioeconomic Defi nition of Family

A family is a collection of individuals bound together by blood relations, values and fealty. Thus they pursue some common wellbeing objectives through patt erns of decision-making that interconnects individual members with the head of the family and extended families in the inter-generational sense. The relationship is circularly causal and thus strongly interactive. The values inculcated within the family are interdependent with the social structure by multiple interrelations. Decision-making within the family on various issues in concert with socioeconomic matt ers involves allocation of time according to the distribution of tasks by the members.

The Neoclassical Economic Theory of the Household and Its Social Impact: A Critique

In the light of the above defi nition, neoclassical economic theory treats the individual in relation to the family in terms of utilitarian motives. Three cases can be examined here to make the general observation on the nature of familial relationship, preference formation and the wellbeing criterion.

1. Each individual in the family is seen as an individualist with rights, freedoms and privileges of its his or her own. This case can be seen with children and parents who each seek their own individual wellbeing out of secured rights within and outside of home. Children exercise their rights to decide individually to remain independent of parents after the dependency age. The same att itude can be found in the common-law family by virtue of an absence of legal rights binding any side for a mutual sharing of economic benefi ts. Such a picture of individualist att itudes and values that transcend from individual behaviour to the social structure is referred to as methodological individualism (Brennan & Buchanan, 2000).

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We formalize the above characteristics for the individual and family in neoclassical economic context: Let the ith individual preference map used to preorder a set of rational preferences of choices be denoted by , i = 1,2,.,n. Consider the three choices; A (decision not to bear children followed by increased labour force participation), B (decision in favour of both childbearing and work participation), and C (child bearing and homemaking). Individuals in a family governed by methodological individualism will likely preorder preferences as A i B i C.

The collective preferences of the family governed by methodological individualism are fi rstly spread over socioeconomic states and the number of i-individuals:

(1)

If for a larger number of individuals i, state A dominates in the preordering as shown, then i (B) and i (C) become decreasingly relevant preferences (irrelevant preference in the limit (Arrow, 1951). Now preferences i (A) dominate over all other preferences. Consequently, social preference () arising from the household is refl ected in i [i (A)] = (A) say, now independent of i due to the dominance of the principal preference.

Next apply ith individual utility index in hth household, Uih to to yield the above form of aggregation leading to the household utility function, Uh:

over the three states.

Hence, utility maximization objective of neoclassical household utility function rests simply on Uih( (A)).

From this level, the social welfare function in which the family is a social miniscule, is given by U(A):

(2)

Corresponding to the rational choice, A causes continuous substitution of the variables characterizing A over those characterizing B and C for individuals, households and society, since preferences are now replicated in additive fashion.

i states { i [A,B,C]} = i [ i (A) + i (B) + i (C)], i = 1,2,..,n.

U(A) = h Uh = h iUih( (A)).

Uh = iUih ( (A)), with Uih ( (A)) > Uih ( (B)) > Uih ( (C)),h h

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2. In the second case we consider the possibility of distributed choices between A,B,C. Now household members’ behaviour as described above results in the social utility function of the type shown in expression (3). The formal steps towards establishing it have been skipped, but the implications are important to note.

(3)

Its own bundle of goods and services that serve individual needs within a household determines each of the states A, B and C. For instance, A can be characterized by work participation, B by daycare, C by home-cared goods. These goods exist as substitutes of each other either taken individually or in groups. For instance, A can combine with B in the form of cost-eff ective daycare. The bundles of goods work in participation with daycare in the choice (A,B), and thereby substitute C. Socially, this choice is made to refl ect the needs of A and B and to formulate both market goods and institutional policies that promote A over B over C, or (A,B) over C, as the case may be.

3. Resource allocation over the alternatives A, B and C requires time and income. The allocation of income and time over such activities forms the budget constraint for utility maximization in the above two cases.

We formalize such resource allocation as follows: Let total household time be allocated to leisure (childbearing, c) and works (productive activity, w).

The cost for acquiring c is Cc; the cost for acquiring w is Cw. Total allocation of time between household and work activities denoted by T is given by the following expression:

T = tc + tw

Income constraint is, I = tc.Cc + tw.Cw

This equation shows that income I is monetarily allocated as spending over the total time used in household activity plus spending in the total allocation of time spent in work activity.

U(A) = h Uh = h iUih( (A), (B), (C)).

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The household utility maximization problem is now stated as,

Subject to, 4

We have now two versions of the above household maximization problem. They together have important underlying implications: household and social preferences are social replicas of individual preferences, values and att itude toward the family. The individual utility indexes, and thereby, the household utility function and the social welfare function, are each based on competing att itude towards goods distributed between substitutes A, B and C in the sense as mentioned earlier. Preferences are uniformly competing, preordered and individualistic in type.

4. In expression (4) the household utility function and the social

welfare function convey all the utilitarian constructs given by Becker (Becker, 1981) as follows.a. Household utility function is based on marginal

substitution between children as leisure and market goods. The utility function is of the form (1).

b. The number of children and the quality of children experience a tradeoff in the utility function with quality included.

c. Children’s utility and the consumption of parents are substitutes as expressed by the utility forms in either expression (1) or (3).

d. In the utility function of the head of the family with multiple children’s goods the head of the family needs more income to augment a gift to the children and the wife in such a way that there is compensation between other members so as to keep a sense of fairness in the income distribution between members and also spending it himself. The utility function is of the form (4) with the addition of the cost of gift. Time allocation in generating income for gifts is usually added to or treated similar to tw. The assumption of marginal rates of substitutions between goods for children is that cheating children increase the cost of the head of family by the amount of additional income required for gifts.

e. The utility function in form (4) can be taken up separately for the husband and the wife to explain Becker’s theory of marriage and divorce (Becker, 1974). If the gift (bribe)

Max. [Uh(tc,tw) = iUih(A,B,C)]1I = tc.Cc + tw.Cw = i (tci.Cci + twi.Cwi)T = tc + tw = i (tci + twi)

IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011) 105

given by the wife to the husband is deducted from the wife’s income in marriage and the net income of the wife while married exceeds the family income if divorced, the decision of the wife is to remain in marriage. The same argument is extended to the husband’s side.

In all cases we fi nd that the specifi c nature of methodological individualism, preordered preferences, competition and marginal substitution property of every utility function causes a hedonic household and a society of individuals as cold calculators.

The laterally and independently aggregated preferences of household members are continued inter-generationally to form an extension of the above formalization to this latt er case. The socioeconomic character premised on the inter-generational family preferences acts as a catalyst for its continuity.

Preference Behaviour of the Islamic Household and Its Socioeconomic Impact

In contrast, the Islamic way of life, att itude, motivation and thus preferences are centrally guided by the principle of unity of knowledge. That is, in this system knowledge is derived from the divine text that forms, guides and sustains behaviour. The guidance takes the form of mobilizing certain instruments as recommended by the Islamic Law (Shari’ah) that establish unity of knowledge as a participatory and cooperative conduct of decision-making at all levels. The instruments used assist in such participatory and cooperative decision-making while they phase out the instruments of self-interest, individualism, competition and methodological independence between the partners.

The family as a social miniscule becomes a strong source for the realization of the participatory decision-making emanating from knowledge-induced preference formation. As in every other area of human involvement the family forms its preferences by interaction and consensus involving members. The result of interaction is consensus (integration) based on discourse and participation within and across members and the socioeconomic order. Such an interactively developed integration is the idea of a systemic meaning of unity of knowledge. Thirdly, the enhancement of knowledge by interaction and integration is followed by evolutionary knowledge. The three phases of interaction, integration and co-evolution (IIE) continue over the processes of learning (hence evolutionary knowledge formation). The socioeconomic order caused and sustained by such a systemic

106 IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011)

IIE-dynamics responds in a similar way. We refer to such a discursive process as being premised on unity of knowledge. Its epistemology and application by appropriate instruments are premised on the law of oneness of God (i.e. or unity of divine law).

An example of the Islamic familial att itude is the respect between the young and the old, and between husband and wife inter-generationally speaking. In this system the Qur’an says that men and women are co-operators with each other and children form a social bond ordained by God (Qur’an 7:189–90). Within this familial relationship there exists the spirit of discourse and understanding enabling eff ective decision-making. The participatory experience is realized in such a case through the Islamic medium of participation and consultation called the Shura. The Shura process of decision-making is the same as the IIE-learning process.

The IIE-learning process being a nexus of co-evolutionary movements in unity of systemic knowledge, it spans over space (socioeconomic order) and time (inter-generational). In the socioeconomic extension the IIE-process applies to matt ers of individual preferences, freedom of choice, participatory production environment, appropriateness of work participation, distribution of wealth, caring for orphans, trusts, inheritance, contractual obligations, marriage, divorce, social consequences of goodness, and unethical conduct. The socioeconomic variables are thus activated by the induction of the moral and ethical values premised on unity of knowledge as the relational epistemology and realized by appropriate participatory instruments that enable social co-determination, voluntary conduct, att itudes, contracts and obligations. Both the episteme and the instruments of application of unity of knowledge emanate from the law of divine oneness, now understood in the system sense of complementarities and participation caused by circular causation interrelations.

Formalizing Preference Formation in the Islamic Family

Let {j,k,h}i = {j,h k,h}i denote the interactive preferences of the jth individual (k-individual) in the hth household, j,k = 1,2,..,n; h = 1,2,…,m; i denotes the number of inter-member interaction on given issues. Let the jth (kth) preference be of a specifi c (hth) head-of-the family.

The household preference, h = limi[{j,k j,k,h}i] = limi[{j,k{j,h k,h}i] is the mathematical union of the above individual preference map over (j,k) for i-interaction.

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The social preference equals aggregation of h-household preferences:

= h h = h limi[j,k (j,k,h)}i] = h limi[{j,k{j,h k,h}i].

This expression shows that social preferences are formed interactively (shown by ) and integratively (shown by limi{j,k(.)) in given rounds of family discourse (i) on issues of common interest.

Because interactions leading to integration cause the formation of knowledge, we will denote such a knowledge formation by h

i, for hth household and i number of interactions. ‘i’ takes up increasing sequential numbers as interaction and integration proceed on into evolutionary phases of learning by discourse. The limiting value of knowledge-fl ows over a given process of IIE may be denoted by h

i*. The limiting social value of knowledge-fl ows in terms of interactions concerning many goods and services that are shared in the market, and are ethically determined by IIE-type preference formation across households, is denoted by i*. Sztompka (1991) refers to such an evolutionary social experience as social becoming.

As i increases (numbered processes), a case typically encountered when more members of the extended family are involved in a household decision-making, an evolutionary phenomenon is experienced. This completes the IIE-learning patt ern over many processes. Such is the inter-generational implication of extension of the IIE-processes over space (socioeconomics) and time (inter-generational).

Model of the Family as a Social Miniscule

The family as a social miniscule is now defi ned by the collection of all households deciding in the IIE-learning process over given socioeconomic issues. Let such socioeconomic bundles for the hth household with 1,2,… members and the head of the family be denoted by xh

i = {x1h, x2h, …, xjh, …}i. Let chi = {c1h, c2h, …, cjh, …}i denote

the unit cost of acquiring xhi. The infl uence of interaction is denoted

by the presence of ‘i’. Thereby, the household spending in acquiring its bundle of goods is given by ch

i ’. xhi = k (xkh.ckh)i = Sph

i, where, Sphi

denotes the total spending of k-members of the hth household over a given series of interaction i. Spending on the good things of life is highly encouraged in the Qur’an as opposed to saving and hoarding as withdrawal from the social economy.

The family member’s j,k interactive att ainment of well-being in h-household is,

108 IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011)

Wjki(h

i*,Spkhi(h

i*))[ limi[{j,k{j,h k,h}i]

The bracketed term [.] throughout this paper means the implied induction of this constituent term on all the variables, relations and functions.

The simulation problem for the interacting (j,k)-individual over i-interaction for a given h-household is given by:

Simulate (5)Subject to, ‘-‘ denoting one-process lag in the IIE-processes, given a simulated value of Wjk

i in any ith-process.

Spkhi = f2(h

i*; Wjki)[limi[{j,k{{j,h {k,h}i] is the spending of

kth individual in the hth household.

After taking the mathematical union of all relations concerning k-individuals in h-household, simulation of the total h-household members’ well-being function is given by,

Simulate{hi*} Whi(h

i*, Sphi(h

i*))[{h] (6)

Subject to, hi* = f1(h

i*-, Sphi; Wh

i)[ {h]

Sphi = f2(h

i*; Whi)[ {h]

Clearly, (6) is derived by the mathematical union of every part of (5) over all h-household individuals. By a further mathematical union of every part of (6) over all households we obtain the simulation problem of the social well-being function,

Simulate{i*} Wi(i*, Spi(i*))[ (7)Subject to, i* = f1(i*-, Spi; Wi)[ {]

Spi = f2(i*; Wi)[ {]

Since -values are central to the simulation problem, learning is extended over space and time to embrace such inter-generational knowledge-fl ows and the corresponding knowledge-induced variables. The ethical and moral preferences of inter-generational members of the family thus remain intact in order to sustain the eff ectiveness of the IIE-learning process in concert with the inter-generational family and the socioeconomic order.

Wjki( hi*, Spkhi( hi*))[limi[{ j,k{ j,h k,h}i]hi* = f1( hi* , Spkhi; Wjki)[limi[{ j,k{ j,h k,h}i],

IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011) 109

Refi nements in the Household and Social Well-being Function

In participatory decision-making (Shura as IIE-learning process) the role of the revered and learned principal (Amir) is central. The Amir is a head of high knowledge and integrity in the Islamic Law, Shari’ah. The guidance of the head in decision-making is respected. It is instrumental in guiding discourse and decision-making among members. The Islamic family members are required to respect but not follow the injunctions of the head of the family in case such a decision is contrary to Islamic Law.

Given the head (H) of the family’s well-being function, WHNi as

a reference for household decision-making, the new simulation problem derived in the manner of (7) takes the form,

Simulate (8)

Subject to,

WHNi* is an assigned level of the head’s perception of the well-being

function for the family. It assumes a form explicit or implicit through the household IIE-learning process after Ni rounds of discourse. Thus, ({WH

Ni*- Whi(h

i*, Sphi(h

i*))[{h] is an adaptive constraint. (hi*)

in 0 < (hi*)< 1 explains simulative knowledge-induced shifts in the

well-being index as an att ribute of knowledge-induction in the IIE-processes.

Evaluation of the resultant social well-being function determines the ethical transformation of the socioeconomic order caused by the Islamic choices of goods and services at the household level. The result is generalizable inter-generationally.

Simple manipulation of the model (8) yields dSW/dhi* > 0 with

all the terms resulting from the diff erentiation being positive. The magnitude of the positive sign will be determined by the sign of [WH

Ni*(..) – Whi*(..)]. If this term is positive, this positive value of

dSW/dhi* will be higher than the positive value of the same if the

term is negative. This means that the eff ective guidance, governance and caring att itude of the heads (principals) of the inter-generational family over the members are a pre-condition for the sustainable well-being of the family. In turn, such att itudes of all households determine the increased level of social well-being.

SW(.)=Whi( hi*,Sphi( hi*))[ h]+ ( hi*).({WHNi* Whi( hi*,

= (1 ( hi*)).(Whi( hi*,Sphi( hi*))[ h] + ( hi*).(WHNi*)hi* = f1( hi* , Sphi; Whi)[ h]Sphi = f2( hi*; Whi)[ h]

Sphi( hi*))[ h]}

110 IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011)

We note that an increase in WHNi*(..) due to a gain of knowledge

derived from organic complementarities within and across family decision-making in concert with the socioeconomic order must remain higher than the similar gain in Wh

i*(..). This marks continuity of the patriarchal family and the caring function of the principal. The conviction on the positive role of spending in the good things of life on social well-being is a basis of motivation of the principal on family members’ well-being. Sustainability of such a family socioeconomic response needs to be sustained inter-generationally.

Important Properties of the Simulation Models of Individual-Family-Markets

We note a few important properties of the above simulation systems. First, continuous sequencing of the IIE-learning phases explains the dynamic creation of knowledge. Secondly, the creative evolution of knowledge-fl ows is determined by behavioural aspects of the model as explained by the IIE-learning type preference formation. Thirdly, the IIE-learning nature of individual preferences transmits the same characteristics to the socioeconomic variables through household preferences. Hence the household is seen to be a social miniscule. Fourthly, the aggregation of the social well-being index from the individual and household levels to the social level is non-linear. Likewise the simulation constraints are nonlinear. That is because of the continuous knowledge-induction caused by complementarities between the diverse variables. Besides, the functional coeffi cients are knowledge-induced causing shifts in the well-being function and the constraints over the IIE-learning processes.

Inferences from the Contrasting Paradigms

The neoclassical and Islamic socioeconomics of the family give contrasting paradigms and behavioural results. Neoclassical economics is built on hedonic preferences. Methodological individualism starts from the behavioural premise that is essentially formed in the household according to an epistemic background. The households in neoclassical socioeconomics manifest intensifying individualistic views by the very epistemological basis of economic and social reasoning. Consequently, the family as a social miniscule also transmits the same nature of preferences and individualism to the socioeconomic order. The meaning of interaction is mentioned without a substantive content in dynamic preference formation. A substantive methodology of participatory process in decision-making

IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011) 111

is thus absent in neoclassical economics. In this paper dynamic preference formation by a learning process is treated equivalently with endogenous preferences. They cause learning in the family both intra-generationally and inter-generationally, and in similar relations with the socioeconomic environment.

The Socioeconomic Consequences of the Neoclassical Case

The institutional and policy implications of the above behavioural consequences of the neoclassical family on society are many. Individual rights are principally protected over the rights of the family as an organism. Legal tenets are drawn up to protect the individual rights in this case. The resulting kinds of goods cause segmentation between ethical goods desired by conservatism and individual preferences. Thus individual preferences are extended socially.

The Socioeconomic Consequences of the Islamic Case

The IIE-learning nature of decision-making in the Islamic family relegates individual rights based on self-interest to family guidance against unethical issues. In all ethical issues the collective will of the members guides and moulds the preferences of the individual members according to the Shari’ah rules. Such rules are inspired within the family discourse by the principal. Consequently, goods and services as common benefi ts replace competing markets. The legal tenets of the Shari’ah prohibit unethical and immoral goods to be consumed, produced, exchanged and traded.

Ethical deontological consequentialism of the market place (Sen, 1985) is good for all. Hence the resulting socioeconomic goods mobilize the spending power of the household in the economy through individuals who are established in the nuclear family environment for realizing the greatest degree of economic growth, productivity, stability and prosperity. Unethical markets are costly because of their price-discriminating behaviour in diff erentiated markets. Market segmentation is thus deepened.

The Head of the Family’s and Islamic Inter-generational (Grandfathers and Grandchildren) Preference Eff ects on Household Well-being and its Socioeconomic Eff ects

Inter-generational generalization of familial decision-making along the IIE-learning process model is tied to the inter-generational extension of {,x()}-values. Note that time in the intertemporal

112 IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011)

framework now enters the analysis merely as datum to record the nature of co-evolution of {,x()}-values. The substantive eff ect on consensual decision-making is caused by knowledge-fl ows toward att aining simulated values of W(,x()). In the inter-generational nexus of the IIE-learning process methodology, W(,x()) acts as a measure to evaluate the att ained levels of unity of knowledge spatially (family and socioeconomics) and inter-generationally as well. In other words, in the inter-generational familial decision-making model according to the IIE-learning process the important point to observe is the generation-to-generation (i.e. process-to-process) continuity of the responsible and integrated behaviour in the IIE-model. A long haul of intertemporal simulation is thus replaced by sequential simulation on a learning-by-doing basis across the IIE-learning processes.

With regards to the inter-generational continuity of the Islamic family (grandchildren relations) the Qur’an declares (52:21): “And those who believe and whose families follow them in Faith, -- to them shall We join their families: nor shall We deprive them (of the fruits) of aught of their works: (Yet) is each individual in pledge for his deeds.” The exegesis of this verse is that ethical bonds enhance inter-generational family ties as the essence of unity of the IIE-learning type preferences guided by the divine law. Furthermore, in such learning processes individual moral capacity interacts with the familial and socioeconomic structures.

Contrarily, the Qur’anic edict is also pointed out on the consequences of the breakdown of familial ties. The Qur’an establishes this rule in reference to the wife of Prophet Lot (11:81-82) and the wife and son of Prophet Noah (11:45–46; 66:10). These were lewd persons and therefore barred from Islamic family communion. Contrarily, even though Pharaoh was the archenemy of God, yet Pharaoh’s wife was of the truthful. Thereby, she was enjoined with the family and community of believing generations. The same is true of the blessed Mary (Qur’an, 66:11–12).

In formal sense we now drop the suffi xes in model (8) and generalize the expression for both intra- and inter- generational evolutionary cases. Expression (8) can be easily symbolized for individuals, households and heads for j-generations by a further extension using j-subscript. The method of derivation is similar to (8).

Consider now the following diff erentiation in respect to the space-time extension of -values:

dSW/d > 0 (1-)(dWh/d) + (dWH/d) + (WH – Wh)(d/d) > 0. (9)

IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011) 113

Since, (1-)(dWh/d) > 0; (dWH/d) > 0 due to the monotonic knowledge () eff ect, the degree of the positive value of (9) is determined by the sign of (WH – Wh), with (d/d) > 0 as a shift eff ect in social well-being. If (WH – Wh) > 0, the higher will be the positive value of dSW/d.

Furthermore, from (WH – Wh) we obtain,

(dWH/d - dWh/d) = (WH/ - Wh/) + (10)[(WH/Sp) - (Wh/Sp)]. (dSp/d).

The sign of (10) can be positive or negative. In the case of a positive sign we infer that the perception of the heads (principals) of the inter-generational families on well-being increases more than the members’ well-being function as knowledge increases in the inter-generational family nexus. Thus the cumulative result of knowledge, communion and co-evolution is repeated inter-generationally (that is over inter-generational grandfathers and grandchildren). Likewise, socioeconomic consequences are similarly co-evolved.

Furthermore, since Sp() is a positive function of in view of the ethics of the Qur’an that encourages spending on the goods things of life, but in moderation, [(WH/Sp) - (Wh/Sp)] 0 due to the eff ect of increases in -values on the principals’ higher perception of family well-being inter-generationally. Consequently, (dWH/d - dWh/d) > 0. So is, (WH – Wh) > 0, on the basis of the inter-generational well-being role of the family heads.

From the last two conditions we obtain the expression,

WH = a.Whb, a,b > 1. (11)

a,b are functions of and (), and are thereby learning-shift parameters in Wh and WH as the inter-generational IIE-learning processes deepen in the family-socioeconomic circular causation interrelations.

Conclusion

The formalism of this paper explains that the IIE-learning type preferences formed in the midst of the family and its consequential socioeconomic linkages have important circular causal meaning.

114 IJMS 18 (1), 99–115 (2011)

Such relations in systemic unity of knowledge play a signifi cant role in the establishment of appropriate markets rather than leaving market forces to self-interest and consumer sovereignty. The triangular relationship between individuals, the household, and the socioeconomic order is continuously renewed and reproduced, giving evolutionary momentum to each of the agencies in this kind of circular causation, both intra- and inter-generationally.

The circular causation based on the IIE-learning process methodology of unity of systemic knowledge between individuals, family and the socioeconomic order can be treated as the domain of important institutional and policy formulation for ethical guidance and sustainability inter-generationally (over populations of grandfathers and grandchildren). Examples of such programmes and policies are the development of community centers for human resource development for sustaining inter-generational sustainability of ethics and values, guidance on spending on the good things of life, and inculcating ecological consciousness on the production and consumption of common goods for social well-being (Imam Shatibi trans. Draz, undated). Such eff orts can be extended to the global management of development regimes that combine the ethical values of the inter-generational family with the human and socioeconomic development process.

End Note

1. It can be shown that in the utilitarian formulation of social welfare function the consequences of methodological individualism pervading from preferences and individual utility to welfare function divide up both the agent space (i,h) and the commodities space (A,B,C). Thereby the ultimate form of the utilitarian formulation is iUih(A,B,C)] =x=A,B,C iUih(A,B,C)] either linearly over {x} or independently over {A,B,C}. Other formulation would not help in the formulation of the welfare function with the property of methodological individualism entrenched in it.

References

Arrow, K. J. (1951). Social choice and individual values. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

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Becker, G. S. (1981). Treatise on the family. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

Becker, G. S. (1989). Family. In J, Eatwell, M. Milgate & P. Newman (Eds.), The new palgrave: Social economics (pp. 64-76). New York: W.W. Norton.

Ben-Porath, Y. (1980). The F connection: families, friends, and fi rms and the organization of exchange. Population and Development Review, 6(1), 1–30.

Brennan, G., & Buchanan, J. (2000). Modeling the individual for constitutional analysis. In The reason of rules, constitutional political economy (pp. 53–74). Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund.

Choudhury, M.A. (1995). The Qur’anic derivation of the epistemic-ontic circular causation model. In his The epistemological foundations of Islamic economic, social and scientifi c order, Vol. 4, Chapter 3, (Ankara, Turkey: Statistical, Economic and Social Research and Training Center for Islamic Countries.

Choudhury, M. A. (1996). A theory of social systems: Family and ecology as examples. Kybernetes: International Journal of Systems and Cybernetics, 25(5), 21–38.

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Choudhury, M. A. (1999). A philosophico-mathematical theorem on unity of knowledge. Kybernetes: International Journal of Systems and Cybernetics, 28(6/7), 763–776

Sen, A. (1985). The moral standing of the market. In E.F. Paul. Jr., F.D. Miller, & J. Paul (Eds.), Ethics and Economics. Oxford, Eng: Basil Blackwell.

Sztompka, P. (1991). The model of social becoming. In Society in action: The theory of social becoming (pp. 87–199). Chicago, ILL: University of Chicago Press.

[Imam] Shatibi (trans. A. Draz) undated. Al-Muafaqat Fil Usul Al-Shari’ah, Cairo, Egypt: Al-Maktabah Al-Tijariyyah Al-Qubra.

United Nations Development Program (UNDP). 1997-2000 annual issues. Human Development Report. New York: Oxford University Press.

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IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RISK OF

BANKRUPTCY AND STOCK RETURN

ROHANI MD-RUSUUM College of Business

University Utara Malaysia

Abstract

The main objective of the paper is to fi nd out whether bankruptcy risk is a systematic risk. In particular, we investigate the contribution of size, book-to-market, excess market returns and bankruptcy probability in explaining returns. We allocate stocks into portfolios according to the probability of bankruptcy from the hazard model. Results show that bankruptcy risk is not a systematic risk. The results consistently show that excess market returns and size have strong power to explain returns in the UK for the period from 1988 to 1997. Book-to-market and bankruptcy risk only matt er in portfolios with higher probability of bankruptcy.

Keyword: Bankruptcy risk; bankruptcy probability; hazard model. JEL Classifi cation: G12, G33

Abstrak

Objektif utama kajian ini ialah untuk mengenal pasti sama ada risiko kebankrapan ialah risiko sistematik ataupun tidak. Secara khusunya, kami memeriksa sumbangan saiz, nilai buku kepada nilai pasaran, lebihan pulangan pasaran dan kebarangkalian kebankrapan dalam menerangkan pulangan. Kami membahagikan saham kepada beberapa portfolio berdasarkan kebarangkalian kebankrapan dari Model Hazard. Hasil kajian menunjukkan risiko kebankrapan bukanlah risiko sistematik. Kajian secara konsisten telah menunjukkan bahawa lebihan pulangan pasaran dan saiz mempunyai kuasa yang kuat untuk menerangkan pulangan di UK dalam tempoh 1988 sehingga 1997. Nilai buku kepada nilai pasaran dan risiko kebankrapan hanya penting untuk portfolio yang mempunyai kebarangkalian kebankrapan yang tinggi.

Kata kunci: Risiko kebankrapan; kebarangkalian kebankrapan; model hazard.

118 IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

Introduction

A good deal of empirical research has revealed that size and book-to-market have strong roles in explaining average returns. In particular, Banz (1981); Reinganum (1981), Chan, Chen and Hsieh (1985); Fama and French (1992, 1993, 1995); and He and Ng (1994) found the size eff ect to be signifi cant in explaining average returns. Rosenberg, Reid and Lanstein (1985); Chan, Hamao and Lakonishok (1991); and Fama and French (1992, 1993, 1995) found book-to-market to be signifi cant in explaining average returns. Fama and French (1993) showed that portfolios constructed to mimic risk factors related to size and book-to-market add substantially to the variation in stock returns. The three-factor asset pricing model, which includes a market factor and risk factors related to size and book-to-market, seems to capture the cross-section of average returns on US stocks.

Studies in the UK also found a book-to-market eff ect in explaining average returns (Chan & Chui, 1996; Strong & Xu, 1997); but the size eff ect played no signifi cant role in explaining such returns. Thus, the ability of these factors to explain the variation in average returns has challenged the Capital Asset Pricing Model’s (CAPM) proposition that beta is the only variable that explains returns.

There are two reasons why size and book-to-market have predictive ability in explaining returns. The fi rst is that these variables are measuring the riskiness of stocks. Fama and French (1995) explain that if stocks are priced rationally, systematic diff erences in average returns are due to diff erences in risk. Thus, with rational pricing, size and book-to-market must proxy for common risk factors in returns. The other explanation is that these variables allow investors to identify stocks that are mispriced, thus creating opportunities for realised returns in excess of what is required to compensate investors for risk (Lakonishok, Shleifer & Vishny, 1994).

Fama and French (1992) suggest the possibility that risk captured by book-to-market refl ects distress risk. High book-to-market fi rms are associated with distress. A high book-to-market fi rm, that is a fi rm with a low stock price relative to book value, signals low earnings on book equity, thereby requiring a higher expected return. Similarly, a low book-to-market ratio is associated with a strong fi rm. They have a high stock price relative to book value. Such a company should therefore require a lower expected return.

Fama and French (1995) show that fi rms with a high book-to-market ratio have persistently low earnings. This refl ects the fact that fi rms

IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011) 119

with a high book-to-market are less profi table than fi rms with a low book-to-market. This is typical of fi rms that are in distress. They further fi nd that size is related to profi tability. Small- sized fi rms tend to have lower earnings on book equity than do big fi rms, which suggest that these fi rms have a high probability of bankruptcy.

The relationship between the probability of bankruptcy, which is a proxy for distress risk, and stock return has been examined by several authors. In particular, the researchers tried to examine whether bankruptcy risk was a systematic risk factor. If bankruptcy risk was systematic, then one would expect a positive association between bankruptcy risk and returns. If bankruptcy risk was partly systematic, then more insolvent fi rms should have higher returns compared to less insolvent fi rms. There have been contradictory results regarding this issue. While Lang and Stulz (1992); Denis and Denis (1995); and Shumway (1996) found that bankruptcy risk was a systematic risk, Opler and Titman (1994); Asquith, Gertner and Sharftein (1994); and Dichev (1998) found that bankruptcy risk was unrelated to systematic risk. Shumway (1996) and Dichev (1998) formed portfolios based on the probability of bankruptcy. Similar to Dichev (1998); Zaretz ky and Zumwalt (2007) also used Ohlson ‘s (1980) and Altman’s (1968) bankruptcy prediction models to measure fi nancial distress and found that the distress fi rms have low book-to- market. Other studies that looked into these issues were Vassalou and Xing (2002); Griffi n and Lemmon (2002); and Ghargori, Chan and Faff (2009).

Among all the studies cited above, the Shumway (1996), Dichev (1998) and Zaretz ky and Zumwalt (2007) studies are interesting because portfolios are formed on the basis of bankruptcy probability derived from a bankruptcy model. Forming portfolios in this manner will refl ect the degree of bankruptcy risk that each portfolio carries. However, the results are not consistent. These suggest that the choice of probability measure is very important. Shumway (2001) has shown that the hazard model is superior than the logit model and the MDA model in terms of parameter stability and accuracy of prediction. Moreover, by using fi rm-year observation, the hazard model can show year-to-year changes in bankruptcy probability where as the MDA and the logit model cannot.

Based on these arguments, this study uses bankruptcy probability obtained from the hazard model as a proxy for default risk. The primary aim of our paper is to explore the relationship between size, book-to-market, bankruptcy probability, beta and return. We also investigate whether bankruptcy probability is a systematic risk factor.

120 IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

The main hypothesis tested is that bankruptcy probability is not a systematic risk factor in returns.

To anticipate the results, we fi nd that bankruptcy risk is not a priced risk factor. The factor mimicking portfolio on distress (DMU) does not have a systematically signifi cant relationship with returns. Excess market returns and size have signifi cant relationships with actual returns.

The paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 describes the data and methodology. Section 3 discusses the results and discussions. Section 4 concludes.

Research Design

The sample consists of all UK quoted companies listed in Datastream and all bankrupt fi rms identifi ed in the Stock Exchange yearbook from 1988 to 1997. We use the United Kingdom Bankruptcy Code (1986 Insolvency Act) to defi ne bankruptcy. The Act defi nes bankrupt fi rms as those fi rms that are having fi nancial problems and have entered administration, liquidation and receivership. We use the Stock Exchange Yearbook to identify such fi rms and exclude all fi rms that died as a result of takeover or a delisting not associated with bankruptcy. Accounting data on the fi rms over the period 1988 to 1997 are taken from Datastream International. We use the Dead UK list in Datastream to extract the data. The fi rm’s name from the Stock Exchange Yearbook is matched with the Dead UK list from Datastream. The fi nal sample consists of 1384 non-bankrupt fi rms and 94 bankrupt fi rms between the periods 1988 to 1997. Financial fi rms and property fi rms are excluded from the sample because the nature of their business is diff erent.

We use fi rm-year observation and run the hazard model to get the bankruptcy probability for each year. The variables used in the hazard model are size (number of employees and total assets employed), leverage (capital gearing and total debt to total assets), profi tability ratio (net income/total assets, return on capital employed), cash fl ow (cash/total assets, debtor turnover, cash/current liabilities), growth (growth in net income and growth in sales), age, variance of each variable and squares of each variable. The inclusion of variance and squares of each variable is to capture the non-linearities that may exist in the model as suggested by Lennox (1999). We choose ratios based on their previous empirical success. All data are taken from Datastream.

IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011) 121

The dependent variables take a value of 1 if the fi rm is bankrupt and a value of 0 if it survives. The value of 1 is only used if the fi rm fails in that particular year; otherwise it has a value of 0. The hazard model used in this study is in the following form:

),,exp(1

1);,(

ii

ii xtxt

where is the vectors of parameters, x represents a vector of explanatory variables, t represents the time when the fi rm leaves the sample because of bankruptcy, and );,( ii xt is the hazard function.

Bankruptcy probabilities are saved and used in this study. Specifi cally, we use the estimated bankruptcy probabilities from the hazard model to construct the distress minus undistress (DMU) portfolio. The small minus big (SMB) market value is the value-weighted return on small fi rms minus the value-weighted return on large fi rms while high minus low (HML) book-to-market is the value-weighted return on high book-to-market fi rms minus the value-weighted return on low book-to-market fi rms.

We calculate the discrete return and ignore the dividend. This is a standard practice by researchers in this area. We also assume that the UK market is an effi cient market, hence ignoring dividends should have litt le or no impact on the results. The return is defi ned as rt = ln (1+Rt) = ln (Pt/Pt-1) where rt is the continuously compounded return, (1+Rt) is the simple gross return on the asset, and Pt is the price of an asset at time t. However, by ignoring dividends, this measure will underestimate the total return on healthy dividend-paying stocks relative to non-paying stocks. Excess returns are then constructed by subtracting the risk-free rate (one month Treasury-Bill rate) from the returns.

Following Fama and French (1992) and Dichev (1998), returns are monthly returns beginning six months after the fi scal year-end. For example, a December 31, 1984 fi scal year-end fi rm will match with the Datastream monthly returns from July 1985 to June 1986. Bankruptcy probability is the probability of bankruptcy predicted from the hazard model.

To construct the factor refl ecting distress (DMU), all stocks in the sample are sorted into portfolios formed on the basis of the probability of bankruptcy. The fi rms are put into one of 10 portfolios arranged in order of increasing bankruptcy probability, each containing the same

122 IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

number of securities. Portfolio 1 contains the fi rms with the smallest probability of bankruptcy, and portfolio 10 contains those with the highest probability of bankruptcy. Two defi nitions of DMU are used in this study. First, DMU is the diff erence, each month, between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on portfolios 1, 2 and 3. Second, DMU is the diff erence between the returns on portfolio 10 and the returns on portfolio 1. The portfolios are formed in June of year t. The equally-weighted monthly returns on the ten portfolios are calculated from July of year t to June of year t+1.

The proxy for the market factor in stock returns is the excess market returns (RM) minus the risk-free rate, which is the rate for one-month treasury bills (RF). The proxy for market returns is the return on the Financial Times All Share Index.

Estimation Technique

The objective is to investigate whether bankruptcy risk is a systematic risk factor in returns. For this purpose, we estimate a non-linear seemingly unrelated regression (NLSUR) that includes excess market returns, SMB, HML and DMU as explanatory variables. The advantage of using NLSUR is that the sensitivities and the prices of risk can be estimated jointly. This methodology of estimating multifactor models of the risk-return relationship was developed by McElroy, Burmeister & Wall, (1985). It can be writt en as

Rt = E(Rt) + BK ƒKt + t (1)

where Rt = an N vector of asset returns at time t, E(.) = the expectations operator,

ƒKt = the K vector of systematic risk factors common to all assets at time t,

BK = the matrix of sensitivities of the assets to the factors and

t = an N vector of mean zero, serially uncorrelated, idiosyncratic error terms which are orthogonal to the factors.

Expected returns are given by

E(Rt) = 0t N + BK K (2)

IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011) 123

where 0t = the risk-free (or zero beta) rate of return, N = an N vector of ones and K = the K vector of prices of risk.

Substituting Eq. (5. 2) into Eq. (5.1) and writing in excess return form gives

Rt - 0t N = BK K + BK ƒKt + t (3)

Rewriting eq. (5.3) as

R - 0 = {IN [( T) + F]} B + (4)

where Rt = an NT vector of returns, = a K vector of prices of risk,

F = a T x K matrix of observations on the K factors B = an NK vector of sensitivities, IN = an N x N identity matrix and

= the Kronecker product operator, the non-linear, seemingly unrelated

regression (NLSUR) estimators which provide joint estimates of BK and K, are those that solve the minimisation problem:

Min ' TI1ˆ (5)

where 1̂ is the residual variance-covariance matrix estimated from estimating Eq. (5.5) for all i = 1, …, N, with (' T) Bi replaced by a constant since cannot be identifi ed at this stage.

Analysis of Results

Primary Results

Table 1 shows the average values of the explanatory variables. Size produces an average value of –0.6% with a standard deviation of 0.036, while book-to-market produces an average value of 0.18% with a standard deviation of 0.019. A comparison of these two variables, shows that the size portfolio is riskier and provides a lower return than the HML portfolio. Excess market returns have an average

124 IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

value of 0.43% with a standard deviation of 0.039 while DMU has an average value of –1.67% with a standard deviation of 0.024. The average market risk premium is positive, hence it is consistent with the assumption of risk aversion.

Table 2 presents the Pearson correlation, which shows the relationship between the test variables. DMU has a statistically signifi cant and positive relation with SMB, HML and excess market returns. SMB is negatively correlated with HML and excess market returns, and HML is positively correlated with excess market returns. The correlation between DMU and HML is consistent with the distress hypothesis, that confi rms that high-book-to-market has a higher risk of bankruptcy. However, the positive correlation between DMU and SMB is inconsistent with the distress hypothesis, because it indicates that bigger fi rms have a higher probability of bankruptcy. In conclusion, the results from the Pearson correlation coeffi cients suggest that HML is related to bankruptcy risk but SMB is not.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics for the Test Variables (In Percent)

Variables Mean (%) Std. Dev.SMB 0.62 0.036HML 0.18 0.019DMU –1.67 0.024RM 0.43 0.039

SMB is the factor mimicking portfolio for size, HML is the factor mimicking portfolio for book-to-market, RM is the excess market returns and DMU is the factor mimicking portfolio for bankruptcy risk.

Table 2

Pearson Correlation Coeffi cients for the Test Variables

SMB HML RM DMUSMB 1HML –.088 1RM –.360** .107 1

DMU .359** .459** .236* 1

SMB is the factor mimicking portfolio for size, HML is the factor mimicking portfolio for book-to-market, RM is the excess market returns and DMU is the factor mimicking portfolio for bankruptcy risk.*Correlation is signifi cant at 5% level (2-tailed)** Correlation is signifi cant at 1% level (2-tailed

IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011) 125

Table 3 presents the average excess returns for portfolios formed on the basis of bankruptcy probability. Average excess returns are constructed by subtracting the risk-free rate (one-month Treasury Bill rate) from the actual returns and then averaged across the stocks in the portfolio. The returns are negative because some of the actual returns are less than the risk-free rate, and the portfolios are arranged according to the probability of bankruptcy.

The table shows that there is a wide range of average returns from –0.3% to –3.2%. The results show that portfolio 1 (the lowest probability of bankruptcy) has average excess returns of –0.3%, while portfolio 10 (the highest probability of bankruptcy) has average excess returns of –3.2%. The relationship between each portfolio and average returns shows that the returns tend to decrease as the probability of bankruptcy increases.

Table 3

Average Excess Returns on Portfolios Formed on Bankruptcy Probability from the Hazard Model (In Percent)

Portfolio Average excess returns*

1 –0.32 –0.33 –0.14 –0.45 –0.66 –0.87 –0.98 –0.99 –1.710 –3.2

Portfolios are formed based on bankruptcy probability. Portfolio 1 contains fi rms with the lowest probability of bankruptcy, while portfolio 10 contains fi rms with the highest probability of bankruptcy.

* average excess returns are constructed by subtracting the risk-free rate from the returns.

Common Factors in Returnsh

The results from estimating the models when DMU is the diff erence, each month, between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on portfolios 1, 2 and 3 are reported in Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7. From Table 4, it is clear that DMU is not a price risk factor. In other words, bankruptcy risk is not systematic. The estimate

126 IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

of DMU is –0.008% and is not signifi cant. Excess market returns is also not a risk factor. The estimate of beta is 0.6% per month with a t-statistic of 0.84. The results also show that SMB is marginally signifi cant at the 10% level. HML appears to be the only factor that has a signifi cant price of risk.

Table 4

Estimated Prices of Risk

Factors λ t-statisticsRM 0.005977 (0.84)SMB –0.01805 (–1.59)*HML –0.00747 (–2.00)**DMU –0.00008 (0.86)

SMB is the small minus big market value, HML is the high minus low book-to-market, DMU is the distress minus undistress bankruptcy probability defi ned as the diff erence, each month, between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on portfolios 1, 2 and 3 and RM is the excess market returns.* Denotes signifi cant at the 10% level** Denotes signifi cant at the 5% level

Table 5 presents the coeffi cients of DMU, SMB, HML and excess market returns (RM) in each portfolio. The results show that size and excess market returns are statistically signifi cant and have positive relationships with returns in all portfolios. This indicates that smaller-size fi rms have lower returns and fi rms with higher risk are expecting higher returns. DMU is statistically signifi cant in portfolios 1, 3, 8, 9 and 10, while HML is statistically signifi cant in portfolios 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Overall, HML has positive relationship with returns which indicates that fi rms with high book-to- market are expecting higher returns. The coeffi cients on DMU in the portfolios with the highest probability of bankruptcy (portfolios 8, 9, and 10) show positive signs, indicating that, for these three portfolios, the probability of bankruptcy does matt er and increases the actual returns. The relationship between DMU and returns is negative in portfolios 1, 2, 3 and 5.

Further analysis is carried out to see the relationship between HML and returns and between DMU and returns. The results are presented in Tables 6 and 7 respectively. Table 6 shows that SMB, HML and RM are signifi cantly priced. Table 7 shows that SMB and RM show a positive and signifi cant relationship with actual returns. HML shows a signifi cant and positive relationship with actual returns in portfolios 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. The results show that HML increases the actual returns and it has an impact on expected returns.

IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011) 127

Table 5

NLSUR Estimates on DMU, SMB, HML and RM

Portfolio DMU SMB HML RM1 –0.294

(–3.01)***0.766

(12.75) ***0.156

(1.51)*1.038

(20.7)**

2 –0.070 (–0.91)

0.594(12.51)***

0.011(0.13)

0.938(23.64)***

3 –0.290(–3.99)**

0.652(14.51)***

0.274(3.56)**

1.083(28.87)***

4 0.016 (0.20)

0.525(10.53)***

0.144(1.70)*

1.011(24.31)***

5 –0.0239 (–0.30)

0.594(12.03)***

0.2189(2.57)**

0.986(23.87)***

6 0.0153 (0.20)

0.6389 (13.75)***

0.4051(5.09)**

1.048(27.04)***

7 0.118 (1.45)

0.642(12.8)***

0.371(4.31)***

1.040(24.82)***

8 0.362(4.19)***

0.580(10.77)***

0.248(2.67)**

0.999(22.20)***

9 0.586(6.11)***

0.727(12.15)***

0.301(2.92)**

1.081(21.62)***

10 1.394(12.19)***

0.705(9.96)***

-0.109(-0.90)

0.980(16.59)***

Firms are assigned monthly into ten portfolios according to their probability of bankruptcy from the hazard model. Portfolio 1 signifi es the lowest probability of bankruptcy while portfolio 10 signifi es the highest probability of bankruptcy. SMB is the small minus big market value, HML is the high minus low book-to-market, DMU is the distress minus undistress bankruptcy probability defi ned as the diff erence, each month, between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on portfolios 1, 2 and 3 and RM is the excess market returns. Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.* Denotes signifi cant at 10% level. ** Denotes signifi cant at 5% level.*** Denotes signifi cant at 1% level.

Table 6

Estimated Prices of Risk Represented by SMB, HML And RM

Factors λ t-statisticsRM 0.005977 (0.84)SMB –0.01805 (–1.59)*HML –0.00747 (–2.00)**DMU –0.00008 (0.86)

SMB is the small minus big market value, HML is the high minus low book-to-market, DMU is the distressed minus undistressed bankruptcy probability defi ned as the diff erence, each month, between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on the portfolios 1, 2 and 3 and RM is the excess market returns.** Denotes signifi cant at the 5% level

128 IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

Table 7

NLSUR Estimates on SMB, HML and RM

Portfolio SMB HML RM

1 0.623(14.51)***

–0.040(–0.46)

0.981(21.20)***

2 0.568(16.56)***

–0.026(–0.40)

0.923(26.21)***

3 0.553(15.56)***

0.111(1.67)

1.018(28.58)***

4 0.566(15.79)***

0.176(2.54)**

1.009(27.09)***

5 0.595(17.41)***

0.2098(3.07)**

0.978(26.46)***

6 0.649(18.71)***

0.400(6.13)***

1.054(30.19)***

7 0.685(18.91)***

0.431(6.17)***

1.067(28.43)***

8 0.709(17.39)***

0.457(5.61)**

1.087(24.73)***

9 0.912(18.17)***

0.620(6.36)***

1.219(23.30)***

10 1.196(14.53)***

0.675(4.56)**

1.290(16.47)***

Firms are assigned monthly into ten portfolios according to their probability of bankruptcy in the hazard model. Portfolio 1 signifi es the lowest probability of bankruptcy while portfolio 10 signifi es the highest probability of bankruptcy. SMB is the small minus big market value, HML is the high minus low book-to-market, DMU is the distressed minus undistressed bankruptcy probability defi ned as the diff erence, each month, between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on the portfolios 1, 2 and 3 and RM is the excess market returns. Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.** Denotes signifi cant at 5% level. *** Denotes signifi cant at 1% level.

Table 8

Estimated Prices of Risk With SMB, DMU and RM

Factors t-statistics

SMBDMURM

–0.02077–0.000120.007

(–1.89)*

(–1.01)(1.13)

SMB is the small minus big market value, HML is the high minus low book-to-market, DMU is the distressed minus undistressed bankruptcy probability defi ned as the diff erence, each month, between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on portfolios 1, 2 and 3 and RM is the excess market returns.* Denotes signifi cant at the 10% level

IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011) 129

Regarding the relationship between DMU and actual returns, Table 8 shows that DMU is not a price risk factor. The estimate of DMU is –0.012% and is not signifi cant. Excess market returns are also not signifi cant, while size is signifi cant at 10% level. Table 9 shows that DMU is positive and signifi cant in portfolios 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, which suggests that for these portfolios, DMU increases the actual returns. SMB and RM are statistically signifi cant in all portfolios.

Table 9

NLSUR Estimates on SMB, DMU and RM

Portfolio SMB DMU RM

1 0.731

(13.04)***

–0.215

(–2.66)**

1.026

(20.80)***

2 0.5898

(13.24)***

–0.066

(–1.05)

0.937

(24.40)***

3 0.597

(13.60)***

–0.142

(–2.25)**

1.058

(27.41)***

4 0.498

(10.68)***

0.096

(1.42)

0.998

(24.36)***

5 0.551

(11.72)***

0.093

(1.40)

0.966

(23.27)***

6 0.562

(11.77)***

0.232

(3.40)**

1.14

(24.12)***

7 0.569

(11.44)***

0.317

(4.48)**

1.007

(22.93)***

8 0.527

(10.22)***

0.500

(6.82)***

0.977

(21.49)***

9 0.662

(11.51)***

0.748

(9.19)***

1.053

(20.74)***

10 0.726

(11.07)***

1.325

(14.11)***

0.992

(17.15)***

Firms are assigned monthly into ten portfolios according to their probability of bankruptcy in the hazard model. Portfolio 1 signifi es the lowest probability of bankruptcy while portfolio 10 signifi es the highest probability of bankruptcy. SMB is the small minus big market value, HML is the high minus low book-to-market, DMU is the distressed minus undistressed bankruptcy probability defi ned as the diff erence, each month, between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on portfolios 1, 2 and 3 and RM is the excess market returns. Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.** Denotes signifi cant at 5% level. *** Denotes signifi cant at 1% level.

130 IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

In order to assess the sensitivity of the results to the defi nition of the distress factor, we also estimate regression using an alternative defi nition of the distress factor, DMU, which is defi ned as the diff erence between the extreme portfolios. The results are presented in Table 10. As can be seen from the table, the usage of an alternative defi nition of distress does not change the conclusion regarding the signifi cance of the distress factor. Table 10 shows that DMU is not a risk factor. The estimate of DMU is –0.004% and is not statistically signifi cant. Size is signifi cant at 5% level, but excess market returns are not.

Table 10

Estimated Prices of Risk With SMB, DMU and RM Using the Extreme Portfolio

Factors t-statistics

SMBDMURM

–0.02406–0.000040.00929

(–2.38)**

(–0.70)(1.50)

SMB is the small minus big market value, HML is the high minus low book-to-market, DMU is the distressed minus undistressed bankruptcy probability defi ned as the diff erence, each month, between the returns on portfolio 10 and the returns on portfolio 1, and RM is the excess market returns. Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.** Denotes signifi cant at the 5% level

Table 11 shows that DMU is positive and statistically signifi cant in portfolios 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Again, this suggests that DMU only matt ers in portfolios with a higher probability of bankruptcy. Size and excess market returns are statistically signifi cant in all portfolios.

Table 11

NLSUR Estimates on SMB, DMU and RM Using the Extreme Portfolio


1 0.770(15.52)***

–0.206 (–4.82)**

1.044(23.4)***

2 0.569(13.89)***

–0.02 (–0.57)

0.928(24.75)***

3 0.557(13.25)***

–0.0393 (–1.09)

1.037(27.18)***

(continued)

IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011) 131


4 0.5257(12.01)***

0.028 (0.74)

1.011(25.46)***

5 0.585(13.3)***

0.013 (0.36)

0.984(24.37)***

6 0.608(13.35)***

0.087(2.23)**

1.041(24.96)***

7 0.642(13.15)***

0.105 (2.51)**

1.048(23.36)***

8 0.669(12.00)***

0.125(2.62)**

1.057 (20.59)***

9 0.851(12.57)***

0.218 (3.76)**

1.162(18.82)***

10 0.770(15.51)***

0.794 (18.54)***

1.044(23.39)***

Firms are assigned monthly into ten portfolios according to their probability of bankruptcy in the hazard model. Portfolio 1 signifi es the lowest probability of bankruptcy while portfolio 10 signifi es the highest probability of bankruptcy. SMB is the small minus big market value, HML is the high minus low book-to-market, DMU is the distressed minus undistressed bankruptcy probability, defi ned as the diff erence, each month, between the returns on portfolio 10 and the returns on portfolio 1. RM is the excess market returns. Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.** Denotes signifi cant at 5% level. *** Denotes signifi cant at 1% level.

To summarise, regardless of the defi nition of DMU, SMB and RM, these variables are signifi cant in explaining returns in the UK from 1988 to 1997. The use of an alternative defi nition of distress does not have any impact on the conclusions regarding the signifi cance of the distress factor. It clearly shows that DMU is not signifi cantly priced and therefore it is not a systematic risk. The result that bankruptcy risk is not systematic is similar to that found by Opler and Titman (1994), Asquith, Gertner and Sharftein (1994) and Dichev (1998). Regarding the relationship between DMU and returns, the results show that DMU increases the actual returns in portfolios 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. On the other hand, HML is a signifi cant risk factor. Like DMU, HML also increases actual returns in portfolios 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Conclusions

This study has analysed the contribution of size, book-to-market, excess market returns and the probability of bankruptcy in explaining returns. If stocks are priced rationally, then the diff erences in returns must be due to the risk factor. This study also att empts to answer the question whether bankruptcy risk is systematic or not.

132 IJMS 18 (1), 117–134 (2011)

To examine this issue, stocks are allocated into portfolios according to the probability of bankruptcy in the hazard model. Distress minus undistress (DMU) portfolios are constructed as (1) the diff erence between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on portfolios 1, 2 and 3, and (2) the diff erence between the returns on portfolio 10 and the returns on portfolio 1. The diff erent defi nition of DMU is essential in order to assess the sensitivity of the results.

The empirical fi ndings indicate that, at least during the 1988 to 1997 time period, bankruptcy risk is not a priced risk factor regardless of the defi nition of DMU. Also, regardless of the defi nition of DMU, size is signifi cantly priced. Book-to-market, and excess market returns are signifi cantly priced when DMU is defi ned as the diff erence between the average returns on portfolios 8, 9 and 10 and the average returns on portfolios 1, 2 and 3. Regarding factors that explain returns, the results consistently show that excess market returns and size have strong power to explain returns in the UK. Book-to-market and DMU only matt er in portfolios with higher probability of bankruptcy, that is in portfolios 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.

Finally, the above study shows that bankruptcy risk and market price behaviour are related. It also shows that bankruptcy risk is not priced. These conclusions are based on the assumption of constant risk. It also uses the fi nancial year-end as the event date. Therefore, future research should use database that includes the bankruptcy announcement date and should consider the use of other methods such as conditional CAPM that allows risk to vary.

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IJMS 18 (1), 135–154 (2011)

JOB CHARACTERISTICS: WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM THE EAST?

MOHD AWANG IDRIS*MAUREEN F. DOLLARD

ANTHONY H WINEFIELDSchool of Psychology,

University of South AustraliaDepartment of Anthropology & Sociology

Universiti Malaya, Australia

Abstract

Since being introduced in 2000, the Job Demands and Resources (JD-R) model (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2000) has been studied extensively in various Western countries. Although the JD-R proposition is not proscriptive about specifi c demands and resource variables, scholars have used common variables as demands (e.g. workloads, deadlines), and as resources (e.g. support). The question is whether the common variables in the JD-R model that had their origins in Western formulations are applicable in developing countries. In this paper, based on grounded theory, we conducted focus group interviews to investigate specifi c variables that may apply in Malaysian workplaces. Two focus group interviews (N=13) were conducted with two groups of respondents (managers and non-managers) who worked for private and public sector organizations. Data were analysed using a thematic content analysis strategy. The study found that new variables (e.g. organizational politics, bureaucratic factors) emerged as new demands not generally explored in JD-R research, whereas similar demands were identifi ed at a job-task level (e.g. deadlines). Regarding resources these were mainly identifi ed as in other Western research (e.g. support). Job challenge and exploring new things were identifi ed as pleasurable aspects of work. This fi nding suggests that using qualitative methods is crucial to exploring the psychosocial concept of stress at work to uncover cultural diff erences that are apparent between Malaysian and Western employees. Keywords: Job demands; job resources; qualitative studies; job stress.

136 IJMS 18 (1), 135–154 (2011)

Abstrak

Sejak diperkenalkan pada tahun 2000, model Job Demands and Resources (JD-R) telah banyak diuji di negara Barat. Model ini tidak menentukan secara spesifi k pemboleh ubah untuk ‘tuntutan kerja’ (job demands) dan ‘pendorong kerja’ (job resources), walaupun beban kerja dan ‘deadlines’ sering digunakan sebagai pemboleh ubah ‘tuntutan kerja’, dan ‘sokongan” sebagai pemboleh ubah untuk pendorong kerja. Persoalannya, adakah pemboleh ubah yang sering diguna pakai dalam kajian Barat relevan dalam konteks tempatan. Kajian ini, telah dilakukan dengan berpandukan temu duga ‘focus group’ terhadap dua kelompok (N=13) sampel pekerja. Kajian mendapati pemboleh ubah baru yang tidak pernah muncul dalam kajian J-DR (politik organisasi dan kerenah birokrasi) didapati wujud dalam konteks tuntutan kerja Malaysia, tetapi terdapat persamaan bagi pemboleh ubah tuntutan kerja yang lain (misalnya, sasaran waktu). Bagi pemboleh ubah ‘pendorong kerja’, didapati tidak terdapat perbezaan dengan konsep Barat. Cabaran kerja dan menerokai teknologi baru pula di tanggap sebagai faktor pekerjaan yang menyenangkan. Kajian merumuskan kaedah kualitatif mampu menerokai kelompangan budaya di antara pekerja di Malaysia daengan negara maju.

Kata kunci: Tuntutan kerja; pendorong kerja; kajian kualitatif; tekanan kerja.

Introduction

Job characteristics are considered to be important antecedents related to employees’ well-being and health (Van den Broeck, Van Ruysseveldt, Smulders & De Witt e, 2010). Although job characteristics emerge as a fashionable topic in the job stress area, Burke (2010) has noted that there are only a few studies on job stress in the developing countries. Most job stress theories are based on the Western perspective (Liu, Spector & Shi, 2007; Spector, Cooper & Aguilar-Vafaie, 2002). One of the recent job characteristics stress models arising from the Western tradition is the Job Demands and Resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).

The JD-R model introduced two types of job characteristics, namely job demands and job resources. Job demands refer to an employee’s responsibility in his or her job, or more simply “things that have to be done” (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004, p. 296). Specifi cally, Bakker, Demerouti and Euwema (2005, pp. 170) have defi ned job demands as “those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that require

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sustained physical or mental eff ort and are therefore associated with certain physiological and psychological costs”. On the other hand, job resources can be described as “those physical, psychological, social or organizational aspects of the job” (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004, pp. 296) that may energise employee work targets, moderate job demands and intensify personal progression (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). While job demands are associated with employee stress, job resources function to boost employee engagement.

While job demands and resources are regarded as important job characteristics, work value is another variable associated with employee job stress. People may value their work for various reasons, such as fi nancial, status or pleasurable aspects of their work environment. Van den Broeck, et al. (2010) argue that work value also infl uences job characteristics, and strengthens the relationship between job characteristics and employee well-being. Kalleberg (1977) has listed six dimensions of work values that are associated with employee satisfaction, including intrinsic components (characteristics of the job itself), convenience (job characteristics that provide creature comforts), fi nancial (such as pay, benefi ts or security) relationship with co-workers (whether the job permits employees to make friends or friendly co-workers), and career (good chance of promotion) and adequacy resources (resources from organisation such as support from the supervisor).

In the current paper, we examined the JD-R model, and in addition we also investigated what the important work values for employees are. So far, the JD-R model has been tested in various occupational sett ings in many countries. This model has been used for examining employee job stress and well-being in countries such as Germany, Finland, Spain (see Llorens, Bakker, Schaufeli & Salanova, 2006), and Australia (Lewig, Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Dollard & Metz er, 2007). However, there are some limitations. For example, nearly all of the studies using the JD-R approach are Western countries, and most of them were derived using English terminology. A problem that sometimes happens when translating English questionnaires is that they could have diff erent meanings for non-native English speakers, or some job characteristics may lead to cultural-specifi c job stress perception (Liu, Spector & Shi, 2007). For example, “I love my job’ would be normal language usage among English users, but in Spain, the word ‘love’ refers only to people, not work (Sanchez, Spector & Cooper, 2006). These limitations can be resolved by using a qualitative approach, which could reveal more and emerging phenomena than a quantitative survey.

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Another limitation is that no study has used a qualitative approach to examine the JD-R model in the Eastern work sett ings. The previous studies in Western countries could limit an in-depth understanding of the nature of job demands and job resources in developing countries. For example, although work intensity is regarded as part of job demands and leads to job stress in Western contexts, a study by Burke and El-Kot (2009) found something interesting. Their study of Egyptian managers revealed that work intensity not only led to negative outcomes (i.e. job stress), but also predicted positive outcomes (i.e higher job engagement). Given the inconsistent fi ndings between Western and developing countries, the current study used a focus group approach to gain a bett er understanding of job demands and resources in a Malaysian sett ing.

We believe that the experiences of employees, and their description, and meaning ascribed to job demands and job resources are crucial since previous research on job stress research discovered that qualitative research sometimes yields diff erent fi ndings from research that focuses only on quantitative data. For example, Liu, Spector and Shi (2007) found that there are diff erences in results on job stress consequences when comparing qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Similar conclusions have been found by Idris, Dollard and Winefi eld (2010) using in-depth interview where they found unexpected results from employees’ description of their job stress experiences (e.g globalisations as job stressor). Narayanan, Menon and Spector (1999) urged the use of qualitative methodology to get more explicit information about the nature of job stress. Our aim for the current study was to examine how Malaysian employees conceptualize and describe job demands and resources at work. Our study can contribute to the job stress literature in various ways. So far, most job stress studies in Asia are from China or Taiwan (Chang & Lu, 2007; Lu, Cooper, Kao & Zhou, 2003). Second, scholars agree that there are diff erences between collective and individualistic culture that infl uence how people perceive job-related stress (Duraisingam & Dollard, 2005; Liu, Nauta, Spector & Li, 2008). Hopefully, our study will add to the job stress literature, especially in understanding the recent JD-R model and the extent to which it generalises outside the Western context.

What are Job Demand and Resources?

Although the JD-R model is similar to the Job Demands Control (JDC) model (Karasek, 1979) that emphasizes working characteristics as major factors contributing to employee job stress, the JD-R model is more fl exible, and not limited to specifi c variables (Bakker &

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Demerouti, 2007). Scholars who introduced the model believe that every occupation has its unique job demands and resources that are closely associated with job stress (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Employee job demands and resources depend on the occupation (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti & Xanthopoulou, 2007) and these may well diff er between jobs. However, several variables such as workload, emotional demands, physical demands, work-home interference or organizational change are often used in relation to job demands (Bakker, Demerouti & Uewema, 2005; Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2007).

The main notion of the JD-R model is that some employees will experience job stress in conditions of high job demands, and low job resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). While job demands can adversely aff ect employees’ health, resulting in burnout, job resources play a crucial role in boosting their motivation, through engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2010). With the recent increasing use of the JD-R model among job stress scholars (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001; Lewig et al., 2007; Llorens et al., 2006), the question is whether the common variables in the JD-R model that had their origins in Western formulations are applicable in developing countries. For example, while job control is regarded as job resource in most JD-R studies it is apparently not important in some cultures such as in China (see Nauta, Liu & Li, 2010), and certain aspects of job demands could be perceived diff erently for employees outside the Western context (Burke & El-Kot, 2010). Due to such inconsistencies, Duraisingam and Dollard (2005) for example, urged for the need to fi nd out specifi c job demand and job resource variables for developing countries.

Method

Design

In this study, we used focus groups. The advantage of using this method is that it allows the researcher to gain insights into people’s knowledge and their employment experiences. For these reasons, this study used qualitative data, based on the focus group method to discover and gauge employees’ own experiences of the demands and resources in their workplace.

Participants

Samples were chosen through purposive and professional networking (see Idris, Dollard & Winefi eld 2010; Kinman & Jones,

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2005). Participants were selected from various organisations that represented a wide range of businesses and occupations. To ensure that our research sampling represented a range of occupations, we tried to contact as many participants as possible, from diff erent organisations (i.e. oil and gas, manufacturing, media, university, school, hospital, construction, services etc). Thirty-fi ve respondents were fi rst approached by phone, and if available, were then contacted via e-mail to brief them about the research. In some cases, if the contacted respondents were unable to participate, we also asked them if they could suggest work colleagues or others who were in a similar position to them. We also asked them whether they worked in managerial or non-managerial positions. From the 35 people contacted, only 20 were willing to participate in our study. However, on the date when the focus group sessions were conducted, only 13 participants att ended the sessions. We considered the nature of power distance (Hofstede, 1994) in the Malaysian workplace that may impede interaction between managers’ and non-managers’ discussions. Therefore, we used separate focus groups consisting of people at the managerial level and the non-managerial level. The separation between the groups could enhance our understanding of the similarities and diff erences in the perceptions of demands and resources between the employees who are involved in managerial tasks and non-managerial duties. Two focus groups were formed; managerial level (N = 6) and non-managerial level (N = 7) who worked in various occupations.

Procedure

Each focus group discussion was facilitated by a group leader (i.e. research assistant) and the discussion lasted approximately 180 minutes for the manager group, while the non-manager group’s discussion lasted 150 minutes. Both discussions were recorded with the participants’ consent. At the beginning of each session, the moderator briefed the groups about the reasons for the study, and group members were encouraged to express their opinions freely about their experiences, knowledge and any related issues about their jobs. Participant information forms were also distributed to them to explain the nature of the focus group and the aims of the study. When all participants agreed to participate in the research, the consent forms were disseminated to all participants. The moderator’s role was to encourage special issues that occurred during the session, or monitor any unnecessary dialogue that may have risen. After discussion, each group member received a nominal fee, and group leaders expressed their appreciation for their participation.

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The discussions were conducted in the Malay language. The questions asked were as follows:

1. What are the most helpful things that ensure your job runs eff ectively or smoothly?

2. Would you say that these factors represent ‘job resources’? 3. What are the factors at work that make you feel stressed? 4. Would you say these factors represent ‘job demands’ or simply

the most demanding aspects of your job?5. What are the most pleasurable aspects of your work?

We also had a problem in translating some terminology in the current research. Given the lack of a formal translation for the terms ‘job demands’ and ‘job resources’ in the Malay language, in the current study we interchangeably used Malay and English when discussing a term with the participants. We explained to them the closest equivalents of ‘job demands’ and ‘job resources’. In general, we used ‘tuntutan pekerjaan’ for job demands. For job resources, we used either ‘pendorong pekerjaan’ or ‘penggalak pekerjaan’ both of which represent a close meaning to ‘job resources’.

Analysis Strategy

Coding themes in our analysis were based on themes that had been published in previous JD-R studies (Bakker, Demerouti, de Boer & Schaufeli, 2003; Bakker et al., 2005; Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2003; Bakker, Demerouti, Taris, Schaufeli & Schreurs, 2003; Bakker et al. 2007; Demerouti et al., 2000; Demerouti et al., 2001; Hakanen, Bakker & Demerouti, 2005; Hakanen, Bakker & Schaufeli, 2006; Llorens et al., 2006; Mauno, Kinnunen & Ruokolainen, 2007; Schaufeli, & Bakker, 2004; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). We fi rst transcribed interviews verbatim from tape recordings. A content analysis was conducted to identify the main themes ohat emerged during the interviews (K inman & Jones, 2005). Data analysis was performed by the fi rst author. Standards of analysis were used in accordance with Kvale (1996): to avoid bias in the interpretation of data, we engaged another scholar who was familiar with job stress in Malaysia to validate our analysis. Following separatisanalyses, themes were matched and in case of any disagreement between the themes arising, the fi rst author made an adjustment to ensure that there was consensus on themes.

Using this method, we categorised job demads and resoures themes as they emerged in our study. However, we created new themes for those arising in our analysis but not occurring in previous JD-R studies.

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Results and Discussion

What are Job Demands for Malaysian Employees?

Although employees may describe their work experiences and nature of job stress from their own perspectives (Kinman & Jones, 2005), at the fi rst level of analysis, our focus group participants revealed that job demands were conceived similarly among Malaysian employees as thee were in the West. In general, most participants highlighted the familiar job demads variables discussed in the Western literature. This could refl ect the idea that globalisation and the changing nature of work have infl uenced employees in their work sett ings in both developed and developing countries (Sauter & Murphy, 2003).

As illustrated in Table 1, from a total of 69 statements recorded for our analysis, we found that deadlines are described as the most common job demand in the workplace (12 statements). One publishing company worker said: “In my fi eld, the most stressful part in my job is the deadline. Deadline is the word that is always said by my bos,; ‘b ‘hook or by crook’ I must fi nish my tasks”. Similarly another respondent who worked as a newspaper reporter said: “As I have fi nished my assignment [fi eld work], then within 1 hour I must complete my story. Then we have a meeting to discuss tomorrow’s deadline, but at the same time I also need to make amendments to my current story as suggested in the meeting. Then my boss pushes for pictures to be inserted. Deadlines again. I face a similar process on every work day”. Another respondent who worked in the construction sector said: “In my job, we always try to compete with tender jobs. Although we know the submission date exactly, sometimes it will not always happen. For example, during the last month, we were informed only one day before the deadline for tender submission”.

Interestingly, organizational politics emerged in our analysis as a job demand. Some previous JD-R studies have not included organizational politics in their investigations. One respondent stressed his opinion: “What I see, in Malaysia [workplaces] now is very political. Peer politics. This is very annoying. When you meet someone at certain events, they will ask you, ‘hoe is your [organizational] politics?” Because organizational politics are sometimes perceived as unfair threats to employees (Ferris & Kachmar, 1992; Vigoda, 2002), respondents also mentioned this situation in their organization. One female manager indicated: “What I experienced, when someone [from a particular ethnic background] was appointed as a manager, they will favour their own ethnic group employees rather than others. Even if their subordinates [from the same ethnic group] failed to complete tasks, that is still okay”. Another respondent shared

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this experience in the workplace: “In the past, when I worked for one company owned by [ethnicity], I think I have learned more. But when I worked for [another ethnicity], I think they play a lot of political games. Before I could go to bed and sleep easily, but now I have problems [thinking about organizational politics]’.

Table 1

Job Demands at Work

Demands Number of Statements

Deadlines 12Organizational politics 6Bureaucracy /red tape 5Expectations of others 5Litt le support 5Dealing with clients/customers 4Workload 4Litt le feedback 3Role confl ict 3Unclear goals 3Fast pace 2Job security 2Dealing with diffi cult people 2Problems with tools/information technology 2Organizational culture 2New performance system 1Supervision/leadership 1Communication problems 1Others

Individual factors/personality 6Work-family confl icts 1Lack of recognition 1Total 69

Respondents also mentioned that bureaucratic issues are part of the demands of their job. So far, in our review of the most recent Western articles that focused on the JD-R model, this aspect was not reported (Bakker et al., 2003; Bakker et al., 2005; Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2003; Bakker et al., 2003; Bakker et al., 2007; Demerouti et al., 2000; Demerouti et al., 2001; Hakanen et al., 2005; Hakanen et al., 2006; Llorens et al., 2006; Mauno et al., 2007; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004;

144 IJMS 18 (1), 135–154 (2011)

Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). One offi cer who worked for a government agency noted: “For me, all of these [bureaucratic issues] are part of my job demands. I can’t distance myself from these because the government has many policies and departments. I’m lucky because I work in a technical department. If not, I’m sure that I could face a lot of these hindrances”. One manager who worked in one public sector department stressed: “I agree that stress occurs in all work places. However, in the government agencies, we can’t say that because their system [bureaucratic] is bad; we have the option to choose another system. In fact, the system is there and was decided by policy makers. Whether we feel stressed or not, we need to face this fact. What we can do only is to adapt to the stress”.

Bureaucratic problems not only occurred in the public sector but in the private sector as well. One manager who worked for a multi-national fi rm said: “Bureaucratic issues are a problem in organizations. A very simple thing sometimes becomes complicated because of bureaucracy and red tape. It is unnecessary stress and leads to real stress”.

Another important aspect that was perceived as a job demand was the level of expectation of others, whether from one’s supervisor, co-workers or subordinates. One female manager expressed this opinion: “Sometimes we feel trapped by other people’s expectations. We may have performed our work well but we wonder if we have done the right thing”. Another manager shared his experience of when he had worked abroad: “When I was in Germany as a project leader, and worked with some workers from Italy and France, all of them reported to me. I felt stress about whether I could perform”. Another respondent remarked: “As a manager, I have superiors and sub-ordinates. I feel stress about what my supervisor’s expectations are, and at the same time I am also thinking about my subordinates’ expectations”.

Low or litt le support also emerged in our study. One respondent said: “To accomplish tasks we actually need support from others. But if we have a problem with support, I think we will fail to deliver the tasks”. In such cases, low levels of support combined with lack of recognition created more complicated working conditions. For example, one respondent remarked about her experience at work: “I feel stressed when other people don’t want to appreciate our work. Of course, I don’t expect their nice words. Yet sometimes they criticize my work. They don’t want to share their experiences and knowledge. That makes me feel unmotivated”.

Other demands reported in our study include workload and dealing with clients/customers. These particular aspects have been discussed extensively in previous studies (Bakker et al., 2003). In conclusion, job demands as described by our respondents are more associated

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with the work context and group dynamics in the workplace. Unlike deadlines and support, organizational politics, other people’s expectations and bureaucracy have rarely been discussed in previous research using the JD-R model. However, scholars of job stress have found that organizational politics and bureaucracy are associated with poor performance among employees (Wallace, Edwards, Arnold, Frazier & Finch, 2009) and act as stressors in the workplace (Vigoda, 2000, 2002). In combination they were identifi ed as hindrance stressor problems (e.g. Wallace et al., 2009).

Job Resources: How Were They Perceived?

Job resources play important roles in energising employees’ motivation. As indicated in Table 2, our analysis found that the most important job resource among the respondents was related to social support. From a total of 36 statements made, 12 statements discussed the importance of social support.

One respondent expressed his opinion about the importance of support: “the manager is actually a middleman. We get directions from the top management; we pass it on to the sub-ordinates. If we don’t have enough support, we can get nothing done”. Another respondent said: “Even if we have a strong information technology system, if we don’t have support from others; we are unable to perform eff ectively. Both advanced systems and team work complement each other”. One female worker remarked: “As a publication worker, the most important things that make my job run smoothly are that I have a group of supportive people, a good editor, an excellent publisher, and an artist who delivers on time. If all of them could not meet deadlines, it would make my job much harder”.

Table 2

Job Resources at Work

Job Resources Number of Statements

Social support 12

Knowledge 4

Management quality 4

Information communication technology 3

Experience 2

Networking 2

(continued)

146 IJMS 18 (1), 135–154 (2011)

Job Resources Number of Statements

Finance/salary 2

Family 2

Job control/Autonomy 1

Clear goals 1

Career development 1

Feedback 1

Love own job 1

Religious 1

Total 37

Besides the importance of support, management quality also played a crucial role as a job resource. One respondent made the following statement: “I can perform work well if I work in a well organized environment. I can do my job if no one disturbs me. Sometimes my job is interrupted by subordinates, sometimes by superiors. So, I think management should ensure everything is well organised”. Another respondent indicated: “Everything must be in order. The system must operate in an appropriate way, authority, workfl ow, guidelines, and team work and so on”. In the modern workplace, information technologies have been emphasised as a crucial aspect of work. One respondent indicated that: “In the current working environment, we are no longer depending on old fi ling systems. We need a current information technology system”. Another respondent expressed the need for information technologies as part of work in an increasingly competitive world. He said: “For me, to ensure that I am up-to-date with the knowledge, I must obtain help from people who work on websites. This helps me to improve my job”. One tutor who worked at a university expressed her opinion: “I’m very particular about computer facilities. I am very demanding regarding the latest technology. If it is not provided, it will make me stressed”.

Interestingly, although some previous JD-R studies emphasised job control as part of job resources, this study found that Malaysian employees did not mention this variable as much as Western workers did. In our recent study (Idris, Dollard & Winefi eld, 2010), we also found a similar trend when Malaysian respondents did not draw att ention to this theme. We can assume that in a collective society where the power distance (Hofstede, 1994) is very wide between the executives and the employees, people might not be concerned about exerting control over their own jobs.

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In conclusion, we found both similarities and diff erences regarding job demands and resources perceived by Malaysian employees as compared to Western employees. We found that, while some job demands are coherent with the JD-R model (i.e. deadlines), Malaysian employees also identify some job demands not referred to in previous Western studies (i.e. organisation politics). We found however, that for job resource variables, there were not many diff erences from the Western literature. Our fi ndings could imply that each country has its own unique job characteristics, and not all conform to the Western stereotype.

Workplace Is Not Only an Evil. What Did They Say?

Jobs do not always create problems for employees, but work also has meaning for employees (Van den Broeck et al., 2010). In this study, participants described various aspects that might be valuable for them. As indicated in Table 3, job challenges and exploring new things were reported as beautiful things at work. One respondent described his experience as follows: ‘For me, if we feel engaged with our job, we are no longer concerned with the fi nancial aspect, or benefi ts. The most important things are to prove our potential. I am even able to deal with a big project alone...’. Another participant said: ‘For me, I am very excited if I can achieve my work target...able to complete my task within a deadline’. One newspaper reporter told his experience: ‘For me, although I know that my job is very demanding, sometimes I need to work until midnight. Sometimes my supervisor calls me to meet someone, although we know that person might be sleeping at that time. Sometime, he asks me to fi nd a story at 10:00 pm, and the deadline is at 12 o’clock at midnight. But, if I am able to achieve a target. It is very amazing for me’.

Exploring new things is also described as one of the pleasurable experiences in the workplace. One manager said: ‘Before this I worked in the accounting department, and then I moved to the Information Technology section. Although I found it diffi cult the fi rst time, now I feel happy to get new knowledge’. Another respondent, said: I worked for a private company. Before this I worked as a planner, but now as a QS (Quantity Surveyor). I feel sometimes going to work is like going to school. We are able learn new things, share experiences with a new boss. For me...this is a great thing that I have gained from the work.

Internal satisfaction or att achment to the job was also one of the important factors that made employees feel happy with their jobs. One participant said: ‘For me...people feel engaged with their jobs because they get satisfaction from their jobs. For example, teachers...if they work because of money, they only deliver what is described in their job description.

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But, if they have interest in their job...feel responsible...I think this is the best way. Another participant said: ‘If you ask me what is pleasurable..I have already worked for more than 10 years. I recognised that...I love this job. I feel engaged and more responsible. Every time, when I am preparing to go home...I think what I should do tomorrow. That’s why I have never changed my job.

Table 3

Pleasurable Aspects at Work

Pleasurable aspects at work Number of Statements

Job challenging 11

Explore new things 10

Internal satisfaction 8

Financial 7

Appreciation by others 5

Job control 3

Conducive working environment 3

Total 47

Financial benefi ts were also acknowledged as one of the pleasurable things in the workplace. One participant, clearly indicated: “The fi rst thing...the rule of thumb...is money’. Another participant gave a good example of how money motivated people at work. She said: ‘I think fi nancial reward is important. If you ask the fresh graduates who are currently working, whether they are happy or not...I think they will say that they are not happy. This is because what they want is only money. They are driven by money. Pleasure will only come after they are satisfi ed with their fi nancial income’.

Participants also stressed the importance of appreciation of others as part of job pleasure. One respondent said: “Once we deliver our job, and my boss is happy and satisfi ed with what I have done...for me, this is pleasurable’.

Conclusion

Our study found that deadlines, organizational politics and bureaucratic issues are typical job demands of the Malaysian workplace. Achieving a deadline is a common job demand for every modern workplace in both developed countries and developing

IJMS 18 (1), 135–154 (2011) 149

countries. However, organizational politics and bureaucratic issues have not been discussed in depth, if at all, by scholars who use the JD-R model as their framework for studying job stress.

In Malaysia’s context, organizational politics has an impact on job stress as has been demonstrated in previous research (Poon, 2003). At the international level, Vigoda (2002) for example, has summarised the association between organizational politics and negative emotions in the workplace (job anxiety, job stress, job tension) and organizational politics has a positive relationship with these domains. Job stress also emerged as a mediator between organizational politics and aggressive behaviour in the workplace. However, since organizational politics has still not been extensively examined from the JD-R perspective, our study is a preliminary study that requires further investigation

Bureaucracy also emerged in our study. Since our study did not focus on the antecedents of these particular issues, we do not really know what factors have contributed to this situation. However, since Malaysia is a country that well demonstrates power distance and social collectiveness (Hofstede, 1994), we can assume that these factors have also indirectly contributed to bureaucracy and ‘red tape’ in Malaysian workplaces. In a recent study, Wallace et al. (2009) found that bureaucracy and red tape caused problems regarding organizational performance.

We see that job demands and working conditions have cultural implications. Most common job stressors as reported in Western literature (i.e. deadlines, workload) are always regarded as major contributors to employees’ strain (Karasek, 1979). However, the current study found that Malaysian employees have a diff erent perception on factors that contribute to their stress, such as organizational politics and bureaucracy that occur in the workplace. Although scholars are agreed that organisational politics and bureaucracy could lead to job stress (Poon, 2003; Vigoda, 2002; Wallace et al., 2009) and aff ect employees’ performance, so far these factors have not been studied in the JD-R framework. Our fi ndings which suggest that diff erent cultures and countries have their own specifi c perceptions of what is regarded as a workplace stressor (Glazer & Gyurak, 2008; Lu, Seng & Cooper, 1999), could provide insight into working conditions in Muslim developing countries. For example, while favouritism is something that is unacceptable in the Western workplace, in some developing countries and collective cultures, favouritism is regarded as a normal practice (Ali, 2010).

150 IJMS 18 (1), 135–154 (2011)

Participants also perceive their jobs in several ways. Being an employed worker confronted them with challenges, learn new things and satisfy their internal needs. Thus, we see that although employees described several factors that contributed to job stress (i.e. job demands), and aspects that buff er the impact of job demands (i.e. job resources), employees also indicated the aspect of their jobs that related to their needs.

Limitations

Although using a qualitative study enhances our understanding of employees’ experience of job stress, some limitations should be acknowledged. The current study only utilized a small group of participants (e.g. two groups) comprising managerial and non-managerial staff . We also only covered a few types of occupations. It would have been bett er if the study had used more participants, as well as a greater range of occupations. We found it diffi cult to get more participants to participate in the study as in Malay culture, people are not too willing to express their problems due to ‘malu’ or ‘ashamed personality’ (Goddard, 1996). However, Berland, Natvig and Giunderson (2008) only used a small number of participants and nonetheless found that they were able to describe the nature of job stress.

We also had a problem in translating some terminology in the current research. So far, no study using the JD-R model has been conducted in Malaysia. Job resources when translated into the Malay language (sumber pekerjaan), does not refl ect job resources as defi ned in Western terminology. A very close meaning for ‘job resources’ in Malay terminology is ‘job support’ or ‘sokongan pekerjaan’. Job support however has a diff erent meaning. Due to the fact that there are no exact words to explain the job resources, in the current study, fi rst we explained to the participants how we defi ne ‘job resources’. We gave them a few examples before discussing their att itudes to job resources.

Future Research

Future research should use a large sample in order to enhance the external validity of the fi ndings. Researchers should also consider testing factors associated with job demands and resources by using a diff erent methodology (i.e. survey). The eff ects of deadlines, organizational politics or social support on employees’ psychological health erosion (i.e. burnout) or motivational pathways (i.e. work engagement) as proposed by the JD-R model (Bakker & Demerouti,

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2004) may contribute to bett er explanations. In addition, using a comparison study with other cultures or countries would also be helpful to determine whether any boundary conditions limited the current fi ndings.

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IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

IT – BUSINESS STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT IN INFLUENCING SUSTAINABLE COMPETITIVE

ADVANTAGE IN JORDAN: STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING (SEM) APPROACH

DAMNITHAN AL-MANJALIZULKHAIRI MD DAHALINUUM College of Arts & Sciences

Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract

In many review articles or studies, the researchers have encouraged further exploration on the causal links between Information Technology (IT) investments and a fi rm’s sustainable competitive advantage. The outcomes of empirical studies have been inconclusive, which is to a certain extent due to the omission of IT-business strategic alignment. Indeed, strategic alignment has emerged as one of the most important issues facing business and IT executives all over the world. This paper reports on the empirical investigation of the success factors, which consist of leadership, structure and process, service quality, and values and beliefs, which are representative of the culture gap between IT strategy and business strategy. A questionnaire survey among 200 IT managers was carried out and 172 data sets were collected. This represented a 86% response rate. After a rigorous data screening process including outliers, normality, reliability and validity, 172 data sets were ready for structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis. Confi rmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed to examine the composite reliability, convergent validity and goodness of fi t of the individual constructs and measurement models. The revised structural model demonstrates the relationships between all the four exogenous variables and IT-business strategic alignment, and all the four exogenous variables and sustainable competitive advantage. In addition, regarding the revised model there are two mediating eff ects of strategic alignment in the relationship between leadership, structure and process, service quality, values and beliefs, and sustainable competitive advantage.

Keywords: Strategic alignment; alignment gap; information technology; sustainable competitive advantage.

156 IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

Introduction

In order to improve their performance, fi rms invest heavily in IT such as hardware, software, network, and data components (Oana, 2010). However, based on the mixed fi ndings of the linkage between IT spending and fi rm performance, some researchers in the MIS fi eld suggest that IT-business alignment is a construct that can help organizations improve the positive impact of IT on organizational success (e.g. Henderson & Venkatraman, 1993 ; Luftman & Brier, 1999; Luftman, 2003; Kearns & Lederer, 2001; Sabherwal & Chan, 2001; Croteau & Bergeron, 2001; Chan, Sabherwal & Thatcher 2006; Chan & Reich, 2007; Dong, Liu & Yin, 2008). For organizations to stay competitive in a dynamic business environment, they have to determine and understand how to manage IT strategically as a key success factor for a successful business in a dynamic business environment that supports business strategies and processes (Henderson & Venkatraman, 1993). Further, the alignment between the business strategy and the strategic choices of IT deployment is a prominent area of concern that business and IT management struggle with (Johnson & Lederer, 2010). Strategic alignment refers to “The degree to which the IT mission, objectives and plans support and are supported by the business mission, objectives and plans” (Reich & Benbasat, 1996 & 2000). However, regardless of a growing body of research, recent reviewers (Chan et al., 2006; Chan & Reich, 2007; Masa’deh & Kuk, 2009) have continuously called for more research into the factors that aff ect IT-business alignment. Consequently, this study tries to make an original contribution to the existing body of knowledge in the area of MIS by exploring the association between IT-business strategic alignment and sustainable competitive advantage. Moreover, the current study will contribute to IT-business strategic alignment literature by investigating a new theoretical approach to strategic alignment that has not been explored in the fi eld of IS. This is done by exploring the relationships between several factors (i.e. leadership, structure and process, service quality, and values and beliefs) on IT-business strategic alignment to achieve sustainable competitive advantage and how strategic alignment can mediate the relationship between these factors and sustainable competitive advantage.

Literature Review

Despite the criticality of the relationship between business and IT, there have only been a few att empts to investigate the relationship further. Although much has been writt en about business-IT strategic

IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011) 157

alignment, it concerns the issues of control of resources rather than managing relationships (Ward & Peppard, 1999). Although the alignment gap represents an important concept in business-IT strategic alignment, it has not been presented or discussed explicitly in the business-IT strategy context. Moreover, none of the earlier studies conducted by researchers indicate who referred to the concept of the alignment gap between business strategy and IT strategy in particular. Therefore, the focus of this paper is to identify and prove this concept and to focus att ention on determining the reasons why the alignment gap exists between business strategy and IT strategy. This will provide great benefi t to the management in business and industrial organizations to address unmanageable issues resulting from the alignment gap, with diff erent management practices for bridging the alignment gap between business strategy and IT strategy. Although many scholars and authors in past studies have mentioned and discussed the term ‘gap’ or ‘culture gap’ in diff erent articles (Ward & Peppard, 1999; Grindly, 1992; Luftman, 2003), none of these scholars or the authors att empted to provide a critical review of the concept of the “alignment gap” between business strategy and IT strategy in a conceptual manner. Some scholars (e.g. Chan & Reich, 2007) called for further adjustments to the concept of alignment by applying new theoretical approaches that have not been explored in the fi eld of IT. Therefore, this study aims to conceptualize IT-business strategic alignment into the alignment gap. The concept of the alignment gap between business strategy and IT strategy has emerged due to the fact that there are two separate organizational units in any organization – normally the IT department, which is responsible for IT activities and the business department. Understandably, this has led to the appearance of the gap between the IT functions and the business activities. Generally, IT function refers to the individuals who provide IT services to the organization. These individuals are usually highly-skilled IT professionals who have a certain amount of knowledge and experience in software engineering and technical aspects of computer hardware and software systems, and who carry out a variety of tasks to deal with the requirements of the fi rm for IT services. Certain functions of the IT professionals may include design, implementation, and maintenance of the software programmes, including data processing (Ward & Peppard, 2002; Sage, 2002).The concept of ‘gap’, as used here, is based on the literature and refers to what is called the ‘culture gap’, which is a variable that explains the challenges that can exist between the IT function and the business activities. The culture gap concept consists of four dimensions, i.e. leadership, structure and process, service quality, and values and beliefs (Ward & Peppard, 1999). The culture gap has been identifi ed as a key factor in limiting

158 IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

the successful utilization of IT in organizations (Grindly, 1992). Leadership is elaborated upon by refl ecting both the leadership of the CIO and the leadership of the CEO. Service quality is considered to be vital in determining the customer-supplier relationship. Such relationships could be strengthened by the IT department by focusing on the development of IT outsourcing and the level of service that clients expect from the vendor. The last dimension, values and beliefs, shape how att itudes, behaviours and practices develop. Hence, the values and beliefs of a fi rm member have great eff ect on several dimensions of IT, including the way it is managed. Culture is an abstract concept that refers to the organizational culture in the organizational context. It is a shared set of values, behaviours and beliefs together with att itudes and experiences that represent unique characters that take the form of rules of behaviour in a work group or organization (Galliers, Meriali & Spearing, 1994).The underlying reasons for the misalignment between business and IT include the lack of a common understanding of the concept of strategic alignment, and depend on the classical assumptions for the strategic planning process or ad-hoc IT investments in organizations (Oana, 2010). She further indicated that the misalignment leads to missing competitive advantages and opportunities, increasing wasted time, increasing costs and creating a negative environment for IT investments. Indeed, probably the most common business concept today is competitive advantage. Despite its wide use, few researchers have att empted to defi ne the concept, and it is often confused with distinctive competence (Day, 1994). Porter’s (1985) book, titled ‘Competitive Advantage’ propelled the concept of competitive advantage into the popular business vernacular. Porter did not articulate the defi nition of the concept but explained that competitive advantage refers to organizational factors that enable a fi rm to outperform its competitors. As such, Porter argued that sustaining competitive advantage should be the central purpose of an organization’s competitive strategy and that creating value is the means for att aining it. As Collis and Montgomery (1995) explained, “competitive advantage, whatever its source, ultimately can be att ributed to the ownership of a valuable resource that enables the company to perform activities bett er or more cheaply than its competitors”. Moreover, to be sustainable, a competitive advantage should be diffi cult to imitate or substitute (Porter, 1985).

Research Conceptual Model

The aim of this study is to identify factors that might lead to bett er strategic alignment and its eff ect on sustainable competitive advantage. In addition, it will identify those factors that might lead to a bett er

IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011) 159

sustainable competitive advantage through strategic alignment. This conceptual model extends Henderson and Venkatraman’s (1993). Furthermore, the model acts as a guideline for organizations to lever their sustainable competitive advantage through strategic alignment. For practitioners, this model will provide a detailed roadmap to guide the decision-making process and to focus their att ention on factors that aff ect sustainable competitive advantage. Figure 2 displays the research model.

Figure 2. Research model

Hypotheses Formulation

Based on the objectives of the study, thirteen hypotheses were formulated.H1: The more leadership between business and IT managers, the

greater the manager’s engagement in strategic alignment.H2: The more structure and process with the business plan and

the IT plan, the greater the manager’s engagement in strategic alignment.

H3: The more service quality between the business and the IT managers, the greater the manager’s engagement in strategic alignment.

H4: The more values and beliefs in the business plan and the IT plan, the greater the manager’s engagement in strategic alignment.

Leadership

Structure &process

Servicequality

Value &belief

Strategicalignment

Sustainablecompetitiveadvantage

H1

H2

H3

H4

H9

H5

H6

H7

H8

160 IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

H5: Firms that pursue strategic alignment will enhance their sustainable competitive advantage.

H6: The more leadership between business and IT managers the greater the manager’s eff ect on sustainable competitive advantage.

H7: The more the structure and process with the business plan and the IT plan, the greater the manager’s eff ect on sustainable competitive advantage.

H8: The more service quality between business and IT managers, the greater the manager’s eff ect on sustainable competitive advantage.

H9: The more the values and beliefs in the business plans and the IT plans, the greater the manager’s eff ect on sustainable competitive advantage.

H10: The strategic alignment will mediate the relationship between leadership and sustainable competitive advantage.

H11: The strategic alignment will mediate the relationship between structure and process and sustainable competitive advantage.

H12: The strategic alignment will mediate the relationship between service quality and sustainable competitive advantage.

H13: The strategic alignment will mediate the relationship between values and beliefs and sustainable competitive advantage.

Methodology

This study adopts a quantitative approach to the research. The unit of analysis is organizations sampled by IT managers of public shareholding fi rms in Jordan.

Questionnaire Design and Measurement Scale

The questionnaire for this study consists of fi ve parts: Part one consists of a cover lett er explaining the title of the study and the purpose of the questionnaire; Part two consists of questions concerning the respondents demographic profi le; Part three contains the four latent constructs that are hypothesised to infl uence strategic alignment in Jordan; Part four contains the strategic alignment; and Part fi ve contains the sustainable competitive advantage. These constructs were adapted from previous strategic alignment and sustainable competitive advantage studies, thus, exploratory factor analysis is omitt ed. The measures are (a) Leadership measured by six items (Ward & Griffi ths, 1996), (b) structure and process measured by six items (Ward & Peppard ,1999), service quality measured by fi ve items

IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011) 161

Pitt , Watson & Leavon (1995), values and beliefs measured by six items (Grindly,1992), strategic alignment measured by (Pierce, 2002), sustainable competitive advantage measured by six items consisting of three items that belong (DeVilliers, 2006) and three items derived from operational defi nition. A seven-point Likert scale with anchors from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree, was used for all items. The sample frame was determined from the (ASE) Amman Stock Exchange (www.ase.com.jo), which includes 280 of the most powerful public shareholding fi rms from four sectors. The stratifi ed random sample used 200 respondents who were identifi ed from the South, North and Center of Jordan. The researcher distributed 200 questionnaires to the respondents of which 172 questionnaires were returned. Ten questionnaires were unreturned and another questionnaire was incomplete, leaving (172) questionnaires or 86% response rate for further analysis.

Data Screening and Analysis

The 172 dataset was coded and saved into SPSS version 15.0 and analysed using AMOS version 6.0. The data was carefully examined for missing data. For the univariate normality test, Z-skewness scores greater than +3 or –3 were absent. Thus, each item was considered to be normal data (Coakes & Steed, 2003). Thus, 172 questionnaires remained for fi nal analysis. Subsequently, several statistical validity tests were then conducted including the reliability test, composite reliability tests, confi rmatory factor analysis (CFA) for construct convergent validity, discriminate validity for multicollinearity treatment, descriptive analysis and correlation. Subsequently, Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) analysis using AMOS 6.0 was conducted. SEM was selected because it uses confi rmatory factor analysis to minimize measurement error through the multiple indicators pr–latent variable, able to estimate both direct and indirect eff ects, a testable model, and able to ensure consistency of the model with data, and to estimate the eff ects among the constructs. The SEM analysis produces two structural models, namely, hypothesised structural model and the revised model.

Finding

Demographic Profi le of the Respondents

The respondents consisted of female (48%) against males (52%). The majority of the sample was aged 41(7%).

162 IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

Descriptive Statistics of Variables

Table 1 indicates that the six constructs, four exogenous (leadership, structure and process, service quality, values and beliefs); and two endogenous (strategic alignment, and sustainable competitive advantage) have Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability of above 0.60. This implies that the measurement scales for all the variables are internally consistent and reliable (Nunnally, 1970).

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics of Variables

Variables Code No. of items

Mean S. D Min Max Reliability(C/alpha)

Composite R

Sustainable competitive advantage

SUS 6 5.07 .650 4 7 .82 .91

Strategic alignment SA 6 4.92 .686 4 6 .80 .81

Leadership LS 6 4.77 .659 4 6 .89 .95

Structure and process SP 6 5.22 .615 4 7 .82 .62

Service quality SQ 5 5.03 .495 4 6 .66 .87

Values and beliefs VB 6 5.37 722 4 7 .90 .87

Confi rmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) Results

Survey measures were assessed by one academic staff in Malaysia, and two academic staff in Jordan, who participated in the pilot study and all of them, have professional qualifi cations in management and IT. The survey was reviewed in Jordan by three IT managers as a sample of the respondents. The managers were professional people working in diff erent industrial sectors of the Jordanian public listed companies, with signifi cant experience in management and IT fi elds. The feedback from the participants revealed several points about the question rating, wording, and length.

From the confi rmatory factor analysis result in Table 2, some scholars (e.g. Gerbing Anderson, 1988) argued that CFA can supply a stricter explanation of unidimensionality than other techniques like EFA (exploratory factor analysis). We observed that the factor loadings of all observed variables or items were adequate, at least 0.30, as suggested by Pallant, (2007). In order to validate the measurement model through CFA (confi rmatory factor analysis), it is important to assess each construct for reliability and validity in terms of convergent validity and discriminate validity. Indeed, the standardized regression

IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011) 163

weights for the research’s indicators were examined, and it was found that some indicators had a low loading towards the latent variables, in particular

LS3=.403/LS4=.468/LS5=431/LS6=453/SP1=.314/SP3=.426/SP5.278/SP6=.322/SQ1=.449/SQ2=.333/SQ3=.321/VB1=.407/VB2=.418/VB3=.329/SA1=.440/SA2=.421/SA3=.315/SA6=.326/SUS=.409/SUS4=.310/SUS6=.291.

Moreover, since all of these items did not meet the minimum recommended value of factor loadings of 0.50 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson & Thatham, 1998), and/or because the initial fi t indices moderately fi t the sample data, they were all removed and excluded from further analysis. This indicates that all the constructs conform to the convergent construct validity test. As shown in Table 2, the remaining number of items for each construct are as follows: sustainable competitive advantage SUS (3 items), strategic alignment (2 items), leadership (2 items), structure and process (2 items), service quality (2 items), and values and beliefs VB (3 items). The total number items remaining is 14. Table 2

Final Confi rmatory Factor Analysis Results of All Constructs

Variables ItemCode

Items Factor g

LS LS1

LS2

There are regular direct meetings between the business and IT managers.There is a nominated liaison position between the business and IT managers.

.94

.88

SP SP2SP4

The IT plan refl ects business goals.The business plan refers to the IT plan.

.45

.95

SQ SQ4SQ5

IS system off ers a very competitive service.Organizations have good relationships with local or international businesses.

.65

.38

VB VB4

VB5VB6

IS for experts must be responsible for consolidating their organizations.Managers comprehend IS terminology well at all levels.IS enhances their productivity among the managers.

.782

.782

.797

SA SA4

SA5

Our IT and business planners interact closely in the formulation of the IT strategic plan.Our IT planners are aware of the fi rm’s objectives, business strategies and long-term goal.

.86

.83

(continued)

164 IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

Variables ItemCode

Items Factor g

SUS Sus1

Sus3

Sus5

My organization encourages import new ideas from outside the organization.My organization encourages sharing ideas across organizational units.Access to superior limit resources can contribute to competitive advantages in the market place.

.60

.81

.81

Discriminant Validity of Constructs

Discriminant validity refers to observed constructs that should not be highly correlated to each other (multicollinearity). In other words, observed variables should be discriminating or distinct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). To support discriminant validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) should be more than the correlation squared (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Table 3 shows the result of the calculated variance extracted (VE) to support the discriminant validity of the constructs. The average variance extracted (AVE) is the average VE values of two constructs (Table 3). The VE is derived from the calculation of variance extracted using the following equation:

Variance Extracted =

Consequently, each AVE value (Table 3) is found to be more than the correlation squared (Table 4), thus, the discriminant validity is supported, i.e. multicollinearity is absent.

Table 3

Variance Extracted of Variables

Observed Variables Variance ExtractedSUS .79SA .87LS .94SP .82SQ .57VB .89

Goodness of Fit Indices

Confi rmatory factor analysis was conducted on each individual construct and measurement model. All CFAs of the constructs produced a relatively good fi t as indicated by the goodness of fi t

jdardizeds

dardizeds

SMCSMC

2

2

tan

tan

IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011) 165

indices such as CMIN/df ratio (<2); p-value (>0.05); Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) of >.95; and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) values of less than .08 (<.08) (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson & Tatham, 2006; Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Table 5 shows that the goodness of fi t of the generated or re-specifi ed structural model is bett er than the hypothesised model.

Table 4

Correlation & Correlation Square (in Parentheses) Matrix Among Variables

VB SQ SP LS SA SUS

VB 1.000

SQ .73(.54) 1.000

SP .85(.16) .69(.232) 1.000

LS .91(.17) .75(.16) .88(.217) 1.000

SA .88(.22) .72(.14) .84(.18) .90(.24) 1.000

SUS .84(.10) .68(.093) .80(.112) .86(.106) .83(.349) 1.000

Table 5

Revised Model and Hypothesised Model Results

Indicators Revised Model Hypothesized Model

CMIN 120.755 2216.047Df 107 875CMIN/DF 1.129 2.533p-value .172 0.000GFI .929 .624CFI .985 .720TLI .989 .697NFI .917 .613RMESA .027 .095

As shown in Table 5, although chi-square per degree of freedom ratio (x²/df =1.12) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA=.027) did change for the fi nal model, the incremental fi t index (GFI = .92), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI = 0.98), Goodness-of- Fit Index (GF I= .85), Normed Fit Index (NFI=.91) and comparative fi t index (CFI = 0.98) indicated a bett er fi t to the data after deleting the low-factor loading items.

166 IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

Figure 3. Final revised model

Hypotheses Results

Since the hypothesised model did not achieve the fi t model (p < .000), the explanation of the hypotheses result is based on the Revised Model (RM), which achieved a model fi t of p-value = .172 (> 0.05) (Figure 3). The revised model produces regression standardized estimates direct eff ect readings (Beta), as shown in Table 6. Some of the hypotheses are supported and some of these hypotheses are not supported.

Table 6

Direct Impact Revised Model (RM): Standardized Regression Weights

H Exog Endo Std.estim C.R P Evidence

H1 LS SA .114 2.312 .041 Supported

H2 SP SA .011 .144 .885 Not supported

H3 SQ SA .100 1.420 .156 Not supported

H4 VB SA .206 2.705 .007 Supported

H5 LS SUS .175 3.042 .002 Supported

H6 SP SUS .068 1.004 .315 Not supported

H7 SQ SUS .005 .080 .936 Not supported

H8 VB SUS .056 .828 .408 Not supported

H9 SA SUS .316 4.779 *** Supported

LS

SP

SQ

VB

.35

SA

.36

sus

.88

LS1e1

.94.78

LS2e2

.88

.90

SP4e9.95

.20

SP2e11 .45

.15

SQ5e13

.39

.43

SQ4e14.66

.63

VB6e18

.80.61

VB5e19

.78

.61

VB4e20.78

.74

SA4 e27.86

.69

SA5 e28

.83

.00

SUS1 e30-.01

.66

SUS3 e32.81

.67

SUS5 e34

.82

.29

.19

-.05

.31

.01

.08

.08

-.03

R1

R2

.54

.47

.48

.74

.40

.42

.41

IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011) 167

Mediating Eff ect Analysis of Revised Model

A mediating eff ect is created when a third variable/construct intervenes between two other related constructs. Regarding the Revised Model there is one mediating eff ect of strategic alignment. According to Hair et al., (2006) if the total direct eff ect is more than the total indirect eff ect, there is no mediating eff ect; if the total direct eff ect is less than the total indirect eff ect, there is a full mediating eff ect; and if the total direct eff ect is equal to the total indirect eff ect. Then for the partial mediating eff ect as shown in Table 8, we tested the mediating eff ects of strategic alignment in the relationship between leadership, structure and process, service quality, values and beliefs and sustainable competitive advantage.

Table 7

Mediating Eff ect of Strategic Alignment

Hypothesis From Mediation To Total direct eff ect

Total indirect eff ect Mediating

H10 LS SA SUS .175 .036 Not mediatingH11 SP SA SUS .068 .003 Not mediatingH12 SQ SA SUS .005 .03 Full mediatingH13 VB SA SUS .056 .065 Full mediating

Furthermore, Table 8 below indicates that the four exogenous variables (leadership, structure and process, service quality, values and beliefs) jointly explained 35 percent variance in SA, and the same four exogenous variables (leadership, structure and process, service quality, values and beliefs) jointly explained 36 percent variance in SUS.

Table 8

Squared Multiple Correlation Results

Endogenous Variables Squared Multiple Correlation (SMC) = R2

SA 35%SUS 36%

Discussion

This study is concerned with an empirical investigation of the success factors that could aff ect strategic alignment and consequently

168 IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

achieve sustainable competitive advantage. The Revised Model indicates that it has accomplished model fi t and while supporting seven hypotheses, it does not support six further hypotheses. As hypothesised (H1), leadership was found to have a signifi cant positive eff ect on strategic alignment (β = .114; CR = 2.312; p = .041). This result means that higher levels of communication through face-to-face, electronic mail and memos or through regular meetings lead to bett er strategic alignment in Jordanian public shareholding fi rms. Therefore,H1 is supported. The positive relationship between business-IT interaction and strategic alignment is consistent with the fi ndings of Lind and Zmud (1991), Earl and Feeny (1994), Reich and Benbasat (2000), and Johnson and Lederer (2005), that the interaction between IT and business managers was highly correlated with the degree of convergence between the two parties concerning the strategic role of IT in the fi rm. Structure and process (β = .011; CR = .144; p = .885) was found to have an insignifi cant eff ect on strategic alignment. This fi nding implies that Jordanian fi rms need to make sure of the association between the IT plan and the business plan. Most of the literature in previous studies indicated that it is necessary to involve IT strategy with business strategy (Ward & Peppared, 1999); therefore, H2 is not supported. The third hypothesis suggests a positive relationship between service quality and strategic alignment (β = .100; CR = 1.420; p = .156). The fi nding shows that service quality has an insignifi cant eff ect on strategic alignment. This could mean that there is disagreement on the service-level agreement between IT strategy and business strategy causing an insignifi cant eff ect on the alignment between them. Therefore, H3 is not supported. This result is consistent with the fi nding of Pitt et al., (1995). In addition, this study found that (values and beliefs) have a positive eff ect on strategic alignment (β = .206; CR = 2.705; p = .007). This fi nding suggests that a positive and successful strategic alignment can be formed if there is acceptance of the new technology from the employees. This requires the need of rapid technology from IT managers to update themselves to redesign work which make association between the objectives for IT strategy and business strategy. This result is consistent with Al Admour and Shunak (2009). Therefore,H4 is supported. Strategic alignment was found to have a signifi cant positive eff ect on sustainable competitive advantage (β = .316; CR = 4779; p = ***). This fi nding shows that the alignment in Jordanian fi rms has an eff ect on the fi rms’ sustainable competitive advantage. Therefore, H9 is supported, This is to say the fi rms that pursue strategic alignment have greater ability to enhance their sustainable competitive advantage. Furthermore, the result of this study shows a direct positive eff ect of leadership on sustainable

IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011) 169

competitive advantage. However, (values and beliefs), structure and process, and service quality do not have any direct eff ect on sustainable competitive advantage. Therefore, H5 is supported but H6, H7, H8 are not supported as Table 6 above shows. Finally, the results show that strategic alignment mediates the relationship between service quality and values and beliefs. Therefore, H12, H13 are supported but there is no mediating eff ect on the relationship between leadership, (structure and process) and strategic alignment on sustainable competitive advantage. Therefore, H10, H11 are not supported.

Conclusion

In the business world, where fl exibility and adaptability are critical, failure to leverage IT may seriously hamper the fi rm’s sustainable competitive advantage, especially in today’s global, information-intensive world. Therefore, the need to obtain strategic alignment between business and IT strategies is paramount. The motivation for this study was to propose a theoretical model that determines the impact of several contextual variables (leadership, structure and processe service quality, and values and beliefs) on IT-business strategic alignment, and how such alignment impacts a fi rm’s sustainable competitive advantage. The results of some hypotheses indicated an eff ect on strategic alignment while others had an insignifi cant eff ect on strategic alignment. In addition, strategic alignment has a mediating eff ect on the relationship between service quality, values and beliefs and sustainable competitive advantage. Therefore, fi rms in Jordan should have concern for strategic alignment to enhance their competitive position and sustain this advantage. This study will be useful for both academicians and practitioners. From the academic perspective, this study aspires to fi ll the gap of the incomplete causal chains between IT investments and sustainable competitive advantage. In addition, this study utilizes Chan et al.,’s (2006), and Chan and Reich’s (2007) recommendations, by further developing and validating a comprehensive model to assess strategic alignment mechanisms within an organization.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Zulkhairi Md. Dahalin for his guidance throughout this work.

170 IJMS 18 (1), 155–172 (2011)

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KEMISKINAN DAN AGIHAN PENDAPATAN DI NEGERI PERAK

ZAKARIAH ABDUL RASHID NOORAINI KAMARUL BAHRAIN

Fakulti Ekonomi & Pengurusan Universiti Putra Malaysia

Abstrak

Dengan menggunakan data HIS2000 dan pengiraan beberapa indeks kemiskinan dan agihan pendapatan (positif dan normatif), kertas kajian ini menganalisis isu kemiskinan dan jurang pendapatan mengikut kaum dan wilayah dalam negeri Perak. Kajian ini mendapati kemiskinan di negeri ini berdimensikan kaum dan wilayah apabila isi rumah Melayu adalah yang paling ramai miskin dengan jurang pendapatan di antara kaum ini dengan kaum-kaum lain jelas ketara. Selain itu, kemiskinan negeri ini juga bercirikan luar bandar dengan jurang pendapatan antara bandar dengan luar-bandar juga jelas ketara. Bagi memperbaiki ketidakseimbangan ini, kertas ini mencadangkan agar kaum yang terkebelakang ekonominya diberikan peluang yang lebih baik bergiat dalam sektor pembuatan dan perkhidmatan dan begitu juga, kawasan luar bandar perlu ditingkatkan prasarana ekonominya. Kedua-dua cadangan ini boleh diselaraskan dalam satu strategi pembangunan yang sedia ada dalam peringkat negeri dan persekutuan (NCER).

Kata kunci:

Abstract

By using HIS2000 data set and deriving a few indices of poverty and income distribution (positive and normative), the present paper analyses poverty and income gap issues by ethnic and regional diff erences in Perak. The paper found that poverty in the state has ethnic and regional dimensions as Malay households dominate the poverty scene and inter-ethnic income gap is considerable. Similarly, poverty in the state is characterized by the rural area as the regional income gap is prominent. To overcome the state of disequilibrium, the paper suggests that economically-backward ethnic groups be given more opportunity to participate in the manufacturing and

174 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

service activities, and similarly rural economic infrastructure be uplifted. Both these recommendations can be integrated into the existing development strategy at the state and the federal (NCER) levels.

Keyword:

Pengenalan

Walaupun prestasi ekonomi makro sesebuah negara adalah baik namun apabila rakyat masih resah dengan kehidupan harian yang menghimpit ekonomi mereka, itu adalah petanda bahawa ekonomi negara tersebut sedang menghadapi masalah pengagihan kekayaan negara dan kemiskinan. Pandangan yang lain berpendapat bahawa apalah gunanya kekayaan negara yang tinggi jika tidak diagihkan secara adil. Walaupun pendapatan bukanlah pengukur mutlak kebahagiaan, namun ia perkara pokok dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi sesebuah negara. Ketidakseimbangan agihan pendapatan boleh menimbulkan masalah-masalah ketidakstabilan ekonomi1.

Walaupun pendapat yang berpengaruh mengatakan bahawa menggunakan data pendapatan bukan merupakan cara yang sempurna untuk mengukur kemiskinan lantas (Sen, 1987;1999) mencadangkan tumpuan harus diberikan kepada keupayaan asas seseorang individu, konsep yang penting ini sukar untuk digunakan dalam kerja-kerja praktik (Brandolini, 2001). Sibley (2007) mengulangi pendapat Sen dengan mengatakan kemiskinan tidak hanya dikaitkan dengan kekurangan wang. Haveman dan Bershadker (2001) mengemukakan penyelesaian dengan satu kaedah yang dapat mengukur prestasi ekonomi yang boleh mencegah kemiskinan melalui keupayaan kendiri.

Dengan konsep kemiskinan yang pelbagai dimensi, Wade (2001); Li dan Schwaub (2004) mengaitkan kemiskinan dengan ketidakseimbangan pendapatan, ketidakselamatan yang meningkat serta kekejaman global. Manakala, Abbott dan Pollard (2004) mendefi nisikan kemiskinan sebagai ketidakcukupan untuk mengekalkan pembangunan manusia yang disebabkan oleh kesukaran mendapatkan perkhidmatan asas seperti pendidikan dan kesihatan, mengambil peluang sosioekonomi dalam masyarakat serta mendapatkan sumber yang cukup untuk memenuhi keperluan asas isi rumah.

Adams Jr dan Page (2003) mencadangkan agar migrasi dan peluang pekerjaan sektor awam sebagai satu daripada langkah-langkah

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 175

yang boleh digunakan untuk mengurangkan masalah kemiskinan. Pendapat yang sangat berpengaruh ialah pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pantas boleh mengurangkan kemiskinan (Jackson, 1984; Simons, 1996), tetapi belum tentu untuk mengurang jurang agihan pendapatan kerana Papanek dan Kyn (1985) mendapati bahawa tiada hubungan yang sistematik di antara agihan pendapatan dan kadar pertumbuhan ekonomi negara. Ravallion (1997), Alesina dan Rodrik (1994) dan Persson dan Tabellini (1994) pula mempunyai pandangan yang bertentangan, yakni ketidakseimbangan pendapatan akan berkurang apabila kemiskinan dapat dikurangkan dalam tempoh pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pesat.

Pengangguran boleh berlaku dalam suasana ketidakseimbangan agihan pendapatan. Pengangguran dalam kalangan graduan institut pengajian tinggi di Malaysia (Lucas & Verry, 1996) amat ketara ketika negara tersebut menikmati pertumbuhan ekonomi yang mapan tetapi ketidaksetaraan agihan yang tinggi. Begitu juga, ketidaktentuan harga komoditi pertanian pula adalah penyebab kemiskinan di luar bandar. Hal ini bermakna pembangunan luar bandar boleh membantu mengurangkan masalah kemiskinan (Mahadevan, 2006); Fang, Zhang & Fan, 2002).

Kaum peribumi Melayu merupakan kaum yang paling ramai miskin yang kebanyakan mereka bekerja sebagai petani dan buruh ladang dan mendiami kawasan luar bandar. Ramai pengkaji mendapati bahawa pelaburan dalam infrastruktur di kawasan tersebut boleh memberi kesan yang positif dan maksima ke atas penduduk luar bandar lantas mengurangkan penghijrahan ke bandar serta mengurangkan kemiskinan2.

Kemiskinan dan Agihan Pendapatan di Malaysia

Rancangan Malaysia ke–9 (RMK9), 2006–2010 yang merangka Misi Nasional dijangka dapat mengembangkan ekonomi pada kadar 6 peratus. Seperti dalam rancangan-rancangan pembangunan jangka panjang yang lalu, RMK9 juga menitikberatkan isu kemiskinan dan agihan pendapatan. Banyak projek dan program telah dirancang untuk mengurangkan kemiskinan dan ketidakseimbangan agihan pendapatan ini, misalnya program khas untuk meningkatkan pembangunan sosioekonomi penduduk luar bandar agar dapat mengurangkan jurang pembangunan di antara bandar dan luar bandar.

Setelah menyedari bahawa jurang pendapatan antara bandar dan luar bandar semakin melebar, daripada 1:1.81 pada tahun 1999 kepada

176 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

1:2.11 pada tahun 2004 dan kadar kemiskinan yang semakin tinggi terutama di negeri yang kurang membangun3, RMK9 mengatur strategi bagi merapatkan jurang tersebut dengan membangunkan kawasan luar bandar. Antara strategi yang dirancang ialah mempergiatkan pembangunan pusat pertumbuhan luar bandar, meningkatkan aktiviti ekonomi, menyediakan kemudahan sosial dan menggalakkan pembangunan modal insan. Selain itu, program latihan kemahiran bagi golongan belia di luar bandar juga akan disediakan untuk meningkatkan keupayaan mereka mendapatkan pekerjaan. Tambahan pula, peratusan penduduk di bandar dijangka meningkat kepada 63.8 peratus pada tahun 2010 hasil daripada penghijrahan golongan belia dari luar bandar, perluasan kawasan bandar dan peningkatan peluang pekerjaan di bandar. Perkara ini semua memberikan cabaran baharu dalam menangani masalah jurang pendapatan ini.

Berdasarkan Pendapatan Garis Kemiskinan (PGK)4, pada tahun 2004 kaum Bumiputera adalah golongan teramai yang miskin tegar, 1.9 peratus berbanding dengan kaum Cina, 0.1 peratus, dan India, 0.3 peratus. Kemiskinan di kawasan luarbandar walaupun berkurangan kepada 11.9 peratus pada tahun 2004 dari 14.8 peratus pada tahun 1999, namun sebilangan besar rakyat miskin 70.6 peratus daripada jumlah isi rumah masih menetap di kawasan luar bandar.

Pembentukan Wilayah Ekonomi Koridor Utara (NCER) yang merangkumi negeri Perlis, Kedah, Pulau Pinang dan Perak Utara, di samping menjadi strategi kerajaan untuk mempercepatkan pembangunan ekonomi dan meninggikan tahap pendapatan penduduk di wilayah utara Semenanjung Malaysia, juga bermatlamat untuk mengurangkan kemiskinan dan ketidakseimbangan pendapatan5.

Kertas kajian ini diatur sedemikian: Bahagian II menghuraikan latar belakang sosioekonomi negeri Perak dengan diikuti oleh Bahagian III yang menghuraikan rangka kerja teoritikal dan data kajian. Bahagian IV pula membincangkan dapatan kajian disusuli dengan Bahagian V menyimpulkan perbincangan kertas kajian ini.

Latar Belakang Sosioekonomi Negeri Perak

Negeri Perak Darul Ridzuan yang meliputi kawasan seluas 21,005 km persegi iaitu 6.4 peratus daripada jumlah keluasan Malaysia adalah negeri yang kedua terbesar di Semenanjung Malaysia. Mengikut

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 177

bancian tahun 2000, unjuran tahun 2004, bilangan penduduk negeri Perak ialah 2.2 juta orang yang terdiri daripada 57 peratus kaum Melayu, 25 peratus kaum Cina dan 18 peratus kaum India. Secara purata negeri Perak mencatatkan jumlah kadar kenaikan jumlah penduduk sebanyak 1.4 peratus setahun6. 60 peratus dari penduduk Perak adalah di kawasan bandar manakala selebihnya 40 peratus adalah di kawasan luar bandar. Jadual 1 menunjukkan pecahan penduduk mengikut daerah dan keluasannya.

Jadual 1

Keluasan (km2) dan Jumlah Penduduk Mengikut Daerah, 2004

Daerah Keluasan Jumlah Penduduk

Batang Padang 2,712 159,083

Hilir Perak 1,728 198,743

Hulu Perak 6,563 86,462

Kerian 958 159,430

Kinta 1,958 735,030

Kuala Kangsar 2,541 150,244

Larut, Matang & Selama: 2,095 249,455

Manjung 1,171 199,809

Perak Tengah 1,279 85,532

Sumber: Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Negeri Perak

.Negeri Perak menduduki tempat ketujuh jika diukur dari segi pembangunan negeri-negeri di Malaysia menggunakan Indeks Komposit Pembangunan dengan nilai indeks 100.4 pada tahun 2005. Perak dianggar dapat meningkatkan kadar pertumbuhan tahunan purata Keluaran Dalam Negeri Kasar kepada 5.7 peratus di dalam RMK9 berbanding 4.1 peratus dalam rancangan sebelumnya. Kadar yang sentiasa meningkat ini didorong oleh sektor pertanian, pembuatan dan perkhidmatan. Sektor perkhidmatan merupakan sektor yang paling tinggi menyumbang kepada pendapatan negeri Perak. Pendapatan isi rumah bulanan purata di negeri Perak juga menunjukkan peningkatan iaitu RM1,743 pada tahun 1999 kepada RM2,207 pada tahun 2004. Unjuran jumlah penduduk di Perak pada tahun 2010 ialah seramai 2.44 juta orang. Negeri Perak dijangka menghadapi kadar pertumbuhan perbandaran kepada 59.3 peratus pada tahun 2010. Manakala kadar pertumbuhan tahunan purata bagi penduduk bandar pula adalah 1.6 peratus.

178 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

Kerajaan negeri Perak mempunyai rancangan pembangunannya tersendiri yang dilaksanakan melalui pecahan empat koridor.

(i) Koridor Utara, yang terdiri daripada Daerah Kerian, Larut Matang dan Selama, serta Kuala Kangsar menumpu kepada perindustrian, perumahan dan pelancongan. Antara produk yang dihasilkan dalam koridor ini ialah pembangunan tasik Bukit Merah, pembangunan bercampur Lembah Beriah, pembangunan pelancongan yang berkonsepkan ekopelancongan (hutan paya laut Kuala Sepetang dan pemeliharaan burung Kuala Gula), warisan sejarah dan komersial (taman tema, zoo) dan kawasan peranginan tanah tinggi, Bandar Diraja (institusi dan sejarah) dan industri kecil dan sederhana.

(ii) Koridor Tengah merupakan wilayah koridor yang paling luas meliputi Daerah Kinta, Perak Tengah dan Manjung. Wilayah ini memfokuskan ke arah industri komersial, perindustrian, pelancongan, institusi awam dan swasta serta industri maritim.Produk yang dihasilkan ialah pusat pentadbiran negeri, pusat kecemerlangan pendidikan, pusat pelancongan antarabangsa, Gugusan Pulau Sembilan sebagai Taman Laut, pusat perindustrian dan menjadikan Lumut sebagai bandar pelabuhan.

(iii) Koridor Timur Laut, yang merangkumi Daerah Hulu Perak dan Selama, menumpu kepada pertanian, ekopelancongan dan penyelidikan. Pelbagai produk yang dihasilkan, antaranya penyelidikan pertanian, biotek, perhutanan, perkayuan dan pembangunan institusi pendidikan, Pulau Banding, Royal Belum, Kawasan Industri Bebas Cukai, Kawasan Perindustrian Northgate di Pengkalan Hulu dan Muzium Arkeologi Lenggong.

(iv) Koridor Selatan yang meliputi Daerah Batang Padang dan Hilir Perak. Fokus utama wilayah ini ialah pendidikan, pertanian, pelancongan dan industri automotif. Produk-produk yang dihasilkan ialah Bandar Proton, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Institut Ukur dan Tanah Negara di Behrang, Politeknik Sultan Azlan Shah di Tanjung Malim, papaya cluster, industri perkapalan kecil, jelapang padi, hasil perikanan dan pelancongan.

Di samping pembangunan yang dirancang oleh kerajaan negeri, wilayah Perak Utara juga termasuk dalam projek pembangunan

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 179

terbaru kerajaan persekutuan, iaitu Wilayah Ekonomi Koridor Utara (NCER). Perak Utara yang meliputi empat daerah iaitu Hulu Perak, Kerian, Kuala Kangsar dan Larut Matang-Selama. Fokus utama rancangan ini di Perak Utara adalah untuk memodenkan pertanian terutama di daerah Kerian. Manakala industri pembuatan dan pelancongan akan difokuskan di daerah Taiping. Di daerah Selama pula akan dibangunkan sektor akuakultur di Kuala Sepetang. Sektor pelancongan akan lebih ditumpukan di Hulu Perak di mana terletaknya Hutan Belum, ia juga boleh menjadi pusat penyelidikan herba bioteknologi. Selain itu, Parit Buntar dan Taiping akan dipastikan menjadi tempat pelaburan industri elektrik dan elektronik (E&E)7.

Kedudukan pembangunannya yang agak terkebelakang walaupun saiz geografi negeri Perak yang besar berbanding dengan negeri-negeri lain mendesak negeri ini mempercepatkan pertumbuhan ekonominya. Walaupun demikian ia terpaksa berhadapan dengan isu pengagihan pendapatan yang tidak saksama dan kemiskinan akibat daripada kawasan luar-bandar dan bilangan kaum Melayu yang ramai miskin. Masalah ini tambah runcing kerana negeri ini masih bergantung kuat kepada kegiatan pertanian sebagai salah satu penyumbang pendapatan negeri. Oleh kerana produk pertanian mempunyai pasaran harga yang tidak menentu, ini telah menimbulkan masalah kepada petani-petani dan secara tidak langsung kepada pendapatan negeri. Akibatnya, petani tidak mempunyai pendapatan yang stabil dan menyebabkan berlakunya kemiskinan dalam kalangan mereka.

Ketidaksetaraan agihan pendapatan dalam negeri Perak mempunyai dimensi wilayah dan kaum. Perbezaan sosioekonomi antara kaum masih lagi wujud dan ia menjadi satu cabaran kepada kerajaan negeri untuk mengurangkan perbezaan tersebut bagi meningkatkan lagi pembangunan ekonomi negeri.

Perak merupakan sebuah negeri yang luas dan mempunyai geografi fi zikal yang pelbagai yang boleh mewakili Semenanjung Malaysia secara keseluruhannya. Kertas kajian ini mengkaji kemiskinan dan agihan pendapatan dari segi kumpulan etnik dan wilayah bandar dan luarbandar di negeri Perak Darul Ridzuan. Walaupun pemilihan negeri ini dan tahun kajian boleh menjadi persoalan, kajian ini dilakukan berdasarkan kepada data yang ada. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian ini lebih merupakan kajian penerokaan kerana kajian kemisikinan dan agihan pendapatan isi rumah bagi sesebuah negeri dalam Malaysia, yang sedia termaklum oleh penulis, belum pernah dilakukan.

180 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

Metodologi

Data pendapatan isi rumah dan ahli-ahlinya, merangkumi pendapatan yang diperoleh daripada gaji dan pendapatan-pendapatan lain dari hasil pertanian yang diusahakan, dan daripada pendapatan hasil sewaan harta seperti tanah, rumah dan terimaan dalam bentuk bayaran pindahan seperti biasiswa, bantuan-bantuan lain ataupun pencen. Data pendapatan ini dikelaskan mengikut penerima-penerima pendapatan dan isi rumah. Sesebuah isi rumah, yang mempunyai pelbagai bilangan ahli, boleh mempunyai lebih dari seorang penerima pendapatan, dan pendapatan mereka dianalisis mengikut jumlah pendapatan isi rumah dan purata pendapatan ahli.

Kajian ini menggunakan sampel data Household Income Survey bagi tahun 2000 (HIS2000) yang dikutip oleh Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia bagi negeri Perak dan meliputi semua daerah termasuk kawasan bandar dan luar bandar dan semua kaum. Walaupun data kajian ini agak lama, namun berdasarkan sumber data yang terhad dan dengan mengambil kira segala kelemahan persampelan data ini, kajian ini ingin menunjukkan bahawa kajian kemiskinan dan agihan pendapatan boleh dilakukan dengan menggunakan sumber data ini.

Bagi mengkaji agihan pendapatan, kajian ini mengira pekali Gini yang dicerakinkan mengikut sumber pendapatan yang pelbagai dan indeks Atkinson. Bagi mengkaji kemiskinan pula, kajian ini mengira kadar kemiskinan secara head-count, jurang kemiskinan dan indeks FGT. Kajian ini juga mengkaji agihan pendapatan dan kemiskinan mengikut pecahan kawasan (bandar dan luar bandar) dan mengikut kaum (Melayu, Cina, India dan kaum-kaum lain). Pendapatan isi rumah adalah jumlah pendapatan yang diperoleh oleh sesebuah isi rumah yang berlainan saiz dan boleh diperoleh daripada seorang atau lebih penerima pendapatan. Manakala pendapatan purata pula adalah pendapatan yang diperoleh oleh seorang penerima pendapatan, yang boleh diperoleh dari isi rumah yang sama.

Biasanya maklumat ketidaksetaraan keseluruhan bagi pendapatan tidak memadai untuk mensasar sesuatu dasar awam dengan tepat dan dasar sebenar boleh memberi kesan yang berbeza ke atas sesuatu jenis pendapatan (misalnya, gaji dan bukan gaji) justru adalah penting kita memisahkan indeks ketidaksetaraan di antara pelbagai punca pendapatan. Tambahan lagi, mencerakin indeks ketidaksetaraan melalui punca pendapatan samalah seperti kita menyiasat struktur ketidaksetaraan, yakni memisahkan ketidaksetaraan keseluruhan kepada faktor-faktor tertentu. Usaha sedemikian juga membantu

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 181

kita menganalisis kesan sesuatu dasar pembangunan ke atas ketidaksetaraan dengan cara analisis agihan pendapatan. Cerakinan seperti ini juga menambah faham kita sama ada ketidaksetaraan keseluruhan tertumpu kepada sesuatu butiran pendapatan atau sebaliknya. Pertanyaan biasa yang diajukan ialah berapa besarkah ketidaksetaraan keseluruhan diterangkan oleh ketidaksetaraan dalam gaji, misalnya berapa besar ketidaksetaraan telah diterangkan oleh pendapatan pertanian? Pencerakinan pekali Gini kepada punca-punca pendapatan telah dicadangkan oleh Lerman dan Yitz haki (1985) dan dikira dengan menggunakan persamaan (1),

(1)

di mana m ialah pelbagai sumber pendapatan dan k ialah bilangan sumber pendapatan. Perhatikan, indeks Gini taburan pendapatan keseluruhan sama dengan jumlah (bagi semua m punca) pekali Gini yang dikira dengan menggunakan kovarian di antara punca pendapatan ke k dan fungsi taburan kumulatif jumlah pendapatan. Persamaan pencerakinan tersebut menerangkan dari mana ketidaksetaraan pendapatan itu datang.

Kajian ini juga akan melukis keluk Lorenz8, yang dapat menggambarkan tahap ketidaksetaraan pendapatan dalam kalangan isi rumah di Perak dalam tahun 2000.

Indeks Atkinson

Dengan menggunakan konsep kebajikan sosial oleh Dalton, Atkinson memperkenalkan konsep paras pendapatan equally distributed equivalent (YEDE..), yakni paras pendapatan per kapita yang sekiranya ia ditaburkan secara saksama akan memberikan paras kebajikan sosial yang sama dengan yang diperoleh oleh taburan pendapatan yang terdapat pada masa kini, yakni persamaan (2) menunjukkan,

(2)

Pendapatan “equally distributed equivalent, )( EDEY ” diperoleh dengan membahagikan pendapatan purata golongan miskin, m dengan

)1( pG . Maka, )1( p

EDE GmY

, dimana m ialah pendapatan

mG = 2/ Cov y, F(y) = 2/ Cov [yk, F(y)]

k=1

' '

0 0

)()()()(y y

EDE dyyfyUdyyfYU

182 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

purata golongan miskin, dan pG ialah pekali Gini golongan miskin. Indeks Atkinson ditakrifk an seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam persamaan (3) sebagai,

(3 )

Yakni 1 tolak nisbah paras pendapatan equally distributed equivalent kepada taburan sebenar purata. Jika I jatuh, taburan kini menjadi lebih saksama. I berada di antara 0 (kesetaraan sempurna) dan 1 (ketidaksetaraan sempurna). Dalam taburan diskret, rumus di atas boleh ditunjukkan seperti dalam persamaan (4) dan menjadi;

(4 )

Di mana , ialah ukuran degree of inequality aversion, atau sensitiviti relatif sesuatu pindahan pada sesuatu pindahan pada sesuatu paras pendapatan. Dengan yang meningkat, lebih wajaran diberikan kepada pindahan pada hujung bawah taburan dan kurang wajaran kepada pindahan pada hujung atas.

Kajian ini juga akan menganggar pendapatan equally distributed equivalent, Yede, yakni satu paras pendapatan yang dapat menghasilkan tahap kebajikan yang sama dengan tahap kebajikan yang diterima daripada jumlah pendapatan yang diperoleh dalam masa kini.

Dapatan dan Perbincangan

Dapatan kajian ini semata-mata berdasarkan kepada data sampel HIS2000 lantas segala kelemahan dalam sampel ini terpakai juga dalam dapatan ini. Kajian ini juga mengukur kadar kemiskinan berdasarkan pendapatan garis kemiskinan tahun 2000 yang ditetapkan pada paras RM510 sebulan dengan purata saiz isi rumah seramai 4.6 orang9.

Kajian ini meneliti data pendapatan isi rumah mengikut kaum (Melayu, Cina, India dan kaum lain) dan kawasan (bandar dan luar bandar). Sampel kami mendapati 7,683 orang penerima pendapatan, yang terdiri daripada 3,845 kaum Melayu, 2,518 kaum Cina, 1,112

EDEYI 1

)1/(11

)(1i

ii yfyI

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 183

kaum India dan 208 penerima pendapatan dari kaum-kaum lain. Pecahan data ini mengikut kawasan pula mendapati terdapat 4,212 penerima pendapatan yang mendiami kawasan bandar manakala bakinya 3,472 penerima pendapatan menetap di luar bandar. (Rujuk Jadual 2)

Sampel kami juga mendapati 4,769 buah isi rumah, yang terdiri daripada 2,446 buah isi rumah Melayu, 1,603 buah isi rumah Cina, 583 buah isi rumah India, dan 137 buah isi rumah kaum-kaum lain. Pecahan data ini mengikut kawasan pula mendapati terdapat 2,521 buah isi rumah yang mendiami kawasan bandar manakala bakinya 2,251 buah isi rumah menetap di luar bandar. (Rujuk Jadual 2)

Jadual 2

Penerima Pendapatan (Bilangan Orang) dan Bilangan Isi Rumah di Negeri Perak Tahun 2000

Bandar Luar Bandar Jumlah

Penerima Pendapatan

Bilangan Isi Rumah

Penerima Pendapatan

Bilangan Isi Rumah

Penerima Pendapatan

Bilangan Isi Rumah

Melayu 1,645 978 2,201 1,468 3,845 2,446

Cina 1,838 114 680 462 2,518 1,604

India 666 355 446 228 1,112 584

Kaum lain 63 45 145 92 208 137

Jumlah 4,212 2,521 3,472 2,251 7,863 4,769

Selain itu, sampel kami mendapati orang Melayu merupakan kaum yang paling ramai menetap di kawasan luar bandar (2,201 buah isi rumah) berbanding kawasan bandar (1,645 buah isi rumah). Ini berlawanan dengan kaum Cina yang lebih ramai menetap di kawasan bandar (1,838 buah isi rumah) berbanding dengan kawasan luar bandar (680 buah isi rumah). Manakala, bagi kaum India 446 buah isi rumah menetap di luar bandar manakala 666 buah isi rumah menetap di kawasan bandar. (Rujuk Jadual 3).

Sampel kajian kami mendapati purata pendapatan tahunan bagi sebuah isi rumah di negeri Perak ialah RM20,890.24 (Rujuk Jadual 3). Isi rumah yang menerima pendapatan di antara RM10,000 hingga RM20,000 adalah golongan yang paling ramai (1,896 buah isi rumah). Sampel ini juga mendapati hanya 39 buah isi rumah memperoleh pendapatan tertinggi di antara RM100,000 dan ke atas). (Rujuk Jadual 4)

184 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

Jadual 3

Purata Pendapatan Tahunan Isi Rumah (RM) di Perak Tahun 2000

Bandar Luar Bandar Jumlah

Melayu 23,990.24 14,849.14 18,502.59

Cina 27,436.71 19,871.38 25,257.67

India 22,720.31 17,672.77 20,749.69

Kaum-kaum lain 19,167.44 9,304.92 12,544.44

Jumlah 25,286.05 15,939.32 20,890.24

Jadual 4

Bilangan Isi Rumah mengikut Selang Pendapatan di Perak pada Tahun 2000

Cina India Melayu Kaum Lain Jumlah

0-10k 264 107 695 73 1,139

10k+ 602 271 971 52 1,896

20k+ 285 104 424 4 817

30k+ 198 51 166 5 420

40k+ 114 23 95 1 233

50k+ 60 21 41 0 122

60k+ 22 3 20 0 45

70k+ 20 2 5 1 28

80k+ 5 0 9 0 14

90k+ 10 0 6 0 16

100k++ 23 1 14 1 39

Jumlah 1,603 583 2,446 137 4,769

Kemiskinan

Berdasarkan sampel isi rumah, dengan menggunakan head count kajian ini mendapati Perak mempunyai kadar kemiskinan sebanyak 9.6 peratus dalam tahun 2000. Menyedari kelemahan kaedah ini, kajian ini mengira jurang kemiskinan yang mengukur jumlah pendapatan untuk membebaskan setiap orang miskin daripada belenggu kemiskinan dengan menambahkan pendapatan mereka ke paras PGK. Secara purata golongan miskin menerima pendapatan bulanan sebanyak RM363.4910. Negeri ini memerlukan setiap isi

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 185

rumah miskin (sampel kami berjumah 459 isi rumah) diberi purata tambahan pendapatan sebanyak RM146.51 sebulan jika kita ingin melepaskan diri mereka daripada belenggu kemiskinan, yakni purata jurang kemiskinan sebesar 28.7 peratus. Kita juga telah mengira indeks11 FGT2 yang lumrah digunakan dalam kajian antarabangsa dan indeks kita memberikan nilai 0.1147. Indeks ini mengatasi kaedah head count dengan memenuhi prinsip sensitiviti pengagihan (Rujuk Jadual 5 ).

Orang Melayu adalah kaum yang paling ramai miskin (316 buah isi rumah) berbanding dengan kaum-kaum lain (Cina 90 buah isi rumah, India 22 buah isi rumah, kaum-kaum lain 31 buah isi rumah) sama ada yang berada di kawasan bandar ataupun di kawasan luar bandar. Namun begitu, tidak seperti isi rumah Melayu yang bilangan mereka yang miskin lebih tinggi di kawasan luar bandar (275 buah isi rumah) berbanding bandar (41 buah isi rumah), bilangan isi rumah Cina yang miskin lebih ramai di kawasan bandar (56 buah isi rumah) berbanding kawasan luar bandar (34 buah isi rumah). Begitu juga dengan kaum India yang mempunyai bilangan isi rumah miskin sebanyak 12 buah isi rumah di kawasan bandar dan 10 buah isi rumah di luar bandar; manakala kaum-kaum lain pula tidak mempunyai golongan miskin di kawasan bandar tetapi hanya terdapat 31 buah isi rumah miskin di kawasan luar bandar. Secara keseluruhannya, isi rumah miskin di luar bandar (350 buah isi rumah) adalah lebih tinggi daripada yang di bandar (109 buah isi rumah) di Perak. Ringkasnya, isi rumah miskin di Perak bercirikan kaum Melayu (68.84 peratus) dan luar bandar (76.25 peratus). (Rujuk Jadual 6).

Agihan Pendapatan Isi Rumah

Dengan memperoleh pekali Gini bagi pendapatan isi rumah 0.3937 bagi negeri Perak dalam tahun 2000, ia menggambarkan ketidaksetaraan agihan pendapatan yang lebih baik dibandingkan dengan pekali Gini nasional. Sebahagian besar (71.1 peratus) daripada ketidaksetaraan tersebut adalah berpunca daripada pendapatan pekerjaan bergaji (0.28) sedangkan selebihnya dari sumbangan (28.8 peratus dengan nilai indeks 0.11) pendapatan-pendapatan lain12. Ini menunjukkan ketidaksetaraan pendapataan keseluruhan sebahagian besarnya disumbangkan dari ketidaksetaraan pendapatan bergaji, yakni jurang pendapatan bergaji adalah lebar. Implikasi daripada dapatan ini ialah jika matlamat memperbaiki ketidaksetaraan pendapatan keseluruhan ingin dicapai, jika usaha merapatkan jurang pendapatan bergaji berjaya dilakukan ia akan membantu secara yang amat berkesan dalam merapatkan jurang pendapatan keseluruhan.

186 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

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IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 187

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188 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

Dengan pendapatan (tahunan) purata golongan miskin sebanyak RM4,361.85, kita peroleh pendapatan equally distributed equivalent sebanyak RM5,141.99, menunjukkan bahawa seseorang individu di negeri Perak hanya memerlukan jumlah pendapatan yang sebanyak itu untuk mendapatkan tahap kebajikan yang sama dengan yang mereka peroleh dengan pendapatan (tahunan) purata masa kini (RM20,890.24). Ini menggambarkan pendapatan purata yang tinggi dan ketidaksetaraan pendapatan yang berlaku masa kini telah menjejaskan tahap kebajikan rakyat Perak.

Oleh itu Indeks Atkinson 0.753856 menunjukkan bahawa tahap dan agihan pendapatan masa kini dalam negeri Perak telah menjejaskan kebajikan penduduk sebanyak 25 peratus. Atau dengan kata lain, pendapatan boleh dikurangkan sebanyak 25 peratus daripada yang diperoleh pada masa kini dan pada masa yang sama tahap kebajikan masih boleh dikekalkan dengan agihan pendapatan yang saksama (lihat jadual 5). Ini bermakna negeri Perak berdepan dengan isu yang bertentangan antara pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pantas dengan tahap kebajikan rakyatnya.

Keluk Lorenz mendapati bahawa 80 peratus penerima pendapatan terkecil hanya menerima 54.10 peratus sahaja daripada jumlah keseluruhan pendapatan yang diagihkan. Jika dibandingkan dengan 20 peratus penerima pendapatan tertinggi memperoleh hampir 50 peratus pendapatan secara keseluruhan. (Rujuk Rajah 1).

Rajah 1. Keluk Lorenz Perak, 2000

KELUK LORENZ

0

10

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30

40

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70

80

90

100

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pera

tusa

n pe

ndap

atan

garis kesamaan keluk lorenz

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 189

Jurang Pendapatan

Secara keseluruhannya, pendapatan di kawasan bandar adalah lebih tinggi daripada yang di luar bandar bagi setiap kaum. Purata pendapatan perseorangan bagi kaum Cina adalah yang tertinggi iaitu sebanyak RM16,072.78 dan sebaliknya kaum-kaum lain mencatatkan purata pendapatan perseorangan terendah iaitu sebanyak RM7,554.07. Nisbah jurang pendapatan bandar dan luar bandar menunjukkan jurang yang amat luas dalam kalangan kaum Melayu dan yang kecil dalam kalangan kaum India. Nisbah jurang pendapatan antara kaum pula menerangkan jurang pendapatan antara kaum. Kaum Cina memperoleh pendapatan 40 peratus lebih tinggi sedangkan kaum India lebih rendah 6 peratus daripada kaum Melayu (Rujuk Jadual 8).

Jika dilihat dari segi purata pendapatan tahunan isi rumah di negeri ini didapati kaum Cina mempunyai jumlah purata pendapatan yang lebih tinggi berbanding kaum-kaum lain (RM25,257.67). Sama seperti purata pendapatan perseorangan, purata pendapatan isi rumah juga adalah lebih besar di kawasan bandar (RM25,286.05) berbanding luar bandar (RM15,939.32). Nisbah jurang purata pendapatan antara kaum pula menunjukkan kaum Cina memperoleh lebih 37 peratus pendapatan berbanding kaum Melayu. Manakala, nisbah jurang pendapatan antara kawasan pula menunjukkan kawasan bandar memperoleh jumlah pendapatan 59 peratus lebih daripada kawasan luar bandar. Dapat dilihat juga terdapat jurang yang besar di antara lain-lain kaum di bandar dan luar bandar (106 peratus) (Rujuk Jadual 9).

Rumusan dan Cadangan Dasar

Malaysia telah menyaksikan peningkatan dalam pendapatan purata isi rumah tetapi kadar bagi antara kaum kelihatan tidak banyak berubah sedangkan bagi di antara bandar dan luar bandar menjadi semakin melebar, yang menyaksikan kadar bagi bandar semakin besar berbanding dengan bagi luar bandar. Justeru, jurang pendapatan antara kaum tidak ketara mengecil seperti yang diharapkan sedangkan bagi di antara bandar dan luar bandar semakin meluas. Jika trend sedemikian berterusan, matlamat untuk mendapatkan pendapatan yang sama rata di antara kaum dan antara bandar-luar bandar mustahil dapat dicapai dalam masa yang singkat, lantas ia menjadi cabaran yang getir kepada setiap Rancangan Malaysia yang akan datang.

190 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

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IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 191

Dasar rancangan jangka panjang ekonomi Malaysia mengarah kepada pertumbuhan yang mapan dan pengagihan kekayaan negara yang sama rata di antara kaum dan bandar dan luar bandar (kedua-dua pencapaian matlamat ini biasanya saling menolak). Membandingkan pertumbuhan dan pengagihan dalam tempuh DEB dan tempuh selepasnya, tempuh yang disebut kemudian itu menyaksikan pertumbuhan yang lebih pantas tetapi pengagihan yang lebih perlahan. Ini mencerminkan objektif tempuh pertama itu lebih menumpukan kepada pengagihan sedangkan objektif tempoh kedua pula telah mengkesampingkan pengagihan bagi memberi ruang kepada pertumbuhan.

Sebagai negeri yang luas secara gerografi nya, negeri Perak masih lagi wujud pengenalan kaum mengikut sektor ekonomi lantas masalah pengagihan seperti yang dijelaskan oleh DEB masih relevan. Walaupun kertas kajian ini tidak mengaitkan dengan data pekerjaan mengikut kaum, namun sorotan kajian dalam bidang ini menunjukkan bahawa kaum Cina mempunyai pendapatan yang lebih tinggi kerana kebanyakan mereka selain menduduki kawasan bandar juga menceburi bidang perniagaan. Dapatan kajian daripada kertas kajian ini juga menunjukkan terdapat jurang pendapatan antara etnik yang sangat nyata. Ini sangat berbeza dengan kaum-kaum lain seperti Melayu yang banyak bergiat dalam bidang pertanian dan India di estet-estet getah dan kelapa sawit. Walaupun, kerajaan cuba menjadikan bidang pertanian sebagai satu perniagaan, namun keberkesanannya untuk meningkatkan pendapatan kaum Melayu dan India masih kurang jelas. Satu kajian yang dapat menunjukkan daya penjanaan pendapatan mengikut kaum dalam kegiatan pertanian amat diperlukan, yang mana hasilnya dapat menunjukkan potensi keberkesanan strategi tersebut.

Kemiskinan dan ketidaksetaraan agihan pendapatan dalam kalangan rakyat negeri Perak adalah isu yang nyata. Pada umumnya, isi rumah miskin di Perak bercirikan kaum Melayu (68.84 peratus) dan luar bandar (78.57 peratus) serta jurang pendapatan antara kaum dan kawasan juga sangat jelas. Walaupun ketidaksetaraan agihan pendapatan di Malaysia sebahagian besarnya disumbangkan oleh ketidaksetaraan “dalam kumpulan” dan “bukan antara kumpulan”13 jurang pendapatan antara etnik begitu nyata sekali seperti yang dilaporkan dalam Rancangan Malaysia Ke-9. Dan tentu sekali jika sesuatu dasar berjaya mengurangkan jurang pendapatan antara etnik, keseluruhan ketidaksetaraan pendapatan akan dapat dikurangkan. Walau bagaimanapun, yang mana satukah sama ada mengurangkan ketidaksetaraan “antara kumpulan” atau yang “dalam kumpulan”

192 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

yang lebih berkesan, kertas kajian ini tidak dapat menentukan. Apa yang pasti mengurangkan ketidaksetaraan pendapatan “antara kumpulan” sememangnya akan mengurangkan keseluruhan ketidaksetaraan.

Kita masih memerlukan kajian yang dapat memberikan arah yang jelas bahawa adakah benar pelaburan secara besar-besaran dalam membangunkan sektor pertanian akan menyelesaikan masalah yang dibincangkan ini? Jika kita meningkatkan produktiviti sektor pertanian dan sektor luar bandar sehingga jurang pendapatan di antara bandar dan luar bandar dikurangkan, apakah implikasinya kepada jurang pendapatan antara kaum pula? Satu kajian yang dapat menunjukkan pengganda pendapatan isi rumah mengikut kaum bagi sektor pertanian akan dapat memastikan sejauh manakah pelaburan dalam sektor pertanian akan menjana pendapatan isi rumah mengikut kaum dan saiz relatif pengganda ini akan dapat menjawab persoalan ini.

Walaupun isi rumah rakyat negeri ini dapat mencapai paras pendapatan purata yang tinggi seperti yang dilaporkan oleh UPEN Perak tetapi ia telah mengakibatkan indeks ketidaksetaraan pendapataan mereka terjejas berpunca daripada agihan yang tidak setara. Satu strategi pemindahan kekayaan, selaras dengan falsafah pemindahan yang terdapat dalam DEB, perlu diwujudkan untuk mempercepatkan aliran pemindahan tersebut kerana terlalu bergantung kepada kuasa pasaran untuk memperbaiki ketidakseimbangan ini tidak akan menjayakan hasrat DEB. Justeru, kerajaan negeri perlu merumus satu perseimbangan di antara pertumbuhan ekonomi dan kebajikan rakyat negeri ini. Apa yang jelas, skop memperbaiki tahap kebajikann rakyat negeri ini masih ada tetapi pada kos melepaskan pertumbuhan ekonomi negeri. Kadar penggantian antara keduanya, tidak pula jelas dalam kajian ini kerana diluar skop kajian.

Memandangkan kajian ini mendapati pendapatan kaum Melayu dan India jauh terkebelakang berbanding dengan kaum Cina, usaha meningkatkan pendapatan relatif isi rumah kaum Melayu dan juga bagi kaum India memerlukan satu dasar yang jelas yang dapat memindahkan orang Melayu dan India kepada kegiatan ekonomi yang lebih produktif, khususnya menambahkan bilangan mereka dalam sektor-sektor pembuatan dan tertiari (bidang bukan pertanian). Begitu juga oleh kerana kajian ini mendapati kaum Melayu adalah penduduk dominan luar bandar, dan bergiat dalam sektor pertama (kegiatan pertanian, penternakan dan perikanan), merekalah juga yang didapati miskin dan berpendapatan paling

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 193

rendah. Lanjutan daripada dasar ini, begitu juga, orang Melayu dan India perlu diberi peluang yang lebih baik untuk menjawat pekerjaan yang terdapat di kawasan bandar, terutama dalam sektor pembuatan dan perkhidmatan asalkan mereka layak. Adalah dijangkakan jika penglibatan mereka dalam kegiatan ekonomi yang lebih produktif dapat ditingkatkan, masalah kemiskinan dan ketidaksamarataan agihan pendapatan mengikut kaum dan kawasan dapat diatasi serentak dengan amat berkesan.

Bagi meningkatkan pendapatan penduduk luar bandar agar jurang pendapatan bandar dan luar bandar dapat dikurangkan, kerajaan perlu mewujudkan lebih banyak projek-projek pembangunan di kawasan luar bandar. Selain itu, kerajaan juga perlu mencipta lebih banyak peluang-peluang pekerjaan di luar bandar bagi memberikan masyarakat luarbandar satu pekerjaan yang stabil dan tidak terlalu bergantung pada bidang pertanian yang mempunyai pasaran dan harga yang tidak menentu. Secara tidak langsung, ia dapat mengurangkan bilangan masyarakat luar bandar terutama golongan belia daripada berhijrah ke bandar. Projek dan program yang telah dirancang dalam pelan pembangunan negeri Perak dan NCER bukan sahaja perlu diselaraskan tetapi dilihat kembali dengan dasar pemindahan yang dinyatakan di atas.

Kertas kajian ini merumuskan bahawa masalah kemiskinan dan agihan pendapatan melibatkan pelbagai dimensi. Kerajaan negeri Perak harus menjawab pelbagai persoalan yang saling bertentangan yang berpaksikan kepada pertumbuhan ekonomi yang mapan di satu pihak dan kebajikan rakyatnya di pihak yang satu lagi: pembangunan bandar dan luar bandar, jurang antara kaum, dan jurang produktiviti pertanian dan bukan pertanian. Kertas kajian ini hanya mengukur jurang pengagihan pendapatan dan kemiskinan antara kawasan dan kaum. Ia tidak mengambil kira secara langsung aspek-aspek pelbagai dimensi ini yang berkaitan dengan isu-isu seperti faktor-faktor yang mendorong kepada berlakunya masalah agihan pendapatan dan kemiskinan tersebut.

Nota Akhir

1. Seperti kadar kematian dan kelahiran yang tinggi, tahap kesihatan dan nutrisi yang rendah dan masalah sosial yang sentiasa meningkat.

2. Rujuk Fan dan Chan (2005); Jha (2006); Culloch dan Calandrino (2003); Mehta dan Shah (2003); Renwei dan Shi (1997); Topalova (2005); Uphoff (2003).

194 IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011)

3. htt p://www.pmo.gov.my

4. Tahap kemiskinan di Malaysia ditentukan dengan merujuk kepada Pendapatan Garis Kemiskinan. Pendapatan Garis Kemiskinan (PGK), yang boleh dibahagikan kepada dua: (i) PGK makanan yang mengambil kira pemakanan seimbang yang diperoleh oleh sesebuah isi rumah. PGK makanan bagi Malaysia ialah RM415 sebulan. (ii) PGK bukan makanan yang meliputi pakaian, perumahan, pengangkutan dan perbelanjaan-perbelanjaan lain yang digunakan oleh isi rumah. PGK bukan makanan bagi kawasan luar bandar ialah RM687 dan bagi kawasan bandar ialah RM698.

5. NCER dijangka dapat menjana aktiviti ekonomi yang boleh menseimbangkan pembangunan semua sektor ekonomi. Aktiviti pertanian, perindustrian dan perkhidmatan dalam koridor ini akan dapat meningkatkan modal insan melalui pelaburan sektor swasta.

6. htt p://www.perak.gov.my

7. htt p:// www.ncer.com.my

8. Micheal P. Todaro. 1989. Economic Development in the Third World. Fourth Edition. Longman Inc.

9. PGK bagi Semenanjung Malaysia dari Rancangan Malaysia Kelapan (RMK8), Unit Perancang Ekonomi Malaysia

10. Jumlah Jurang Kemiskinan , di mana Yp ialah PGK dan Yi pendapatan isi rumah miskin yang ke i.

11. FGTα = (1/N)∑((Yp-Yi)/Yp)2. Dalam kajian ini, α=2, N=4769, Yp=6120 dan Yi ialah pendapatan isi rumah miskin yang ke i. Perhatikan, apabila α=0, indeks FGT menjadi nisbah head count, α=1menjadi jurang kemiskinan untuk mengukur intensiti kemiskinan, dan α=2 indeks tersebut boleh mencerminkan teruknya kemiskinan. Dengan perkataan lain, apabila α meningkat indeks ini memberi lebih ruang kepada pendapatan paling bawah. (rujuk Ravallion et al, 1991). Indeks ini sangat popular digunakan kerana selain daripada daya tarikannya yang memiliki ciri-ciri indeks yang diingini, ia boleh dicerakinkan kepada kumpulan-kumpulan kecil. Ini

IJMS 18 (1), 173–196 (2011) 195

bermakna, sekiranya terdapat kumpulan-kumpulan kecil isi rumah yang ”saling menyingkir”, yang digabungkan melalui wilayah, sektor, pekerjaan atau apa jua gabungan-gabungan lain, maka indeks keseluruhan kemiskinan FGT boleh disebut sebagai indeks kemiskinan jumlah penduduk berwajaran jumlah kemiskinan sesama kumpulan kecil. Maka jika Ps mewakili anggaran kemiskinan sesama kumpulan kecil s, kemsiskinan keseluruhan dapat dinyatakan sebagai,

P s = ∑si WsPs

Di mana Ws mewakili sumbangan kumpulan kecil s kepada jumlah penduduk. (rujuk Foster, Greer & Thorbecke, 1984)

12. Indeks Gini bagi pendapatan individu (mengambil kira taburan penerima pendapatan sahaja, tanpa mengira responden yang tidak memperolehi pendapatan) 0.401. Didapati, 0.2542 dari keseluruhan indeks tersebut disumbangkan oleh pendapatan pekerjaan bergaji. Manakala, hanya 0.147 sahaja yang disumbangkan oleh pendapatan-pendapatan lain.

13. Lihat Anand (1970), Ikemoto (1980) dan Shireen (1998). Kajian lanjutan untuk mencerakinkan agihan pendapatan yang disebabkan oleh ketidaksetaraan “dalam kumpulan etnik” dan yang “antara kumpulan etnik” boleh dilakukan dengan menggunakkan kaedah indeks Theil.

Rujukan

Brandolini, A (2001). Measuring well-being in the functioning space. Paper presented at the 26th general conference of the International association for research in income and wealth, Cracow, Poland.

Cheng Fang et. al. (2002). Emergence of urban poverty and inequality in China: Evidence from household survey. China Economics Review, 13, 430–443.

Fangwei Wu et. al. (2006). Unequal education, poverty and low growth – A theoretical framework for rural educatian of China. Economics of Education Review.

Foster, J., Greer, J., & Thorbecke, E. (1984). A class of decomposable poverty measures. Econometrica, 52(3), 761–765.

Frederick, N., Bernard, W. (2006). Privatization, income distribution and poverty. World Development, 34, 1557–1579.

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Galor et. al. (1993). Income distribution and macroeconomics. Review of Economic Studies, 6, 35–52.

Haveman, R., & Bershadker, A. (2001). The inability to be self-reliant as an indicator of poverty: Trends for the U.S. 1975–97. Review of Income and Wealth, 47(3), 335–360.

htt p://www.ncer.com.myhtt p://www.perak.gov.myJames E. R. (1991). Economic development, urban underemployment

and income inequality. National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieve from htt p://www.nber.org/papers/w3758

Jon, A. (2007). Alleviating poverty in remote indigenous Australia: The role of the hybrid economy. Development Bulletin, 72, 47–51.

Lerman R. I., Yitz haki, S. (1985) Income inequality eff ects by income source: A new approach and applications to USA. Review of Economics and Statistics, 67, 151–156.

Miliakere, K. (2007). Fiji approach to addressing poverty. Development Bulletin, 72, 71–73.

Orlando, S. (2004). Development and income distribution: The case of Puerto Rico. World Development, 32, 1395–1406.

Patrick, K. (2007). The white paper on Australian Aid: Approaches to poverty. Development Bulletin, 72, 44–46.

Rati, Ram. (1984). Population increase, economic growth, educational inequality and income distribution. Journal of Development Economics, 14, 419–428.

Ravallion, M. Datt , G., & Dominique van de Walle. (1991) Quantifying absolute poverty in the developing world, Review of Income and Wealth 37, 354–55.

Renuka Mahadevan. (June, 2006). Growth with equity: The Malaysian case. Asia-Pacifi c Development Journal, 31, 27–52.

Richard H., Adams Jr. John. (2003). Poverty, inequality and growth in selected middle east and North Africa Countries, 1980–2000. World Development, 31, 2027–2048.

Robert, E. L., Donald, W. V. (1996). Growth and income distribution in Malaysia. International Labour Review. 135, 554–575.

Sen, A. (1987). Commodities and capabilities. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Sen, A. (1999). Commodities and capabilities. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Stuart, R. L. (2003). Economic development: Theory and practice for a divided world. Pearson Education.

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IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011)

ATRIBUT SISTEM PENILAIAN PRESTASI DENGAN KEPUASAN KERJA DALAM

KALANGAN GURU

ARSAYTHAMBY VELOOWIRDA HASMIN ZOLKEPLI

College of Arts and SciencesUniversiti Utara Malaysia

Abstrak

Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja guru sekolah kebangsaan di negeri Perlis. Kajian ini meninjau hubungan antara pemboleh ubah atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Sejumlah 107 orang guru telah dipilih sebagai responden kajian. Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi (ASPP) terdiri daripada enam pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar iaitu keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, penyertaan guru dalam sistem penilaian, pengendalian sistem penilaian dan kredibiliti penilai dengan pemboleh ubah bersandar iaitu kepuasan kerja guru. Instrumen kajian ini mengandungi sejumlah 26 item yang diadaptasi daripada instrumen Kelly, Ang, Chong dan Hu (2008). Data yang dikumpul dianalisis dengan menggunakan SPSS versi 12.0 melalui ujian korelasi Pearson. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan hubungan positif yang signifi kan antara atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi iaitu keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, pengendalian sistem penilaian dan kredibiliti penilai dengan kepuasan kerja guru-guru kebangsaan di negeri Perlis. Namun, terdapat satu pemboleh ubah yang tidak mempunyai hubungan yang signifi kan dengan kepuasan kerja guru iaitu penyertaan guru-guru dalam sistem penilaian prestasi. Dapatan kajian ini memberikan input kepada pihak pentadbir sekolah kebangsaan tentang tingkah laku guru-guru terhadap penilaian prestasi dan bagaimana hubungan pelbagai atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja. Setiap individu mengharapkan Sistem Penilaian Prestasi yang dilaksanakan adil dan telus. Melalui kajian ini, terbukti bahawa keadilan merupakan perkara yang perlu dititikberatkan dalam pengendalian Sistem Penilaian Prestasi.

Kata kunci: Keadilan sistem; kejelasan sistem; kawalan kriteria penilaian; penyertaan guru dalam sistem penilaian; pengendalian sistem penilaian; kredibiliti penilai; kepuasan kerja; atribut sistem penilaian prestasi.

198 IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011)

Abstract

Purpose - The purpose of this study is to identify the Att ributes of the Performance Appraisal System towards Job Satisfaction among Primary School Teachers in Perlis. This study explores the relationships between the variables of the Att ributes of the Performance Appraisal System towards Job Satisfaction among Primary School Teachers in Perlis.

Design/Methodology/Approach - A total of 107 teachers were recruited as respondents for this study. Data was collected through a survey instrument adapted from an instrument by Kelly et al. (2008) and was analysed using SPSS version 12.0. Correlation Pearson tests were used to analyse the data.

Findings - The result of the test shows that signifi cant relationships exist between the variables of the att ributes of the Performance Appraisal System towards job satisfaction such as fairness of the system, clarity of the system, controllability of the appraisal criteria, discussion of the appraisal system with teachers and appraiser credibility. Only one variable, that is teacher participation in developing the appraisal system does not have a relationship with job satisfaction.

Originality/Value - The results of the study provide primary school administrators with insights into the att itudes of teachers towards performance appraisal and how various att ributes of the Performance Appraisal System are related to job satisfaction. Every individual hopes that this system when implemented should be fair and transparent enough. This study had proven that fairness should be the important point to be considered in the implementation of the Performance Appraisal System.

Keywords - Fairness of the system; clarity of the system; controllability of appraisal criteria; discussion of appraisal system with teachers; developing appraisal system; appraiser credibility; job satisfaction; Att ributes of Performance Appraisal System.

Pengenalan

Sistem penilaian prestasi dalam perkhidmatan awam ialah satu proses yang berterusan dalam penetapan objektif, penilaian perlakuan dan pencapaian kerja pegawai dalam tempoh masa tertentu untuk mempertingkatkan kualiti dan produktiviti sesebuah jabatan. Sistem penilaian prestasi pekerja ialah satu perkara yang penting dalam pengurusan sumber manusia (Arahan Perkhidmatan, 2007). Di sekolah kebangsaan, sistem penilaian prestasi bagi guru-guru gred

IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011) 199

DGA 29 dan DGA 32 dilakukan setiap tahun oleh Penolong Kanan Pentadbiran sebagai penilai pertama dan Guru Besar sebagai penilai kedua. Bagi guru-guru gred DG 41 pula dinilai oleh Guru Besar sebagai penilai pertama dan Pegawai Pendidikan di Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri menjadi penilai kedua.

Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi harus diberi perhatian oleh pihak pentadbiran sekolah bagi mencapai hasil prestasi yang cemerlang dalam kalangan guru (Kelly, Ang, Chong & Hu, 2008). Penilaian prestasi bertujuan melihat perkembangan pekerja dan organisasi mempunyai orientasi autonomi yang kuat dan lebih baik daripada tiada penilaian yang formal (Kuvaas, 2006). Schneier dan Beatt y (1979) mendefi nisikan Penilaian Prestasi sebagai satu proses mengenal pasti, mengukur dan membina prestasi manusia dalam sesebuah organisasi. Kebanyakan organisasi membuat pelaburan yang besar terhadap pembangunan dan penyelidikan sumber manusia. Oleh itu, pihak organisasi perlu menilai apa yang diperoleh hasil daripada pelaburan yang dilakukan. Salah satu cara yang digunakan untuk membuat penilaian terhadap sumber manusia melalui penilaian prestasi.

Kepuasan kerja merupakan satu tahap yang dirasai oleh seseorang pekerja apabila dapat melakukan sesuatu kerja dengan baik. Kepuasan kerja ialah tingkah laku yang memberangsangkan terhadap kerja, berasa seronok dan gembira semasa melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan (Robbins, 2003). Pekerjaan sebagai seorang guru menuntut kepuasan kerja yang tinggi supaya murid-murid dapat dibimbing dan dididik dengan efektif. Guru yang mempunyai kepuasan kerja mempunyai motivasi yang tinggi dan ini dapat meningkatkan mutu kerjanya. Motivasi dalam kalangan guru sangat penting kerana guru yang bermotivasi dapat memberi pendidikan yang berkesan kepada murid-murid seterusnya dapat menjana modal insan yang cemerlang.

Penyataan Masalah

Penilaian prestasi merupakan salah satu aktiviti pengurusan sumber manusia yang paling kritikal dan banyak menimbulkan masalah kepada organisasi. Fletcher dan William (1986) menyatakan bahawa 80% organisasi yang menggunakan Sistem Penilaian Prestasi secara formal menimbulkan ketidakpuasan hati individu yang mengendalikan penilaian, individu yang dinilai dan pihak pentadbir yang mengendalikan program penilaian. Penilaian prestasi yang berkesan adalah untuk menjadikan sesuatu organisasi lebih produktif, menguntungkan dan dapat memberi maklum balas

200 IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011)

tentang tahap prestasi seseorang pekerja (Boice & Kleiner, 1997). Namun, tidak semua guru mendapat maklum balas tentang penilaian prestasinya yang diberikan oleh penilai. Laporan Penilaian Prestasi Tahunan (LNPT) yang diterima guna dalam semua perkhidmatan adalah sama kerana mempunyai kriteria penilaian yang generik dan universal. Guru-guru mendapati kriteria borang LNPT kurang jelas dan kabur bagi menilai prestasi guru. Sasaran Kerja Tahunan (SKT) yang perlu diisi dalam lampiran A borang JPA (Prestasi) 3/2002 juga tidak bersesuaian dengan perkhidmatan pendidikan. Buku ringkasan mengajar guru merupakan perkara utama yang menjadi ukuran penilaian prestasi seseorang guru. Kriteria penilaian yang kurang jelas menyebabkan penilaian prestasi yang dibuat terhadap guru adalah tidak berkesan (Longenecker, 1997).

Omar (2007) presiden CUEPACS menyatakan perkhidmatan awam perlu mewujudkan penanda aras mutu kerja kaki tangan sektor awam sebagai pengukur kepada peningkatan prestasi dan produktiviti dalam kalangan 1.2 juta ahlinya (Berita Harian, 2007, Disember, 10). Penanda aras ini bersesuaian dengan perkhidmatan pendidikan kerana kecemerlangan murid-murid dari segi akademik dan sahsiah merupakan penanda aras yang baik bagi menunjukkan prestasi kerja guru. Gratt on (2004) mendapati penilaian prestasi yang dijalankan di sekolah tidak berkesan apabila guru-guru keliru dengan tujuan penilaian dan merasakan kerja guru-guru tersebut terancam. Penilaian prestasi juga tidak memberi sebarang kesan kepada guru-guru dan hanya dibincangkan setahun sekali atau tidak dibincangkan langsung.

For the school, there are clear indications that much needed to be done to make the appraisal eff ective, not least being to review the documentation to establish clearly what the purpose of appraisal is, then to ensure the teachers perceive it as being of value. Until then, this particular appraisal system is as good as dead – its eff ectiveness is so low.

(Gratt on, 2004: 296)

Sorotan Kajian

Model Porter dan Lawler (1968) mencadangkan bahawa usaha yang diberikan dalam sesuatu kerja bergantung kepada nilai yang diletakkan oleh seseorang terhadap jangkaan ganjaran dan kemungkinan ganjaran sebenar yang diterima. Justeru, individu perlu menunjukkan kebolehan, sifat dan peranan yang dimainkan

IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011) 201

dengan berkesan. Model Rajah 1 diadaptasi daripada Model Porter dan Lawler (1968) bagi menunjukkan hubungan antara atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Model ini menunjukkan prestasi berada di tengah-tengah antara usaha dan kepuasan. Sistem Penilaian Prestasi merupakan satu kaedah yang menilai usaha seseorang untuk diberikan ganjaran dan secara tidak langsung membawa kepada kepuasan kerja. Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi amat penting untuk dikaji bagi mengetahui hubungan dan penyumbang utama kepada kepuasan Kerja di sekolah.

Rajah 1. Hubungan antara Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan Kerja Guru.

Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi

Dalam kajian ini Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi mengandungi enam pemboleh ubah iaitu keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, penyertaan guru dalam sistem penilaian, pengendalian sistem dan kredibiliti penilai (Kelly, Ang, Chong & Hu, 2008; Behery & Paton, 2008; Creelman, 2005; Cook & Crossman, 2004; Woods, 2003; Boice & Kleiner, 1997). Sistem penilaian prestasi yang efektif mengandungi dua sistem iaitu Sistem Penilaian dan Sistem Maklum Balas. Tujuan utama sistem penilaian adalah untuk mengenal pasti jurang prestasi apabila prestasi tidak mencapai matlamat yang ditetapkan oleh organisasi. Sistem Maklum Balas bertujuan memberi maklumat tentang kualiti prestasi seseorang pekerja. Tujuan dasar penilaian prestasi secara formal adalah untuk memberi maklum balas

Kebolehan & sifatJangka ganjaran adil

Ganjarandalaman

Ganjaranluaran

Prestasi

Persepsiperanan

Usaha

Nilai ganjaran

Jangkaan usahaganjaran

Kepuasan

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dengan jelas mengenai hasil kerja seseorang pekerja (Larson, 1984). Menurut Brown (2005), pengurusan dan implementasi penilaian prestasi yang baik dapat meningkatkan kualiti pendidikan sekolah rendah. Jawahar (2006) menyatakan kepuasan terhadap maklum balas penilaian prestasi mempengaruhi kemajuan pekerjaan dan sikap organisasi.

Di Malaysia, Sistem Penilaian Prestasi yang digunakan adalah dirangka oleh Perkhidmatan Awam Persekutuan yang dikenali sebagai Sistem Saraan Malaysia (SSM). SSM ialah sistem penambahbaikan daripada Sistem Saraan Baru (SSB) yang diamalkan semenjak 1 Januari 1992. SSM berteraskan kompetensi dalam pengurusan sumber manusia bagi perkhidmatan awam. SSM juga telah membuat beberapa penambahbaikan dalam SSB seperti pengubahsuaian Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dan Anugerah Perkhidmatan Cemerlang (APC), peningkatan peluang kemajuan kerjaya, pengubahsuaian struktur gaji dan elaun serta penambahbaikan syarat-syarat perkhidmatan. SSM memperkenalkan Penilaian Tahap Kecekapan (PTK) berasaskan kompetensi untuk menggalakkan pembangunan diri melalui pembelajaran berterusan serta menggalakkan penguasaan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan kreativiti serta inovasi dalam pelaksanaan tugas. PTK ialah satu kaedah untuk menentukan pergerakan gaji tahunan dan kemajuan kerjaya anggota perkhidmatan awam (Pekeliling Perkhidmatan Awam Bilangan 4, 2002). Menurut Rusli (2004), Sistem Penilaian Prestasi yang diguna pakai oleh Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam Malaysia berasaskan Model Pemprosesan Kognitif (Cognitive Processing Model- CPM).

Penilaian prestasi bertujuan membawa sesebuah organisasi ke tahap prestasi yang lebih baik. Kajian Patt erson (1987) telah menyenaraikan tujuan utama penilaian prestasi adalah seperti memberi tindak balas kepada pekerja untuk membaiki prestasi; mengenal pasti latihan yang diperlukan oleh pekerja; menggunakan dokumen kriteria untuk peruntukan ganjaran organisasi; menentukan dasar pemberian gaji individu dari segi merit penambahan, disiplin dan tindakan; menyediakan peluang untuk mengenal pasti masalah dan perkembangan; memudahkan komunikasi antara pekerja dengan pihak pentadbir; mengesahkan teknik pilihan dan polisi sumber manusia untuk memenuhi kehendak pihak majikan dengan adil. Dengan adanya Sistem Penilaian Prestasi, keperluan pekerja dapat dikenal pasti bagi jenis latihan atau kursus yang diperlukan, kenaikan pangkat dan pemberian bonus. Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dapat membantu pihak pentadbir melaksanakan Sistem Penilaian

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Prestasi dengan lebih berkesan dan dapat meningkatkan kepuasan kerja. Secara tidak langsung, prestasi organisasi akan meningkat dan memberi hasil yang bermutu kepada organisasi sendiri.

Keadilan Sistem

Sistem Penilaian Prestasi yang adil dapat memberi kepuasan kerja kepada seseorang guru (Kelly et al., 2008). Keadilan merupakan satu situasi yang perlu ada dalam sesuatu organisasi memberi kepuasan kepada pekerja dalam organisasi. Menurut Brown (2005), guru-guru bersetuju bahawa penilaian prestasi yang dibuat secara adil dan tidak berat sebelah memberi kepuasan dan seterusnya dapat meningkatkan kualiti pendidikan sekolah rendah. Cook dan Crossman (2004) menyatakan bahawa jika seseorang individu mendapati penilaian prestasi yang dibuat adalah adil dan menepati jangkaan, pengaruh yang positif dapat meningkatkan hasil kerja guru.

Kejelasan Sistem

Kejelasan sistem penilaian merujuk kepada kefahaman guru-guru tentang sistem penilaian dan tidak keliru dengan sistem penilaian yang dibuat. Jika sistem penilaian tidak jelas, konfl ik akan berlaku dan seterusnya merendahkan kepuasan pekerja dari aspek pemantauan terhadap kerja (Koustelios, Theodorakis & Goulimaris, 2004). Menurut Türk dan Roolaht (2006), beberapa universiti di Estonia menggunakan sistem penilaian yang berlainan. Walaupun pandangan staf terhadap penilaian prestasi adalah positif, namun sistem yang digunakan masih dalam proses pembinaan dan gagal merangkumi seluruh organisasi. Dengan ini, fakulti yang berbeza di universiti menggunakan pendekatan penilaian prestasi yang berbeza. Di sini dapat dilihat bahawa Sistem Penilaian Prestasi yang tidak jelas boleh mengelirukan staf. Oleh yang demikian, kejelasan sistem penilaian amat penting bagi peningkatan kepuasan kerja seseorang. Kelly et al. (2008) menyatakan bahawa kejelasan sistem dapat meningkatkan tahap kepuasan kerja guru.

Kawalan Kriteria Penilaian

Kawalan kriteria penilaian dalam sistem penilaian prestasi sangat penting bagi memuaskan hati semua pihak dalam organisasi. Koustelios et al. (2004) menyatakan bahawa kriteria penilaian merupakan salah satu kerangka bagi sesuatu pekerjaan untuk meningkatkan kepuasan kerja. Menurut Kelly et al. (2008), kriteria penilaian yang jelas dan terkawal dapat memberi dorongan dalam

204 IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011)

pekerjaan dan tahap kepuasan kerja yang tinggi dalam kalangan guru.

Using appraisal criteria that are controllable by teachers increases the likelihood that teachers will be satisfi ed with the appraisal system, experience less stress with performance appraisals, and enjoy higher levels of job satisfaction and motivation.

(Kelly et al., 2008: 50)

Abdull Sukor (2003) dalam kajiannya telah menggunakan prestasi kerja dari segi penilaian pentadbir dalam kalangan guru bahasa Melayu. Beliau mendapati pengalaman mengajar berperanan sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana antara motivasi dan keupayaan mengajar dengan prestasi kerja mengikut penilaian pentadbir. Kajian Sukarmin (2010) menyatakan bahawa guru yang berpengalaman lebih mengetahui tentang kawalan kriteria penilaian prestasi kerja berbanding dengan guru yang baru memasuki bidang kerjaya.

Penyertaan Guru dalam Sistem Penilaian

Kelly et al. (2008) mendapati penyertaan guru dalam memajukan Sistem Penilaian Prestasi tidak menjadi peramal terhadap hasil penilaian prestasi termasuklah motivasi dan kepuasan kerja. Ini kerana di Singapura, kepemimpinan adalah dari atas ke bawah di mana guru-guru tidak mempunyai peluang untuk menyumbangkan sebarang pendapat bagi meningkatkan Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dan keadaan ini juga berlaku di Malaysia. Kajian Abdul Sukor (2003) juga menyatakan bahawa pengalaman mengajar mempunyai hubungan dengan prestasi kerja mengikut penilaian pentadbir.

Pengendalian Sistem Penilaian Guru

Dalam melakukan penilaian, penilai perlu berbincang bersama-sama orang yang dinilai bagi mendapatkan maklumat. Temu duga yang berlangsung seharusnya pada masa yang sesuai dan bukan ketika orang yang dinilai baru kembali daripada bercuti sakit atau ketika waktu sibuk. Orang yang dinilai perlu diberi notis awal mengenai temu duga supaya dapat menyediakan perkara-perkara seperti deskripsi kerja atau perancangan projek yang telah atau ingin dilakukan. Perbincangan ini juga bagi mendapatkan maklumat tentang latihan/kursus yang diperlukan oleh orang yang dinilai (Wilson & Western, 2000). Perbincangan tentang Sistem Penilaian

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Prestasi dengan guru sama seperti memberi maklum balas tentang penilaian prestasi yang diperoleh oleh orang yang dinilai dengan penilai. Maklum balas tentang penilaian prestasi yang diperoleh dapat memberikan kepuasan kerja kepada guru (Kelly et al., 2008; Jawahar, 2006).

Results indicate that satisfaction with feedback is related to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. These results are insightful because the impact of reactions to appraisal feedback extends beyond the appraisal context to infl uence valued job and organizational att itudes and behaviors.

(Jawahar, 2006: 232)

Menurut Türk dan Roolaht (2006) Sistem Penilaian Prestasi memberikan maklum balas tentang pembangunan staf, meningkatkan motivasi dan dapat membantu untuk mencapai matlamat sesebuah organisasi. Dengan ini, maklum balas penilaian prestasi perlu dibincang dengan guru-guru untuk mendapatkan maklumat balas yang positif dalam membantu sesebuah sekolah.

Kredibiliti Penilai

Kelly et al. (2008) menyatakan guru mempunyai motivasi yang tinggi dan berpuas hati dengan kerja jika mempunyai hubungan yang baik dengan penilai. Kredibiliti penilai juga mempengaruh motivasi dan kepuasan kerja terhadap penilaian prestasi yang dibuat oleh penilai kerana mempunyai kepercayaan yang tinggi terhadap penilai (Yukl, 1994). Ahmad Sarji (1992) menyatakan bahawa prestasi kerja banyak bergantung kepada kebolehan dan dorongan seseorang pekerja, sumber yang sedia ada dan pengaruh persekitaran.

Kepuasan Kerja Guru

Kepuasan kerja guru merupakan perkara yang penting dalam sesebuah sekolah. Salah satu perkara yang dapat meningkatkan kepuasan kerja guru ialah pelaksanaan penilaian prestasi yang terurus dan bersesuaian dengan kerja guru (Perillo, 2006). Wexley dan Yukl (1984), mendefi nisikan kepuasan kerja sebagai the way an employee feels about his or her job. Robbins (2003) membuat takrifan kepuasan kerja sebagai an individual general att itude toward his or her job. McShane dan Glinow (2003) mendefi nisikan kepuasan kerja

206 IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011)

sebagai a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work. Dengan ini, kepuasan kerja merupakan cara seseorang merasakan sesuatu atau bersikap positif terhadap kerjanya.

Di Malaysia, kajian tentang kepuasan kerja dilakukan oleh Lim (1995) yang mengkaji kepuasan guru dari segi tempoh perkhidmatan. Kajian beliau menunjukkan guru yang baru berkhidmat tidak puas hati dengan tahap kerja terutamanya guru yang berkhidmat kurang dari lima tahun. Nor Hartini (2004) dalam kajiannya menyatakan hubungan antara kepuasan kerja dengan komitmen kakitangan Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri Kedah. Massithah (2009) dalam kajiannya menyatakan persepsi guru dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruh kepuasan kerja guru. Beliau menyatakan faktor-faktor seperti pelajar, pentadbiran, pengajaran dan pembelajaran, rakan sekerja, persekitaran tempat kerja, beban tugas, gaji dan keluarga turut menentukan kepuasan guru. Kamarudin (1995) mendapati situasi pekerjaan, keadaan gaji, peluang kenaikan pangkat, rakan sekerja, corak penyeliaan adalah juga mempengaruh tahap kepuasan kerja guru di negeri Perak.

Teori Keperluan Maslow

Teori Maslow (1954) menyatakan bahawa kehendak manusia disusun mengikut hierarki. Ini bermakna setelah kehendak di peringkat bawah dipuaskan, individu akan terdorong untuk memenuhi kehendak yang terletak di peringkat yang lebih tinggi. Tindakan ini disebabkan sifat manusia yang tidak pernah berpuas. Dorongan di sini dikaitkan dengan motivasi manakala memenuhi keperluan ego atau penghormatan diri merujuk kepada prestasi, status dan reputasi. Dengan ini, atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi merupakan pengukur prestasi yang meningkatkan lagi motivasi dan kepuasan kerja untuk melaksanakan tugas guru.

Teori Tindakan Dua Faktor

Hertz berg (1959) dalam Teori Tindakan Dua Faktor menyatakan faktor motivasi memerlukan keperluan intrinsik dan keperluan ekstrinsik untuk memberi dorongan kepada pekerja. Kegagalan memenuhi kedua-dua faktor ini memberi kesan kepada pekerja supaya tidak dapat bekerja dengan berkesan kerana tiada dorongan. Oleh itu, Sistem Penilaian Prestasi merupakan sebahagian daripada faktor intrinsik yang akan memberi motivasi dan kepuasan kerja kepada seseorang guru (Jadual 1).

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Jadual 1

Teori Keperluan Dua Faktor

Faktor Intrinsik Faktor Ekstrinsik

Ciri pekerjaan Suasana

Pencapaian atau kejayaan Polisi dan pentadbiran

Pengiktirafan pencapaian Penyeliaan

Tugas yang mencabar Perhubungan antara individu

Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan Gaji, status dan keselamatan

Metod Kajian

Kerangka Operasional

Kerangka operasional ini diadaptasi daripada model Porter and Lawler (1968) dan juga kajian yang dibuat oleh Kelly et al. (2008) untuk mengkaji atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi terhadap kepuasan kerja guru. Kajian korelasi adalah untuk menentukan pemboleh ubah yang mempunyai perkaitan dengan guru-guru sekolah kebangsaan. Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti kaitan antara enam pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar iaitu keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, penyertaan guru dalam sistem penilaian, pengendalian sistem penilaian dan kredibiliti penilai dengan pemboleh ubah bersandar iaitu kepuasan kerja dalam kalangan guru sekolah kebangsaan di negeri Perlis. Pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar ini merupakan atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi. Kajian ini mengenal pasti sama ada atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi mempunyai hubungan dengan kepuasan kerja guru (Rajah 2).

Populasi dan Sampel Kajian

Populasi kajian terdiri daripada 1858 orang guru yang mengajar di sekolah-sekolah kebangsaan di negeri Perlis yang terdiri daripada 631 guru lelaki dan 1227 guru perempuan. Persampelan rawak mudah digunakan bagi memilih 107 orang guru.

Instrumen Kajian

Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi (ASPP) terdiri daripada enam pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar iaitu keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, penyertaan guru dalam sistem

208 IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011)

penilaian, pengendalian sistem penilaian dan kredibiliti penilai dengan pemboleh ubah bersandar iaitu kepuasan kerja guru. Instrumen kajian ini mengandungi sejumlah 26 item yang diadaptasi daripada instrumen Kelly et al. (2008). Item-item Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dan kepuasan kerja guru menggunakan skala Likert yang terdiri daripada empat pilihan jawapan iaitu skala 1 (Sangat Tidak Setuju), skala 2 (Tidak Setuju), skala 3 (Setuju) dan skala 4 (Sangat Setuju).

Rajah 2. Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja guru

Kebolehpercayaan Instrumen Kajian

Keseluruhan nilai alfa bagi item-item yang digunakan untuk mengukur Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi adalah iaitu 0.89. Pemboleh ubah pengendalian sistem penilaian dengan guru-guru hanya mempunyai satu item sahaja dan sepadan dengan kajian Kelly et al. (2008) (Jadual 2).

Penyelidik mendapat kebenaran pihak sekolah bagi memperoleh bilangan guru secara tepat. Kemudian soal selidik ditadbir di setiap sekolah yang dipilih dan guru diberi masa seminggu untuk mengembalikan borang soal selidik tersebut yang telah dilengkapi dengan jujur. Kerjasama daripada pihak sekolah terutamanya Penolong Kanan membantu mengumpulkan semua soal selidik yang telah dilengkapi oleh guru. Selepas seminggu penyelidik pergi setiap sekolah untuk mendapatkan balik soal selidik daripada Penolong

1. Keadilan sistem

Kepuasan kerja guru

3. Kawalan kriteria penilaian

4. Penyertaan guru dalam sistem penilaian

5. Pengendalian sistem penilaian guru

6. Kredibiliti penilai

2. Kejelasan sistem

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Kanan sekolah. Data dianalisis dengan menggunakan perisian Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) versi 12.0 melalui ujian korelasi Pearson bagi mengukur hubungan antara atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Objektif kajian adalah untuk mengenal pasti hubungan antara pemboleh ubah Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja dalam kalangan guru dan penyumbang utama variasi Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja.

Jadual 2

Nilai Alfa Bagi Pemboleh Ubah Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan Kepuasan Kerja Guru Kajian Sebenar

Atribut Penilaian Prestasi Bil. Item

AlphaUjian Rintis

Alpha Kajian Sebenar

Keadilan Sistem 5 0.87 0.77

Kejelasan Sistem 3 0.67 0.73

Kawalan Kriteria Penilaian 3 0.69 0.72

Penyertaan Guru dalam Sistem Penilaian 2 0.85 0.75

Pengendalian Sistem Penilaian Guru 1

Kredibiliti Penilai 7 0.88 0.72

Kepuasan Kerja 5 0.69 0.77

JUMLAH 21 0.93 0.89

Dapatan Kajian

Guru-guru yang terlibat dalam kajian ini berdasarkan jantina dan gred jawatan guru. Dari segi jantina, terdapat 47 (43.93%) guru lelaki dan 60 (56.07%) guru perempuan. Dari segi gred, terdapat 16 (14.95%) guru berada pada gred DGA 29, 80 (74.77%) guru berada pada gred DGA 32 dan 11 (10.28%) guru berada pada gred DG 41.

Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan Kepuasan Kerja Guru

Jadual 3 memaparkan korelasi antara pemboleh ubah-pemboleh ubah Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja. Terdapat lima pemboleh ubah Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi iaitu keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, pengendalian sistem penilaian dan kredibiliti penilai menunjukkan hubungan positif yang signifi kan secara statistik (p < .05) dengan kepuasan kerja

210 IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011)

guru. Hal ini menunjukkan guru yang mempunyai keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, pengendalian sistem penilaian dan kredibiliti penilai yang tinggi mempunyai kepuasan kerja yang tinggi dan sebaliknya keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, pengendalian sistem penilaian dan kredibiliti penilai yang rendah mempunyai kepuasan kerja guru yang rendah. Keadilan sistem (r = 0.99, p < .01) dan kriteria penilaian (r = 0.92, p < .01) mempunyai hubungan yang sangat tinggi. Manakala kredibiliti penilai (r = 0.85, p < .01) mempunyai hubungan yang tinggi, kejelasan sistem mempunyai hubungan yang rendah (r = 46, p < .01)) dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Walau bagaimanapun, penyertaan guru dalam sistem penilaian menunjukkkan tidak signifi kan secara statistik (r = 0.15, p > .05) dan ini menunjukkan tidak terdapat hubungan antara sistem penilaian dengan kepuasan kerja guru.

Jadual 3

Nilai-nilai Korelasi Pemboleh-Pemboleh Ubah Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan Kepuasan Kerja Guru

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Kepuasan Kerja Guru

Keadilan (1) 0.48** 0.93** 0.16 0.28** 0.85** 0.99**

Kejelasan (2) 0.41** 0.38** 0.19* 0.36** 0.46**

Kriteria (3) 0.20* 0.22* 0.85** 0.92**

Penyertaan (4) 0.18 0.11 0.15

Pengendalian (5) 0.19 0.28**

Kredibiliti (6) 0.85**

* p < .05, ** p < .01 (ujian dua ekor)

Perbincangan dan Implikasi Kajian

Keadilan Sistem dengan Kepuasan Kerja Guru

Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti hubungan keadilan sistem dengan kepuasan kerja dalam kalangan guru. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa keadilan sistem mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Dapatan kajian ini adalah selaras dengan kajian Kelly et al. (2008) dan Brown (2005) yang menyatakan keadilan sistem mempunyai hubungan dengan kepuasan kerja guru dan sistem penilaian prestasi yang adil dapat memberi kepuasan kerja kepada guru.

IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011) 211

Kejelasan Sistem dengan Kepuasan Kerja

Kejelasan sistem mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Dapatan kajian ini adalah selaras dengan kajian Kelly et al. (2008) dan Koustelios et al. (2004) yang menyatakan kejelasan sistem mempunyai hubungan dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Menurut Kelly et al. (2008), kejelasan sistem dapat meningkatkan tahap kepuasan kerja guru. Konfl ik yang wujud dalam sesebuah organisasi seperti sekolah merendahkan kepuasan pekerja terhadap kerja jika Sistem Penilaian Prestasi tidak jelas (Koustelios et al., 2004).

Kawalan Kriteria Sistem Penilaian dengan Kepuasan Kerja

Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kawalan kriteria sistem penilaian mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Dapatan kajian ini adalah selaras dengan kajian Kelly et al. (2008), Koustelios et al. (2004) dan Woods (2003) yang menyatakan kriteria penilaian yang jelas dan terkawal dapat memberi dorongan dalam pekerjaan dan tahap kepuasan kerja yang tinggi dalam kalangan guru. Menurut Koustelios et al. (2004), kriteria penilaian merupakan salah satu kerangka bagi sesuatu pekerjaan untuk meningkatkan kepuasan kerja.

Penyertaan guru-guru dalam Sistem Penilaian dengan Kepuasan Kerja

Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa kawalan kriteria sistem penilaian mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kepuasan kerja. Dapatan kajian ini adalah selaras dengan kajian Kelly et al. (2008) di Singapura di mana kepemimpinan adalah dari atas ke bawah dan guru-guru tidak mempunyai peluang untuk menyumbangkan sebarang pendapat bagi meningkatkan sistem penilaian prestasi. Perkara ini juga berlaku di Malaysia di mana sistem penilaian prestasi yang digunakan adalah selaras bagi semua kakitangan kerajaan.

Pengendalian Sistem Penilaian Guru dengan Kepuasan Kerja

Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pengendalian sistem mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Dapatan kajian ini adalah selaras dengan kajian Kelly et al. (2008), Jawahar (2006) dan Wilson dan Western (2000). Pengendalian sistem merujuk kepada perbincangan dan maklum balas antara penilai dengan orang yang dinilai. Perbincangan dilakukan bagi

212 IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011)

mendapat maklumat mengenai latihan atau kursus yang diperlukan oleh orang yang dinilai (Wilson & Western, 2000). Maklum balas tentang penilaian prestasi yang diperoleh dapat memberikan kepuasan kerja kepada guru (Kelly et al., 2008; Jawahar, 2006).

Kredibiliti Penilai dengan Kepuasan Kerja

Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kredibiliti penilai mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Dapatan kajian ini adalah selaras dengan kajian Kelly et al. (2008) yang menyatakan kredibiliti penilai juga mempengaruh motivasi dan kepuasan kerja guru dengan penilaian prestasi yang dibuat oleh penilai. Kajian Kelly et al. (2008) juga mendapati guru-guru mempunyai motivasi yang tinggi dan berpuas hati dengan kerja jika mempunyai hubungan yang baik dengan penilai.

Selain mengenal pasti hubungan antara pemboleh-pemboleh ubah atribut penilaian prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Hubungan antara satu pemboleh ubah dengan pemboleh ubah yang lain bagi Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi juga dapat dilihat dalam kajian ini. Pemboleh ubah keadilan sistem mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kejelasan sistem, kawalan kriteria penilaian, pengendalian sistem dan kredibiliti penilai. Kejelasan sistem pula mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kawalan kriteria penilaian, penyertaan guru-guru dalam sistem penilaian, pengendalian sistem dan kredibiliti penilai. Kawalan kriteria sistem mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan penyertaan guru-guru dalam sistem penilaian, pengendalian sistem dan kredibiliti penilai. Manakala penyertaan guru-guru dalam sistem penilaian tidak mempunyai hubungan yang signifi kan dengan pengendalian sistem dan kredibiliti penilai. Pengendalian sistem juga tidak mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifi kan dengan kredibiliti penilai.

Implikasi Kajian

Kajian ini adalah penting kepada pihak pentadbir sekolah untuk melakukan penilaian prestasi dengan adil, jelas dan dapat memastikan guru-guru memahami sistem penilaian prestasi yang dikendalikan di sekolah disamping mendapatkan maklum balas guru. Kredibiliti penilai sekolah dapat membantu meningkat kepuasan kerja dalam kalangan guru.

Model yang diperoleh daripada kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa keadilan sangat penting dalam Atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi bagi meningkatkan kepuasan kerja guru-guru. Perkara ini seharusnya

IJMS 18 (1), 197–216 (2011) 213

dititikberatkan oleh penilai dengan menjaga kredibiliti supaya tidak timbul bias antara pekerja. Jika atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi ini difahami oleh pihak penilai dan orang yang dinilai, kepuasan kerja dapat ditingkatkan dalam organisasi dan ini akan membawa prestasi organisasi ke tahap yang lebih tinggi. Kajian lanjut perlu dijalankan bagi meningkatkan kefahaman tentang hubungan atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja guru-guru sekolah kebangsaan. Kajian seperti ini juga dapat dilakukan di sekolah menengah dan di institut pengajian tinggi. Kajian kualitatif juga dapat dijalankan bagi mendapatkan reaksi guru-guru terhadap hubungan atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi dengan kepuasan kerja guru dapat dilakukan dengan lebih terperinci lagi.

Kesimpulan

Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapatnya hubungan positif yang signifi kan antara atribut Sistem Penilaian Prestasi iaitu keadilan sistem, kejelasan sistem, kriteria penilaian, pengendalian sistem penilaian dan kredibiliti penilai dengan kepuasan kerja guru-guru sekolah kebangsaan di negeri Perlis. Manakala penyertaan guru tidak mempunyai hubungan yang signifi kan dengan kepuasan kerja guru. Ini menunjukkan penyertaan guru-guru tidak mempunyai peluang untuk menyumbangkan pendapat bagi memurnikan Sistem Penilaian Prestasi kerana sistem ini telah ditetapkan dan selaras di semua organisasi kerajaan.

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IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

IMPAK PERBELANJAAN PELANCONG ANTARABANGSA KEPADA EKONOMI

MALAYSIA

NORLIDA HANIM MOHD SALLEHREDZUAN OTHMAN

ABDUL HAMID JAAFARFakulti Ekonomi dan PerniagaanUniversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstrak

Peningkatan perbelanjaan pelancong akan membawa kesan kepada meningkatnya permintaan akhir barangan dan perkhidmatan negara yang dilawati. Keadaan ini mempengaruhi atau memberi kesan kepada peningkatan tingkat keluaran dan pendapatan, serta kutipan cukai kerajaan daripada sektor tersebut. Sesetengah keperluan pelancong merupakan barang akhir atau barangan yang menggunakan asas input yang diimport. Ini bermakna perbelanjaan mereka juga merangsang peningkatan import. Kajian ini membincangkan secara konseptual dan disusuli secara praktikal bagi menganggarkan impak sebenar yang terhasil daripada perbelanjaan pelancong. Bagi tujuan tersebut kaedah Input-Output (I-O) akan digunakan. Untuk menggunakan kaedah ini, Jadual I-O yang dikeluarkan oleh Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia yang merujuk kepada I-O 2000 telah diagregatkan mengikut kesesuaian kajian. Hasil kajian mendapati beberapa subsektor pelancongan seperti hotel dan restoran, borong dan runcit, pengangkutan serta sektor pembuatan yang bukan merupakan subsektor pelancongan adalah antara sektor utama penjana ekonomi keseluruhan. Nilai pengganda bagi keluaran, pendapatan dan kutipan cukai kerajaan yang dicatatkan berada pada kadar yang memberangsangkan (10–50 peratus). Sungguhpun perbelanjaan pelancongan secara keseluruhan menyebabkan import barang dan perkhidmatan dari luar negara meningkat, namum peningkatan import adalah sekitar 20 peratus sahaja. Hasil kerja ini dapat dijadikan panduan dalam membina polisi pelancongan serta membantu pelajar lebih memahami keterkaitan yang wujud dalam sebuah sistem ekonomi.

Kata Kunci: Pelancongan Malaysia; impak ekonomi; pengganda; analisis Input-Output.

218 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

Abstract

Purpose – The increase in tourist expenditure will lead to increment in the fi nal demand for goods and services from tourism related sub-sectors in the countries they have visited. This increment will eff ect or cause expansion in national output, income and government tax collections from related sub-sectors. Some of the goods required by tourists are fi nal goods or goods which use imported input base. Since tourists also require imported goods, their spending will defi nitely stimulate the volume of imported goods. This study discussed the conceptual framework of Input Output Analysis, and followed by estimating the real impact of international tourist spending to the Malaysian economy. Design/Methodology/Approach – This research employed the Input-Output Analysis. For the purpose of empirical estimation the Input-Output Table 2000 published by the Department of Statistic with appropriate sub-sectors aggregation was utilized.

Findings – The research fi ndings have shown that several tourism sub-sectors namely hotels and restaurants, wholesale and retail, transportation as well as the manufacturing sector which is not directly related to the tourism sub-sector are among the important contributors to the economy as a whole. Multiplier values for the output, income and tax collections are quite high (10–50 percent). Although, tourist spending also contributed to the increase in the volume of imports, its increase was relatively low around 20 percent.

Originality/Value – The research results can be used as a guidance by appropriate stakeholders especially in formulating tourism-related policies as well as assisting students to have a bett er understanding of the interrelatedness of the various economic sectors in any country.

Keywords: Malaysian tourism; economic impact; multipliers; input-output analysis.

Pengenalan

Sungguhpun industri telah agak lama berkembang di Malaysia, namun bermula pertengahan tahun 1980-an barulah pihak kerajaan bertekad untuk membangunkan industri pelancongan secara besar-besaran kesan daripada kemelesetan ekonomi dunia. Keseriusan pihak kerajaan dalam memajukan industri pelancongan ini tercermin dengan penubuhan Kementerian Kebudayaan, Kesenian dan Pelancongan pada tahun 1987 dan kemudiannya kementerian ini dipecahkan kepada Kementerian Pelancongan dan Kementerian

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 219

Kebudayaan, Kesenian dan Warisan pada 2004 bagi membolehkan kerajaan mengendali, menyelaras, mengawal dan memantau kegiatan pelancongan ini secara terfokus.

Bagi menggalakkan pembangunan, pihak kerajaan juga telah memperuntukkan dana yang agak besar kepada industri ini. Misalnya dalam Rancangan Malaysia ke-6 (RMK6) sejumlah RM494.4 juta diperuntukkan kepada industri pelancongan. Dalam RMK7 peruntukan ini meningkat kepada RM605.5 juta, meningkat kepada RM1,009 juta dan RM1,847.9 juta pada RMK8 dan RMK9 (Pelbagai Rancangan Malaysia).

Disamping peruntukan yang besar, pihak kerajaan juga turut menawarkan pelbagai galakan atau insentif kepada pengusaha pelancong bagi menggalakkan penyertaan pengusaha pelancongan persendirian yang layak. Antara skim penggalakan yang diberikan ialah Taraf Perintis, Elaun Cukai Pelaburan, insentif untuk industri kapal mewah, pengecualian cukai (cukai pendapatan dan import), potongan cukai dua kali (untuk latihan dan perbelanjaan luar negeri untuk promosi) dan pelbagai potongan cukai untuk pengusaha pelancongan yang lain (Redzuan & Norlida, 2006).

Bagi menjalankan usaha-usaha promosi di luar negara yang selalunya memerlukan kos yang tinggi, pihak Pelancongan Malaysia telah membuka pejabatnya di luar negara. Sehingga kini terdapat sebanyak 32 pejabat Pelancongan Malaysia diseluruh dunia untuk mempromosikan Malaysia sebagai destinasi pelancongan (www.tourism.gov.my).

Usaha kerajaan dan pihak pengusaha pelancongan persendirian telah membangunkan industri ini dengan begitu pantas. Hal ini ditunjukkan oleh peningkatan dalam ketibaan pelancong asing dan pendapatan yang disumbangkan seperti ditunjukkan di Jadual 1. Pada tahun 1985 kira-kira 3.1 juta pelancong berkunjung ke Malaysia dengan perolehan pendapatan sebanyak RM1.5 billion. Menjelang tahun 2007 bilangan pelancong yang melawat negara ini meningkat kepada hampir 21 juta dengan penjanaan pendapatan pelancong sejumlah hampir RM46.1 billion. Dalam bentuk pertumbuhan sepanjang 22 tahun lalu (1985–2007), bilangan ketibaan pelancong antarabangsa meningkat secara purata kira-kira 9 peratus setahun manakala pendapatan dari pelancong meningkat kira-kira 17 peratus setahun.

Bagi kebanyakan negara khususnya negara sedang membangun, industri pelancongan merupakan antara penyumbang utama kepada

220 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

perolehan mata wang asing atau eksport. Di Malaysia, industri ini berada pada kedudukan kedua industri utama sebagai penyumbang kepada eksport iaitu di belakang industri pembuatan. Sumbangan industri ini kepada jumlah pendapatan eksport dan pendapatan kasar dalam negeri ialah antara 2–7 peratus, rujuk Jadual 1.

Jadual 1

Prestasi Industri Pelancongan Malaysia 1980-2007

Tahun PekaraKetibaan

pelancong(1)

Pendapatan dari pelancong(RM juta)

(2)

Peratusan eksport daripada industri pelancongan (%)

(3)

Peratusan GDP daripada industri pelancongan (%)

(4)1975 1,165,270 389.5 - -1980 2,067,020 618.9 2.1946 2.3629 1985 3,109,106 1543.1 4.0589 2.70011990 7,445,908 4500.0 5.0798 3.78661995 7,468,749 9174.9 4.6768 4.40041996 7,138,452 10354.1 4.8151 4.40941997 6,210,921 9699.0 2.6678 2.48881998 5,550,748 8580.0 2.6204 3.03291999 7,931,149 13450.0 3.3765 4.09612000 10,221,582 17335.4 4.0598 5.05982001 12,775,073 24221.5 6.2224 7.24522002 13,292,010 25781.1 6.2679 7.14962003 10,576,915 21291.1 5.7000 5.72802004 15,703,406 29651.4 7.0000 7.00812005 16,431055 31,954.1 6.4400 6.45002006 17,546,863 36,271.7 6.7600 6.8000

Sumber: Ubah suai daripada ASEAN Statistical Year Book, 2003 at www.aseansec.org, WTO, 1990-2000, World Bank, World Development Indicator 2004,2008, dan Malaysia Economic Report, 2005.

Di sini jelas menunjukkan industri pelancongan mampu menjadi penyumbang pendapatan eksport yang penting kepada ekonomi negara. Sumbangan ini pula pastinya membawa impak yang lebih besar kepada keseluruhan ekonomi Malaysia melalui kesan limpahan (spillover eff ect). Keadaan ini berlaku kerana terdapat pelbagai sub sektor yang berkaitan antara satu dengan yang lain dalam industri pelancongan. Malah terdapat beberapa sektor di luar daripada industri pelancongan yang berkait secara tidak langsung dengan industri pelancongan ini. Keadaan ini menggambarkan pembangunan dan pertumbuhan dalam sektor pelancongan sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung membawa pertumbuhan kepada sektor-sektor

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 221

lain disebabkan oleh kewujudan rantaian antara sektor. Natijahnya, ia akan membawa kesan pembangunan dan pertumbuhan yang lebih besar kepada ekonomi negara secara keseluruhan.

Kertas kerja ini cuba menganggarkan impak yang terhasil daripada pertumbuhan industri pelancongan yang diwakili oleh peningkatan perbelanjaan pelancong. Antara objektif kajian adalah untuk menganggarkan impak perbelanjaan pelancong asing terhadap tambahan dalam: i) output, ii) pendapatan, iii) hasil cukai dan iv) import. Untuk tujuan ini analisis Input-Output (I-O) akan digunakan dengan menggunapakai Jadual I-O Malaysia tahun 2000. Perbincangan kertas kerja ini terdiri daripada beberapa bahagian iaitu: Metodologi: Kerangka Dasar Analisis Impak Ekonomi daripada Industri Pelancongan; Sorotan Kajian Lepas; Analisis Model Input-Output dan Sumber Data; Analisis Keputusan Empirikal; Implikasi Dasar dan Kesimpulan.

Metodologi: Kerangka Asas Analisis Impak Ekonomi daripada Industri Pelancongan

Umumnya, analisis kesan ekonomi menganggarkan perubahan dalam ekonomi yang disebabkan oleh kesan daripada beberapa tindakan di dalam sesuatu kawasan (Archer, 1989). Analisis kesan merupakan satu pendekatan ekonomi yang digunakan untuk mengukur perubahan dalam jumlah pendapatan, hasil kerajaan, pekerjaan dan import yang dijana dalam ekonomi akibat perubahan dalam permintaan akhir.

Bagi kes industri pelancongan sebagaimana kajian ini, permintaan akhir merujuk kepada peningkatan dalam perbelanjaan yang dilakukan oleh pelancong. Peningkatan ini menyebabkan lebih banyak barangan dan perkhidmatan yang diminta khusus dalam sektor-sektor yang berkaitan dengan pelancongan. Peningkatan dalam permintaan ini mesti diimbangi dengan penawaran output. Oleh itu, didapati bahawa peningkatan perbelanjaan ini secara langsungnya telah meningkatkan output dalam ekonomi. Dengan itu pendapatan juga akan meningkat, begitu juga dengan hasil kerajaan melalui cukai dan import sekiranya penawaran barangan dan perkhidmatan tersebut adalah berasaskan kepada sumber bahan yang diimport.

Jelas di sini, tindakan atau perubahan yang berlaku dalam sesebuah ekonomi (perbelanjaan pelancong) akhirnya membawa kesan yang banyak kepada ekonomi negara. Kesan ini bukan sahaja dinikmati

222 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

oleh sektor yang berkaitan langsung dengannya tetapi juga akan melimpah kepada sektor lain akibat daripada berlakunya kesan limpahan. Ini kerana dalam sebuah sistem ekonomi yang lengkap, setiap sektor adalah saling berkait antara satu dengan yang lain. Oleh itu, kesan keseluruhan kepada ekonomi akibat daripada perbelanjaan pelancong akan meningkatkan dengan lebih besar lagi. Dari segi terminologinya, kesan keseluruhan kepada ekonomi ini adalah terjana melalui kesan langsung dan kesan sekunder (kesan tidak langsung dan kesan penyebab/teraruh) daripada perbelanjaan pelancong.

Kesan langsung adalah perubahan dalam industri yang berhubung secara langsung dengan perbelanjaan pelancong. Contohnya: pelancong yang berbelanja $100 untuk penginapan akan meningkatkan jualan dan pendapatan dalam sektor perhotelan sejumlah ini. Ini adalah kesan langsung daripada perbelanjaan pelancong.

Kesan tidak langsung adalah kesan daripada urus niaga pusingan kedua (kali ke-2) yang dibuat oleh pihak hotel dengan industri-industri lain yang diperlukan perkhidmatannya oleh pelancong. Berasaskan contoh di atas pihak hotel seterusnya akan menggunakan wang yang diperoleh daripada pelancong ini untuk mengupah pekerja dan membayar gaji sekaligus mencipta peluang pekerjaan yang akan menambahkan pendapatan. Misalnya, hotel perlu membeli bekalan makanan daripada industri lain untuk melengkapkan perkhidmatan kepada pelanggannya. Di pihak syarikat pembekal makanan pula, mereka juga perlu membeli bahan-bahan mentah seperti sayur-sayuran, buah-buahan dan sebagainya daripada industri lain supaya dapat memenuhi permintaan daripada pihak hotel tadi. Jualan yang wujud antara industri ini (hotel dan pembekal makanan) adalah kesan tidak langsung. Kesan tidak langsung ini merupakan urus niaga seterusnya selepas kesan langsung tetapi masih lagi berkaitan dengan sektor pelancongan.

Kesan penyebab/teraruh wujud hasil daripada perbelanjaan isi rumah yang mana pendapatan yang mereka peroleh adalah kesan daripada perbelanjaan pelancongan sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung. Untuk kesan teraruh, perbelanjaan oleh mereka yang memperoleh pendapatan daripada pelancongan tidak dibuat untuk urus niaga yang berkaitan dengan pelancongan tetapi perbelanjaan mereka ini secara keseluruhan meningkatkan jualan, pendapatan dan penciptaan guna tenaga keseluruhan dalam ekonomi. Pekerja di sektor perhotelan sebagai isi rumah misalnya sudah pasti menggunakan pendapatan mereka (daripada perbelanjaan pelancongan) untuk

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 223

tujuan yang tiada kaitannya dengan pelancongan seperti perbelanjaan makanan, pendidikan, kesihatan dan sebagainya.

Di setiap peringkat perbelanjaan seterusnya akan mengurangkan jumlah wang yang boleh digunakan dalam perbelanjaan di sesuatu kawasan/negara berkenaan melalui kegiatan tabungan dan import. Melalui kegiatan tabungan dan import ini jumlah wang yang beredar dalam sistem perbelanjaan seterusnya akan berkurangan. Wang yang terkeluar daripada sistem ini melalui tabungan dan import ini dikenali sebagai kesan bocoran. Jelasnya, perbelanjaan para pelancong mempunyai kesan tambahan yang signifi kan kepada seluruh ekonomi. Perbelanjaan pelancong akan menyebabkan peningkatan dalam pendapatan dan perbelanjaan oleh kumpulan isi rumah yang luas, tetapi tidak semestinya berhubung secara langsung dengan pelancongan. Kesan keseluruhan daripada proses perbelanjaan dan perbelanjaan semula ini dikenali sebagai kesan pengganda. Kesan pengganda menggambarkan perubahan terakhir dalam output dan merupakan pengukuran kesan ekonomi daripada aktiviti pelancongan (Archer, 1982). Semakin besar nilai pengganda semakin besar kesan satu unit perbelanjaan pelancong ke atas ekonomi sesebuah negara/kawasan.

Terdapat beberapa pendekatan yang boleh digunakan untuk analisis kesan ekonomi ini. Antaranya adalah analisis Input-Output (I-O) dan Computable General Equilibrium (CGE). Sungguhpun para penyelidik kebelakangan ini kerap menggunakan kaedah CGE, namun penggunaan kaedah ini lebih bertujuan untuk melihat perubahan-perubahan yang berlaku dalam ekonomi akibat daripada kejutan-kejutan dasar yang dilakukan. Sedangkan kajian ini ingin menganggarkan impak perbelanjaan pelancong asing ke Malaysia. Maka adalah lebih sesuai menggunakan pendekatan I-O. Ini kerana kaedah ini dapat melihat kesan dan saling keterkaitan antara sektor. Analisis I-O walaupun pada asasnya mengandaikan bahawa nilai teknikal koefi sien tidak berubah (terlalu kecil) dan ini dianggap sebagai kelemahan kepada kaedah ini, namun didapati masih relevan dan memenuhi keperluan semasa dan digunakan oleh kebanyakan penyelidik sehingga kini dan dapat memenuhi objektif kajian.

Sorotan Kajian Lepas

Penggunaan kaedah I-O dalam kajian impak pelancongan kepada ekonomi mula mendapat perhatian selepas kajian yang dilakukan oleh Harmston (1969) di Missouri Amerika Syarikat. Penganggaran

224 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

yang paling utama dan mendapat perhatian kebanyakan penyelidik adalah penentu pengganda perbelanjaan pelancong (Sinclair, 1998). Seperti dinyatakan di bahagian sebelum ini, sungguhpun terdapat sedikit kelemahan, namun kaedah I-O masih relevan digunakan oleh penyelidik seperti kajian oleh Summary (1987); Fletcher (1989); Archer (1995); Archer and Fretcher (1996); Henry dan Deany (1997); Frechtling and Horvath (1999); Surendra (2000); Kweka, Morrisey dan Blake et al. (2003); Zakariah dan Bashir, (2004); Mohammmad, Elsadiq & Abul Quasem (2009), dan ramai lagi. Pendekatan yang digunakan oleh kebanyakan penyelidik adalah hampir sama sementara hal yang membezakan adalah skop kajian setiap penyelidik.

Kweka et al. (2003) umpamanya menggunakan kaedah yang sama bagi kajian ke atas ekonomi Tanzania. Kajian ini hanya memberi penekanan terhadap hotel dan restoran sebagai subsektor bagi pelancongan. Hasil kajian beliau mendapati bahawa kedua-dua sektor ini memperoleh perbelanjaan tinggi para pelancong.

Sementara Surendra (2000) pula mengkaji corak perbelanjaan pelancong dan komposisi sumber tempatan dalam penggunaan oleh pelancong dan kesannya terhadap guna tenaga di Nepal. Dengan menggunakan kaeedah I-O model tertutup, kajian ini mendapati bahawa perbelanjaan pelancong kebanyakan dibelanjakan untuk penginapan dan perjalanan termasuk tambang penerbangan. Kajian ini turut mendapati pengganda import adalah tinggi bagi industri pelancongan Nepal.

Henry dan Deany (1997), turut menggunakan kaedah I-O bagi kajian beliau di Ireland. Dengan membenarkan kesan induced dari kerajaan dan isi rumah, kajian ini mendapati kesan perbelanjaan pelancong adalah lebih besar terhadap pendapatan negara (GNP) berbanding eksport.

Archer (1995) dalam kajian di Bemuda mendapati kesan terhadap guna tenaga adalah signifi kan. Selain mencatatkan berlakunya peningkatan dalam pengganda pendapatan disebabkan oleh peningkatan dalam nilai ditambah sektor-sektor dalam ekonomi.

Summary (1987) pula mendapati melalui penggunaan keadah I-O yang standard ini, kesan keterkaitan antara sektor adalah tinggi, tetapi kesan kepada pendapatan dan guna tenaga adalah rendah kerana tingkat upah gaji masyarakat Kenya yang pada puratanya adalah rendah.

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 225

Begitu juga kajian yang dilakukan di Malaysia, umpamanya oleh Zakariah dan Bashir (2004). Kajian ini mengkaji impak terhadap ekonomi akibat daripada perubahan corak perbelanjaan dan profi l pelancong bagi tahun 2000 dan 2001. Walau bagaimanapun, dengan menggunakan Jadual I-O 1991 tentunya anggaran yang dilakukan adalah kurang tepat terutama bagi anggaran pendapatan dan gunatenaga.

Memperbaiki kajian ini Mohammad et al. (2009) juga melakukan kajian yang sama bagi kes Malaysia tetapi menggunakan kaedah I-O tertutup. Seperti kajian pelancongan di Nepal, bocoran tetap berlaku dalam industri pelancongan Malaysia namun pada kadar yang lebih rendah. Bagi penjanaan keluaran, pengganda bagi sektor utama yang berkaitan dengan pelancongan seperti makanan dan minuman, penginapan, pengangkutan dan membeli-belah serta hiburan adalah sederhana. Sementara pengganda guna tenaga dicatatkan pada nilai yang lebih rendah. Begitu juga dengan nilai-nilai pengganda yang lain seperti pengganda pekerjaan dan nilai ditambah.

Kajian yang dilakukan ini tidak banyak bezanya dengan dua kajian yang dilakukan oleh Zakariah dan Bashir (2004) dan Mohammad et al. (2009) mahupun kajian oleh Kweka et al. (2003) dan Surendra (2000). Kajian ini meneliti impak daripada peningkatan perbelanjaan pelancongan asing terhadap pelbagai sektor dalam ekonomi Malaysia secara makro. Kajian ini memberikan tumpuan kepada pelancong asing sahaja kerana data mengenai bilangan pelancong domestik dan perbelanjaan mereka agak sukar diperoleh. Yang membezakan kajian ini dengan dua kajian di Malaysia yang dibincangkan adalah dari sudut penggunaan data I-O yang diterbitkan (I-O 2000) dan pengagregatan sektoral yang terlibat.

Analisis Model Input-Output dan Sumber Data

Penggunaan kaedah I-O untuk mengukur impak industri pelancongan kepada ekonomi keseluruhan telah dilakukan oleh ramai penyelidik seperti mana dibincangkan di bahagian yang lepas. Analisis ini adalah satu kaedah penjadualan sistem ekonomi dalam bentuk matrik melalui Jadual Input Output (I-O Table). Sistem bacaannya adalah secara baris dan lajur/kolum. Baris menunjukkan penjualan hasil atau output oleh sektor i kepada sektor-sektor lain iaitu sektor j. Sementara bacaan secara lajur/kolum menunjukkan pembelian atau penggunaan input oleh sektor j daripada sektor-sektor lain iaitu i.

226 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

Cara bacaan ini jelas menunjukkan terdapatnya hubungan atau rantaian antara satu sektor dengan sektor yang lain dalam sistem sesebuah ekonomi. Hal ini bermakna terdapat rantaian antara satu subsektor dengan subsektor lain dalam pelancongan itu sendiri di samping rantaiannya dengan sektor-sektor yang lain dalam ekonomi. Rantaian seperti ini akan membawa impak kepada ekonomi keseluruhannya. Dalam kaedah I-O, analisis impak pelancongan kepada sektor lain adalah berlaku apabila berlakunya perubahan dalam perbelanjaan pelancong seperti dinyatakan dalam perbincangan di atas.

Model Input-Output

Model I-O secara ringkas adalah seperti ditunjukkan di Persamaan (1):

X - AX = F (1)

dengan X dan F adalah masing-masing vektor bagi output dan permintaan akhir. Sementara A adalah matrik koefi sien teknikal. Dengan memasukkan matrik identiti (I) ke dalam persamaan, Persamaan (1) menjadi Persamaan (2) atau (3).

(I - A) * X = F (2)

atau

X = (I - A)-1 F (3)

dengan (I-A)-1 adalah Matrik Songsang yang juga dikenali sebagai koefi sien matrik saling pergantungan antara industri (Inter-industry Interdependence Coeffi cient Matrix). Elemen dalam matrik ini menunjukkan pembelian input oleh suatu industri daripada industri lain untuk menghasilkan seunit output akibat peningkatan dalam permintaan akhir. Hasil darab antara matrik ini dengan vektor permintaan akhir (F) akan menghasilkan/menunjukkan output kepada negara (X). Oleh itu, secara tidak langsung matrik ini juga menunjukkan kesan pengganda (multiplier eff ect).

Dengan menggunakan perbelanjaan pelancong pada tahun 2006, anggaran impak industri pelancongan terhadap output sesuatu sektor dapat dilakukan dengan mendarabkan vektor permintaan pelancong dengan Matrik Songsang Leontif tersebut seperti persamaan (3).

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 227

Impak perbelanjaan pelancong terhadap pendapatan, hasil cukai dan import pula masing-masing ditunjukkan oleh Persamaan (4), (5) dan (6) di bawah.

PND = Ë

W (I - A)-1 F (4)

dengan PND adalah pendapatan dan W adalah koefi sien pepenjuru (diagonal coeffi cients) pendapatan buruh1 daripada setiap sektor.

HC = ËC (I - A)-1 F (5)

dengan HC adalah hasil dan C koefi syen pepenjuru (diagonal coeffi cients) cukai daripada setiap sektor. Cukai terbahagi kepada dua iaitu cukai bagi barangan dan perkhidmatan dalam input primer yang diimport dan dari pasaran domestik.

IMP = Ë

M (I - A)-1 F (6)

dengan IMP adalah import dan M koefi sien pepenjuru (diagonal coeffi cients) import daripada setiap sektor.

Sumber Data

Data penting yang diperlukan dalam kajian ini adalah data perbelanjaan pelancong dan Jadual I-O Malaysia. Data perbelanjaan pelancong bagi Malaysia diperoleh daripada Soal selidik Kementerian Pelancongan Malaysia pada tahun 2006 sementara Jadual I-O adalah Jadual I-O 2000 dari Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia.

Untuk mencapai tujuan kajian, perbelanjaan pelancong yang dirujuk sebagai permintaan akhir (F) dalam kajian ini diagihkan kedalam beberapa subsektor iaitu hotel dan restoran, pengangkutan, hiburan, rekreasi, dan membeli belah (diproksi sebagai perdagangan borong dan runcit). Untuk tujuan analisis impak, Jadual I-O 2000 yang merupakan jadual 94 X 94 sektor diagregatkan kepada jadual 18 X 18 sektor. Klasifi kasi pengagregatan adalah mengikut klasifi kasi oleh International Standard of Industrial Classifi cation of All Economic Activities (United Nation, 1999) yang juga digunapakai oleh Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia 2000.

Pengagregatan kepada berapa jumlah sektor pada umumnya adalah bergantung kepada objektif kajian yang ingin di capai. Dalam kajian

228 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

ini, pengagregatan kepada 18 sektor sahaja adalah mengikut sektor-sektor utama ekonomi Malaysia seperti sektor pertanian, pemburuan dan perhutanan; perikanan; perlombongan dan kauri; pembuatan; elektrik, gas dan bekalan air; pembinaan; komunikasi; kewangan; harta tanah, sewaan dan aktiviti perniagaan; pendidikan; kesihatan dan kebajikan sosial; perkhidmatan persendirian serta pertahanan dan pentadbiran awam2. Di samping memberi keutamaan menonjol sektor yang berhubung secara langsung dengan sektor pelancongan seperti borong dan runcit; hotel dan restoran; pengangkutan; hiburan serta rekreasi.

Analisis Keputusan Empirikal

Dalam tahun 2006 seperti ditunjukkan di Jadual 1, Malaysia menerima hampir 18 juta pelancong asing dengan pendapatan pelancong sejumlah RM36.3 billion. Dengan tempoh tinggal di Malaysia secara purata sekitar 6.2 malam bermakna pelancong ini telah berbelanja secara purata sebanyak RM332.7 selama berada di Malaysia, atau dalam per kapita adalah sebanyak RM2,067.1. Daripada jumlah ini sebahagian besar perbelanjaan digunakan perbelanjaan penginapan (31%), diikuti oleh membeli-belah (22%), makanan (17%), pengangkutan (15%), hiburan (6%), dan rekreasi dan lain lain (7%). Perbelanjaan pelancong terhadap item ini secara umumnya telah meningkatkan atau memberi impak bukan sahaja kepada subsektor dalam industri pelancong ini sahaja tetapi kepada semua sektor yang berkaitan dengannya secara langsung atau tidak langsung.

a. Impak terhadap Output

Jadual 2 menunjukkan impak perbelanjaan pelancong terhadap output sektor pelancongan dan sektor-sektor lain. Daripada jadual, pada tahun 2006 perbelanjaan pelancong sebanyak RM36,271.7 juta ini telah meningkatkan output sektor pelancongan sebanyak RM37,515.8 juta akibat kesan pengganda. Di samping terdapat juga kesan limpahan ke atas sektor-sektor lain sebanyak RM17,509.12 juta.

Maklumat yang ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 2 jelas menunjukkan perbelanjaan yang dilakukan oleh pelancong bukan sahaja memberi impak kepada sektor pelancongan itu sendiri malahan juga sektor sektor lain. Secara lebih terperinci keseluruhan peningkatan output kesan perbelanjaan pelancong didominasikan oleh beberapa subsektor pelancongan penting iaitu hotel dan restoran (37.71%), borong dan runcit (20.56%), pembuatan (13.10%), pengangkutan (11.04%) dan pertanian, pemburuan dan perhutanan (2.88%).

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 229

Jadual 2

Impak Industri Pelancongan terhadap Output

Sektor/Industri dalam ekonomi

Kesan terhadap output (RM Juta)

Langsung (%) Tidak langsung

(%) Keseluruhan (%)

1 Pertanian, pemburuan dan perhutanan

0 - 1,584.05 9.05 1,584.05 2.88

2 Perikanan 0 - 1,096.23 6.26 1,096.23 1.99

3 Perlombongan dan kuari 0 - 322.46 1.84 322.46 0.59

4 Pembuatan 0 - 7,210.76 41.18 7,210.76 13.10

5 Elektrik, gas dan bekalan air

0 - 1,469.69 8.39 1,469.69 2.67

6 Pembinaan 0 - 386.24 2.21 386.24 0.70

7 Borong dan runcit 9,900.65 26.39 1,410.22 8.05 11,310.88 20.56

8 Hotel dan restoran 20,029.4 53.39 719.00 4.11 20,748.44 37.71

9 Pengangkutan 5,442.89 14.51 631.87 3.61 6,074.76 11.04

10 Komunikasi 0 - 725.237 4.14 725.24 1.32

11 Kewangan 0 - 295.835 1.69 295.84 0.54

12 Harta tanah, sewaan dan aktiviti perniagaan

0 - 1,359.11 7.76 1,359.11 2.47

13 Pendidikan 0 - 8.16309 0.05 8.16 0.01

14 Kesihatan dan kebajikan sosial

0 - 7.28257 0.04 7.28 0.01

15 Hiburan 1,390.35 3.71 26.26 0.15 1,416.61 2.57

16 Rekreasi 752.5 2.01 15.00 0.09 767.50 1.39

17 Perkhidmatan persendirian 0 - 185.806 1.06 185.81 0.34

18 Pertahanan dan pentadbiran awam

0 - 55.8861 0.32 55.89 0.10

Jumlah 37,515.8 100 17,509.12 100 55,024.95 100

b. Impak terhadap Pendapatan3 Buruh

Impak perbelanjaan pelancong terhadap tambahan pendapatan buruh sektor pelancongan dan sektor-sektor lain pula diberikan di Jadual 3. Secara keseluruhannya, perbelanjaan yang dilakukan oleh pelancong pada tahun 2006 telah menjana pertambahan pendapatan sebanyak RM6,642.87 juta. Daripada jumlah ini sejumlah RM5,000.98 juta merupakan kesan tambahan pendapatan langsung daripada

230 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

sektor yang berkait rapat dengan sektor pelancongan, sementara sejumlah RM1,641.89 merupakan janaan tambahan pendapatan secara tidak langsung.

Jadual 3

Impak Industri Pelancongan terhadap Pendapatan


Kesan terhadap pendapatan (RM Juta)


(%) Jumlah (%)

1 Pertanian, pemburuan dan perhutanan

0.00 - 170.918 10.41 170.918 2.57

2 Perikanan 0.00 - 116.205 7.08 116.205 1.75

3 Perlombongan dan kuari 0.00 - 8.76733 0.53 8.76733 0.13

4 Pembuatan 0.00 - 416.782 25.38 416.782 6.27

5 Elektrik, gas dan bekalan air

0.00 - 78.641 4.79 78.641 1.18

6 Pembinaan 0.00 - 80.3543 4.89 80.3543 1.21

7 Borong dan runcit 14,33.23 28.66 204.145 12.43 1,637.37 24.65


9 Pengangkutan 819.178 16.38 95.0987 5.79 914.277 13.76

10 Komunikasi 0.00 - 81.367 4.96 81.367 1.22

11 Kewangan 0.00 - 57.6053 3.51 57.6053 0.87

12 Harta tanah, sewaan dan aktiviti perniagaan

0.00 - 167.852 10.22 167.852 2.53

13 Pendidikan 0.00 - 6.20996 0.38 6.20996 0.09

14 Kesihatan dan kebajikan sosial

0.00 - 3.10935 0.19 3.10935 0.05

15 Hiburan 110.951 2.22 2.0959 0.13 113.047 1.70

16 Rekreasi 80.2745 1.61 1.60045 0.10 81.875 1.23

17 Perkhidmatan persendirian 0.00 - 31.1017 1.89 31.1017 0.47

18 Pertahanan dan pentadbiran awam

0.00 - 28.2402 1.72 28.2402 0.43

Jumlah 5,000.98 100 1641.89 100 6,642.87 100

Pecahan mengikut sektor memperlihatkan bahawa tambahan pendapatan buruh juga adalah didominasikan oleh sektor tiga sektor utama pelancongan iaitu hotel dan restoran, borong dan runcit serta pengangkutan dengan peratusan masing-masing adalah 39.88 peratus, 24.65 peratus dan 13.76 peratus. Sementara sektor pembuatan

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 231

serta pertanian, pemburuan dan perhutanan pula merupakan sektor yang menunjukkan kesan tambahan pendapatan yang tinggi jika dibandingkan dengan sektor-sektor lain yang berada di luar daripada sektor pelancongan, rujuk Jadual 3.

c. Impak terhadap Hasil Cukai

Perbincangan sebelum ini telah menjelaskan hasil cukai terbahagi kepada hasil cukai domestik dan hasil cukai import. Keputusan empirikal bagi kedua-dua hasil cukai dipaparkan seperti di Jadual 4. Hasil cukai domestik yang diperoleh kerajaan masih daripada sektor yang terlibat dengan pelancongan iaitu hotel dan restoran (33.25%), borong dan runcit (23.42%), hiburan (8.66%), dan pengangkutan (8.24%). Sektor-sektor lain adalah terdiri daripada sektor harta tanah, sewaan dan aktiviti perniagaan (7.99%) dan sektor pembuatan (7.67%).

Sementara hasil cukai import pula, tambahan hasil cukai adalah daripada tiga sektor utama iaitu hotel dan restoran (38.42%), pembuatan (28.76%) dan pengangkutan (20.66%). Lain-lain sektor hanya menyumbang kepada peratusan yang kecil sahaja dari segi tambahan hasil cukai iaitu kurang daripada 3 peratus.

Secara keseluruhannya, sektor hotel dan restoran masih menjadi penyumbang hasil cukai bagi kerajaan dengan peratusan sebanyak 34.56 peratus. Ini diikuti oleh sektor borong dan runcit (17.92%), pembuatan (13.03%), pengangkutan (11.39%), serta hiburan (6.65%) dan harta tanah, sewaan dan aktiviti perniagaan (6.07%). Sektor-sektor lain hanya menyumbang kurang daripada 3 peratus. Perbelanjaan pelancong pada keseluruhan mencatatkan hasil cukai bagi kerajaan sejumlah RM521.57 juta.

d. Impak terhadap Import

Sebahagian daripada keperluan barangan dan perkhidmatan pelancong tidak dapat disediakan dari dalam negara. Barangan ini perlu diimport. Kegiatan pengimportan ini menyebabkan berlakunya bocoran dalam sistem ekonomi. Kesan perbelanjaan pelancong terhadap import barangan dan perkhidmatan pula ditunjukkan seperti di Jadual 5. Keseluruhannya sejumlah RM10,679.9 barangan import diperlukan untuk memenuhi keperluan pelancong. Daripada jumlah ini sejumlah RM6,290.9 adalah kesan langsung dan selebihnya RM4,389 adalah secara tidak langsung. Kalau dibandingkan dengan Jadual 2, kesan bocoran keseluruhan output industri pelancongan Malaysia adalah hampir 20 peratus.

232 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

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IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 233

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234 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

Jadual 5 menunjukkan tambahan import yang ketara berlaku dalam sektor hotel dan restoran (37.40%), pembuatan (29.58%), pengangkutan (14.35%), serta borong dan runcit (10.38%). Import bagi kegunaan sektor lain berada pada paras yang rendah iaitu dengan janaan tambahan import pada kadar antara 0.01 peratus–1.43 peratus sahaja.

Jadual 5

Impak Industri Pelancongan terhadap Import


Kesan terhadap import (RM Juta)


(%) Keseluruhan (%)

1 Pertanian, pemburuan dan perhutanan 0.00 - 128.18 2.92 128.18 1.20

2 Perikanan 0.00 - 36.57 0.83 36.57 0.34

3 Perlombongan dan kuari 0.00 - 32.78 0.75 32.78 0.31

4 Pembuatan 0.00 - 3,158.95 71.97 3,158.95 29.58

5 Elektrik, gas dan bekalan air 0.00 - 130.01 2.96 130.01 1.22

6 Pembinaan 0.00 - 89.51 2.04 89.51 0.84

7 Borong dan runcit 970.65 15.43 138.26 3.15 1,108.91 10.38


9 Pengangkutan 1,373.06 21.83 159.40 3.63 1,532.46 14.35

10 Komunikasi 0.00 - 139.78 3.18 139.78 1.31

11 Kewangan 0.00 - 22.70 0.52 22.70 0.21

12 Harta tanah, sewaan dan aktiviti perniagaan 0.00 - 152.31 3.47 152.31 1.43

13 Pendidikan 0.00 - 0.63 0.01 0.63 0.01

14 Kesihatan dan kebajikan sosial 0.00 - 2.01 0.05 2.01 0.02

15 Hiburan 55.37 0.88 1.05 0.02 56.41 0.53

16 Rekreasi 36.30 0.58 0.72 0.02 37.02 0.35

17 Perkhidmatan persendirian 0.00 - 48.25 1.10 48.25 0.45

18 Pertahanan dan pentadbiran awam 0.00 - 9.51 0.22 9.51 0.09

Jumlah 6,290.87 100.00 4,389 100.0 10,679.90 100

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 235

e. Dapatan Keseluruhan Kajian

Hasil kajian seperti di atas menjelaskan bahawa peningkatan dalam perbelanjaan pelancong telah menyebabkan berlakunya tambahan dalam output, pendapatan buruh, hasil cukai kerajaan dan import bagi barangan dan perkhidmatan dari luar negara. Sungguhpun dorongan peningkatan dalam permintaan akhir adalah dari sektor yang terlibat dengan sektor pelancongan, namun rantaian antara sektor yang wujud dalam sebuah sistem ekonomi telah menyebabkan sektor lain daripada sektor pelancongan juga telah terangsang untuk meningkatkan sama ada output, pendapatan, hasil cukai mahupun nilai importnya. Keadaan ini akhirnya membawa kepada impak ekonomi yang lebih besar dan menyeluruh. Apa yang menarik disini, sungguhpun perbelanjaan pelancongan akhirnya secara keseluruhan menyebabkan import barang dan perkhidmatan dari luar negara meningkat, namum peningkatan import adalah sekitar 20 peratus atau RM10,679.90 juta sahaja daripada perolehan keseluruhan (output) sebanyak RM55,024.95 juta. Keadaan ini menunjukkan masih terdapat lebihan positif daripada pengembangan aktiviti pelancongan. Oleh itu, untuk menjana pertumbuhan ekonomi, pembangunan industri pelancongan adalah satu pilihan yang tepat.

Kesimpulan dan Implikasi Dasar

Sebagaimana yang dibincangkan industri pelancongan merupakan industri yang mempunyai pelbagai subsektor untuk memenuhi keperluan pelancong yang beranika. Ini bermakna bila berlaku peningkatan dalam perbelanjaan pelancong yang selalunya disebabkan oleh peningkatan dalam ketibaan akan menyebabkan berlakunya peningkatan dalam keluaran, pendapatan buruh, hasil cukai dan pengimportan untuk semua sektor yang berkaitan dengan pelancongan sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung. Memandangkan ciri-ciri industri pelancongan yang mempunyai banyak kesan rantaian ini maka pihak kerajaan sewajarnya mengambil inisiatif bagi memajukan industri ini. Malah langkah kerajaan dalam usaha menjadikan pelancongan sebagai antara enjin pertumbuhan ekonomi yang penting adalah berada dilandasan yang betul. Dengan memajukan industri pelancongan banyak sektor-sektor lain yang berkaitan secara langsung atau tidak turut dapat dimajukan.

Seperkara yang harus diberikan perhatian ialah kesan bocoran daripada industri ini. Usaha-usaha boleh diambil untuk mengurangkannya kesan bocoran melalui import. Pengimportan

236 IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011)

khususnya tenaga kerja dari luar tidak sukar untuk dikurangkan. Begitu juga penggunaan peralatan import yang digunakan di hotel-hotel besar seharusnya digantikan oleh produk tempatan. Pihak kerajaan seharusnya menetapkan nisbah minimum peralatan domestik yang mesti digunakan di hotel-hotel dan tempat-tempat pelancongan melalui pemberian insentif yang menarik. Hal ini bukan sahaja dapat mengurangkan pengaliran keluar mata wang negara tetapi dapat mempromosikan barangan buatan negara dan mempamerkan nilai dan budaya yang dimiliki Malaysia yang pada umumnya adalah setanding dengan produk buatan luar negara.

Sebagai kesimpulan kajian ini menjelaskan bahawa peningkatan dalam perbelanjaan pelancong telah merangsang pertumbuhan pelbagai sektor yang berkait sama ada secara langsung mahupun tidak dengan industri pelancongan. Dari segi kesan langsung jelas menunjukkan bahawa sektor yang berkaitan dengan hotel dan restoran menerima impak paling tinggi daripada perbelanjaan pelancong dalam semua aspek yang dikaji (output, pendapatan, hasil cukai dan import). Ini kerana kebanyakan perbelanjaan pelancong (sekitar 30–50%) sememangnya dibelanjakan untuk penginapan serta perbelanjaan makan dan minum pelancong sepanjang berada di Malaysia. Jesteru itu, tidak mustahil sektor ini mencatatkan kesan langsung yang tertinggi. Memandang kepada nilai bocoran yang juga tinggi di sektor ini (sekitar 60%), jelas seperti dinyatakan di atas maka alternatif kepada pencarian produk buatan Malaysia sebagai pengganti adalah langkah yang positif.

Dapatan hasil kajian ini dijangka dapat membantu pihak berkepentingan (stakeholders) untuk merangka strategi yang lebih mantap dalam membangunkan industri pelancongan negara khusus yang melibatkan pengimportan barangan dan perkhidmatan yang diperlukan bagi kegunaan pelancong. Ini harus diberikan perhatian supaya pengaliran mata wang ke luar negara dapat dikurangkan dan seterusnya menjadikan industri pelancongan sebagai industri penjana tukaran mata wang asing dan bukan sebaliknya.

Nota Akhir

1. Upah bagi setiap tambahan output yang dihasilkan.

2. Penumpuan kepada 18 sektor utama ekonomi Malaysia bertujuan untuk mengelakkan bais dalam penganggaran kerana terlalu banyak sektor yang terlibat. Selain difi kirkan adalah

IJMS 18 (1), 217–238 (2011) 237

relaven memandangkan sektor pilihan adalah antara sektor utama dalam pengiraan pendapatan negara yang menjadi amalan Malaysia.

3. Impak kepada guna tenaga mengikut sektoral tidak dapat dilakukan kerana bilangan guna tenaga mengikut sektor tidak didapat diperoleh daripada Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia. Pendapatan yang dimaksudkan adalah pendapatan kepada buruh. Ini kerana dalam kajian ini ia dikira berasaskan kepada “compensation to the employee”.

Rujukan

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Archer, B. H. (1989). Tourism and island economies: Impact analyses. In C.P. Benefi ts & Costs. State College. PA: Venture Publishing.

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Fletcher, J. E., & Archer, B. H. (1991). The development and application of multiplier analysis. In the book: Progress in tourism, recreation and hospitality management.

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Sinclair, M. T. (1998). Tourism and economic development: A survey. Journal of Development Studies, 34(5), 1–51.

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IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

INTERAKSI DI ANTARA KEPUASAN KERJA DAN SIKAP TERHADAP WANG SEBAGAI PERAMAL KEPADA KEINGINAN UNTUK

BERHENTI KERJA SECARA SUKARELA

AZMAN ISMAILFaculty of Defence Studies Management

Universiti Pertahanan Malaysia

CINDY JOHNFakulti Sains Kognitif & Pembangunan Manusia

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

MOHD NOOR MOHD SHARIFFUUM College of BusinessUniversiti Utara Malaysia

MOHD NA’EIM BIN AJISNOOR FAIZZAH BT DOLLAH

UUM College of Law, Government and International StudiesUniversiti Utara Malaysia

Abstrak

Tujuan utama kajian ini dilaksanakan untuk mengukur kesan kepuasan kerja dan sikap terhadap wang ke atas keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Kaedah soal selidik telah digunakan untuk mengumpul 140 borang soal selidik daripada pekerja yang berkhidmat di sebuah penguasa tempatan bertaraf bandaraya di Sabah, Malaysia. Keputusan analisis regresi hierarki menunjukkan dua dapatan penting: pertama, interaksi di antara kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan sikap terhadap wang mempunyai hubungan yang signifi kan dengan keinginan pekerja untuk berhenti kerja. Kedua, interaksi diantara kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik dan sikap terhadap wang mempunyai hubungan yang signifi kan dengan keinginan pekerja untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Keputusan ujian statistik ini menunjukkan bahawa sikap positif terhadap wang di kalangan pekerja yang mempunyai kepuasan kerja intrinsik berupaya menghalang hasrat mereka untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Manakala, sikap positif terhadap wang di kalangan pekerja yang mempunyai kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik tidak berupaya menghalang hasrat

240 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

mereka untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Dapatan kajian mengesahkan bahawa sikap terhadap wang hanya bertindak sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana separa dalam model kepuasan kerja dalam organisasi kajian. Selanjutnya, perbincangan dan implikasi kajian turut dihuraikan.

Kata kunci: Kepuasan kerja; sikap terhadap wang; keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

Abstract

Purpose - The paper is primarily conducted to quantify the eff ect of job satisfaction and att itudes toward money on voluntary turnover.

Design/Methodology/Approach - A survey method was used to gather 140 usable questionnaires from employees who have worked in a city based local authority in Sabah, Malaysia.

Findings - Outcomes of hierarchical regression analysis showed two important fi ndings: fi rstly, interaction between intrinsic job satisfaction and att itudes toward money signifi cantly correlated with voluntary turnover. Secondly, interaction between extrinsic job satisfaction and att itudes toward money signifi cantly correlated with voluntary turnover. These results show that the inclusion of att itudes toward money in the analysis has motivated intrinsic job satisfi ers to decrease their intentions to leave organization, but had not motivated extrinsic job satisfi ers to decrease their intentions to leave organization.

Originality/Value - The paper confi rms that att itudes toward money act as a partial moderating variable in the job satisfaction model of the studied organization.

Keywords - Job satisfaction, Att itudes Toward Money, Voluntary Turnover.

Paper type - Research Paper.

Pengenalan

Kajian berkaitan pembangunan sumber manusia dan gelagat organisasi menegaskan bahawa kepuasan kerja adalah isu yang kritikal (Ismail, Ishak, Kuching & Omar, 2008; McShane & Von Glinow, 2005; Udechukwu, 2007; Weiss, 2002). Kepuasan kerja adalah konsep umum yang boleh diteliti daripada dua dimensi utama, iaitu kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik (Golembiewski, 1993;

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 241

Herzberg, 1968; Hulin & Smith, 1965; Wernimont, 1966). Kepuasan kerja intrinsik ditakrifk an sebagai perasaan seseorang pekerja terhadap aspek dalaman pekerjaannya seperti sifat kerja, pencapaian, penghargaan, perkembangan dan pertumbuhan individu (Herzberg, 1968; Linz, 2003; McShane & Von Glinow, 2005; Tang, Tan, Kim & Tang, 2000, 2002b). Sementara itu, kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik pula merujuk kepada perasaan seseorang pekerja terhadap aspek luaran pekerjaan tersebut seperti polisi organisasi, gaya penyeliaan, bayaran gaji atau upah, hubungan dengan rakan sekerja, suasana tempat kerja, status, jaminan dan keselamatan di tempat kerja (Herzberg, 1968; Kendall, Smith, Hulin & Locke, 1963; Locke, Smith, Kendall, Hulin & Miller, 1964; Mobley, 1977, 1982; Spector, 1997).

Para sarjana banyak berpendapat bahawa sekiranya sesuatu pekerjaan dapat diaturkan dengan baik, maka ia berupaya meningkatkan kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan ekstrinsik, dan seterusnya pula boleh mendorong meningkatkan sikap dan tingkah laku positif pekerja, seperti mengurangkan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (Applebaum, 2008; Ghiselli, La Lopa & Bani, 2001; Lacity, Lyer & Rudramuniyaiah; 2008; Park & Kim, 2009; Vidal, Valle & Aragon, 2007). Dougherty, Bluedorn & Keon (1985) dan Mobley (1977, 1982) mentakrifk an keinginan untuk berhenti secara sukarela sebagai keputusan seseorang pekerja untuk meninggalkan organisasi atas pilihan sendiri untuk mencari kepuasan di organisasi yang lain. Sungguhpun sifat perhubungan ini adalah penting, namun perbincangan tentang bagaimana kepuasan kerja boleh mempengaruhi keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela dalam organisasi yang berlainan kurang diberi penekanan dalam kajian literatur kepuasan kerja (Applebaum, 2008; Sang, Isou & Dainty, 2009; Park & Kim, 2009; van Dam, 2008; Tang et al., 2000). Analisis yang lebih mendalam oleh Judge (1990, 1993) dan Tang et al., (2000, 2002b) terhadap perhubungan antara kepuasan kerja dengan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela didapati akan berubah apabila sikap pekerja terhadap wang hadir dalam organisasi. Dalam konteks pengurusan sumber manusia, wang sering dikaitkan dengan gaji dan bonus (Milkovich & Newman, 2008), manakala sikap terhadap wang pula kerap merujuk kepada penilaian seseorang individu terhadap wang sama ada secara positif atau negatif (Furham & Okamura, 1999; Hoon & Lim, 2001; Tang, Luna-Arocas, Sutarso & Tang, 2004a). Secara umumnya, sikap terhadap wang boleh diteliti daripada tiga perspektif iaitu individu, organisasi dan psikologi. Dalam perspektif individu, Kahneman dan Tversky (1979), Tang (1993), Tang et al. (2002a, 2004a, 2004b) dan Durvasula dan Lysonski (2007) telah merujuk sikap terhadap wang kepada pertimbangan

242 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

atau penilaian peribadi seseorang pekerja terhadap fungsi wang sebagai memberi kebaikan, membawa kemusnahan, penghormatan, menentukan keupayaan untuk berbelanja, dan kebebasan. Dalam konteks organisasi, Milkovich dan Newman (2008) pula merujuk wang kepada sejumlah ganjaran dalam bentuk gaji dan bonus yang diperuntukkan oleh majikan kepada pekerja kerana melaksanakan sesuatu tugas atau perkhidmatan. Sikap terhadap wang daripada perspektif psikologi pula boleh dibahagikan kepada pandangan bersifat positif atau negatif individu terhadap wang. Campion (1991); Tang (2007); dan Tang dan Baumeister (1984) mengaitkan sikap positif terhadap wang sebagai sesuatu yang utama dalam hidup, lambang kejayaan dan kemegahan, dan lebih penting apabila wang dilihat sebagai mengatasi aspek-aspek kehidupan yang lain. Sikap negatif terhadap wang pula dikaitkan dengan sesuatu yang bukan merupakan keutamaan hidup, malah sebaliknya dilihat sebagai sumber keburukan dan malapetaka dalam kehidupan. Dalam konteks ini, menurut Furham (1996) dan Tang (1992), kepuasan kerja adalah lebih penting daripada mengejar jumlah wang yang besar dalam kehidupan.

Kebanyakan sarjana seperti Adams (1963, 1965); Lawler, (1971); dan Opsahl dan Dunnett e (1966) berpendapat bahawa kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan ekstrinsik semata-mata tidak berupaya menghalang seseorang pekerja untuk berhenti secara sukarela. Sebaliknya, sesetengah pekerja akan mengambil keputusan untuk berhenti demi mencari kepuasan di organisasi lain sekiranya mereka merasakan bahawa wang yang diperuntukkan oleh majikan adalah tidak memadai untuk memenuhi keinginan dan pengharapan mereka. Pendapat ini turut dipersetujui oleh para sarjana terkemudian seperti Fisher dan Locke (1992), Tang dan Gilbert (1995), dan Tang et al., (2000, 2002a, 2002b). Mereka mendapati seseorang pekerja yang merasa puas hati terhadap kerjanya tidak akan berhenti untuk mencari kepuasan di organisasi lain sekiranya beliau merasakan bahawa nilai wang yang diperuntukkan oleh pihak majikan mampu memenuhi matlamatnya.

Penemuan-penemuan ini membuktikan bahawa walaupun sifat perhubungan antara kepuasan kerja dan kecenderungan untuk berhenti telah banyak dikaji, namun peranan sikap terhadap wang sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana dilihat masih kurang diberi penekanan dalam model-model kepuasan kerja setakat ini (Mobley, 1977, 1982; Spector, 1997; Steers & Mowday, 1981; Tang et al., 2002, 2002b; Ismail et al., 2008). Kekurangan ini telah mendorong penyelidik untuk mengambil kira peranan sikap terhadap wang sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam perhubungan di antara kepuasan kerja dan keinginan untuk berhenti secara sukarela di

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 243

sebuah penguasa tempatan di Sabah. Untuk menjaga nama baik, nama sebenar organisasi ini dirahsiakan. Para sarjana mengatakan bahawa pengabaian sikap terhadap wang sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam model-model kepuasan kerja mungkin disebabkan kajian-kajian lepas terlalu banyak menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif bagi menghuraikan konsep-konsep kepuasan kerja, sikap terhadap wang dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja sukarela secara terpisah-pisah. Selain itu, kajian-kajian lepas juga banyak menggunakan model korelasi bivariat sebagai pendekatan utama bagi menganalisa perkaitan secara langsung antara kepuasan kerja dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Sungguhpun pendekatan korelasi ini dapat menghasilkan dapatan yang signifi kan, tetapi sikap individu yang dinamik telah diabaikan dalam mereka bentuk model-model kepuasan kerja. Akibatnya, hasil kajian lepas tidak dapat memandu ahli akademik dan pengurus untuk memahami dengan jelas konsep kepuasan kerja yang bersifat abstrak dan dinamik. Seterusnya, keadaan ini tidak banyak membantu mempermudahkan mereka mencari jalan penyelesaian yang universal bagi mengatasi masalah sikap dan gelagat pekerja di organisasi yang beroperasi dalam pasaran ekonomi global (Ismail et al., 2008; Spector, 1997; Tang, 1992, 1993, 1995).

Objektif Kajian

Kajian ini mempunyai tiga objektif. Pertama, mengukur perhubungan di antara kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan keinginan untuk berhenti secara sukarela. Kedua, mengukur perhubungan antara kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik dan keinginan untuk berhenti secara sukarela. Ketiga, mengukur peranan sikap terhadap wang sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam perhubungan antara kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Lokasi kajian ialah sebuah penguasa tempatan bertaraf bandaraya di Sabah, Malaysia. Nama sebenar organisasi ini dirahsiakan untuk menjaga nama baik organisasi kajian.

Kajian Literatur

Kaitan antara Kepuasan Kerja dan Keinginan untuk Berhenti Kerja Secara Sukarela

Kebanyakan kajian lepas telah dikendali berdasarkan model kesan langsung bagi mengkaji kepuasan kerja intrinsik dengan menggunakan sampel yang berbeza, seperti 522 pekerja di 50

244 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

agensi insuran hayat (Schneider & Snyder, 1975), 155 pekerja dari 40 agensi di Selatan Amerika Syarikat (Tang et al., 2000), 81 pengurus temuduga dengan 25 pekerja profesional teknologi maklumat berbangsa India (Lacity et al., 2008), dan 81 pengurus berbangsa Sepanyol yang dihantar pulang ke negara asal (Vidal et al., 2007), 556 kumpulan pekerja yang berpotensi untuk berhenti kerja (van Dam, 2008), 116 jururawat berdaftar sepenuh masa yang bertugas di bahagian perubatan hospital (Applebaum, 2008). Dapatan kajian ini menunjukan bahawa pekerja yang merasa puas hati terhadap ciri-ciri kerja intrinsik (seperti kandungan tugas, kesesuaian sifat kerja, peralihan kerja, penugasan kerja, dan tekanan beban tugas) mempunyai keinginan yang kurang untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Oleh itu, hipotesis yang akan diuji ialah:

H1: Terdapat hubungan yang signifi kan di antara kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

Kajian-kajian lepas berdasarkan model kesan langsung telah digunakan untuk mengkaji kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik dengan menggunakan sampel yang berbeza, seperti 373 pekerja perkhidmatan makanan di rangkaian hotel-hotel kelas pertama di Hong Kong (Mok & Finley, 1986), 400 pengurus di lapan buah syarikat perkhidmatan makanan kepunyaan Amerika Syarikat (Ghiselli et al., 2001), 527 jururawat yang bekerja di dua hospital awam Korea (Park & Kim, 2009), dan 110 orang arkitek di United Kingdom (Sang et al., 2009). Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pekerja yang merasa puas dengan ciri-ciri kerja ekstrinsik (budaya kerja, polisi dan prosedur kerja, gaya penyeliaan, persekitaran tempat kerja, hubungan dengan teman dan ganjaran kerja) mempunyai keinginan yang kurang untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Oleh itu, hipotesis yang akan diuji ialah:

H2: Terdapat hubungan yang signifi kan di antara kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

Kaitan antara Kepuasan Kerja, Sikap Terhadap Wang dan Keinginan untuk Berhenti Kerja Secara Sukarela

Beberapa kajian yang dilaksanakan baru-baru ini telah menggunakan model kesan tak langsung bagi mengkaji kepuasan kerja dan hasil kajian ini menunjukan bahawa sejauh mana besarnya kesan kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan ekstrinsik ke atas keinginan pekerja untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (Ghiselli et al., 2001; Park & Kim, 2009; Shields & Ward, 2001; Vidal et al., 2007) adalah dipengaruhi oleh sikap pekerja terhadap wang (Currall, Towler, Judge & Kohn, 2005; DeConinck

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 245

& Bachmann, 2005; Ismail et al., 2008; Randolph & Johnson, 2005; Tang et al., 2000, 2002a). Sebagai contoh, Tang et al. (2000) mengkaji kepuasan kerja intrinsik berdasarkan sampel 155 pekerja dari 40 agensi di Selatan Amerika Syarikat. Mereka mendapati bahawa faktor kepuasan kerja intrinsik mampu mengurangkan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela dalam keadaan di mana pekerja merasakan bahawa jumlah wang diperuntukkan oleh majikan adalah mencapai kehendak dan pengharapan mereka. Manakala, Ismail et al. (2008) mengkaji kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik berdasarkan sampel 93 pekerja di penguasa tempatan berstatus bandaraya di Sarawak, Malaysia. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa faktor kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik berupaya mengurangkan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela dalam situasi yang pekerja merasakan bahawa jumlah wang yang diperuntukkan oleh majikan mencapai kehendak dan pengharapan mereka.

Bukti empirik di atas adalah konsisten dengan saranan-saranan daripada teori gelagat organisasi, iaitu model sikap ABC (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977), teori ekuiti (Adams, 1963, 1965), dan model diskrepensi (Lawler, 1971). Dalam model sikap ABC oleh Ajzen dan Fishbein (1977), wang sebagai komponen afektif dilihat bukan sebagai sumber kejahatan, tetapi wang sebagai komponen kognitif dianggap sebagai simbol kejayaan. Sebagai komponen gelagat pula, wang diamati dari segi perbelanjaan yang berhemat. Individu yang mempunyai pandangan sedemikian terhadap wang kebiasaannya lebih menjunjung tinggi nilai ekonomi, rendah nilai keagamaan, berminat kepada politik dan sering merasa tidak puas hati terhadap tahap ganjaran yang diperoleh (Tang, 2007; Tang et al., 2000, 2002a, 2002b). Aplikasi teori tersebut dalam model kepuasan kerja menunjukan bahawa individu-individu yang mempunyai keinginan yang tinggi terhadap wang biasanya mempunyai kecenderungan yang tinggi untuk bertukar pekerjaaan bagi mencari kepuasan kerja di organisasi yang lain (Furham & Argye, 1998; Ismail et al., 2008; Tang & Kim, 1999).

Teori diskrepensi oleh Adams (1963, 1965) menerangkan bahawa persepsi seseorang individu terhadap pembahagian dan pertukaran sumber-sumber boleh mempengaruhi sikap dan tingkah laku mereka dalam organisasi. Sebagai contoh, apabila pekerja merasakan bahawa output berbentuk wang yang diterima adalah setimpal dengan input daripada usaha yang telah disumbangkannya, ini akan mendorong seseorang pekerja berfi kir secara positif terhadap tugas dan tanggungjawab kerjanya. Akibat daripada keadaan ini, ia boleh menghalang pekerja tersebut untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

246 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

Seterusnya, dalam model diskrepensi oleh Lawler (1971) diterangkan bahawa kepuasan atau ketidakpuasan seseorang terhadap ganjaran adalah hasil daripada perbandingan di antara jumlah ganjaran yang diterima daripada majikan dengan jumlah ganjaran yang diinginkan oleh individu berkenaan. Apabila seseorang pekerja merasakan bahawa tugas dan tanggungjawab kerjanya adalah setimpal dengan pendapatan yang diterima, maka hal ini akan meningkatkan kepuasan beliau terhadap kerjanya. Apabila perasaan sedemikian wujud, ia boleh mendorong seseorang pekerja untuk membatalkan hasratnya daripada berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

Kajian literatur di atas telah dijadikan dasar bagi membentuk kerangka konseptual bagi kajian ini seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.

Rajah 1: Sikap terhadap wang menyederhana kesan perhubungan antara ciri-ciri kepuasan kerja ke atas keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

Berdasarkan kerangka konseptual kajian di atas, hipotesis-hipotesis yang akan diuji adalah:

H3: Sikap terhadap wang menyederhana kesan kepuasan kerja intrinsik ke atas keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

H4: Sikap terhadap wang menyederhana kesan kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik ke atas keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

Metodologi

Reka bentuk kajian

Reka bentuk kajian ini menggunakan kaedah keratan rentas yang membenarkan pengkaji menggunakan kajian literatur, temu duga

Pemboleh ubah Tidak Pemboleh ubah Pemboleh ubahBersandar Penyederhana Bersandar

Ciri ciri Kepuasan Kerja:Faktor IntrinsikFaktor Ekstrinsik

Sikap Terhadap Wang

Keinginan untukBerhenti Kerja Secara

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 247

terperinci, kajian rintis dan kajian soal selidik sebagai prosedur utama dalam pengumpulan data kajian. Kaedah ini berupaya membantu pengumpulan data secara tepat, mengelakkan pilih kasih, relevan dengan keperluan sesuatu kajian dan boleh dipercayai untuk mengukur persepsi responden terhadap pemboleh ubah kajian (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005; Sekaran, 2003).

Temu duga terperinci dikendali mengikut garis panduan yang telah di sediakan oleh Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Lowe (1991), Wright (1996), dan Usunier (1998). Langkah pertama dalam prosedur temu duga ini, pengkaji telah menyediakan soalan-soalan temu duga fl eksibel yang berkaitan dengan lima isu utama: ciri-ciri kepuasan kerja; ciri-ciri sikap terhadap wang; ciri-ciri keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela, perkaitan di antara kepuasan kerja dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela; dan perkaitan kaitan antara kepuasan kerja, sikap terhadap wang, dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela.

Langkah kedua, teknik pensampelan purposif telah digunakan untuk mengadakan temu bual dengan seorang pegawai daripada bahagian pengurusan sumber manusia dan dua orang pekerja sokongan yang berkhidmat lebih 10 tahun di organisasi kajian. Pemilihan mereka berasaskan kepada pertimbangan pengkaji bahawa mereka yang terpilih adalah daripada kalangan individu yang memahami dan berpengalaman dalam program pembangunan dan pengurusan sumber manusia di organisasi tersebut. Maklumat temu duga secara terperinci menerangkan bahawa sistem perjawatan di organisasi kajian terbahagi kepada dua jenis iaitu bahagian pentadbiran dan bahagian teknikal. Pekerja pentadbiran terdiri daripada staf kumpulan pengurusan (seperti pengurus sumber manusia, pengurus kewangan dan pengurus korporat) dan staf kumpulan sokongan yang menjalankan tugas-tugas pentadbiran di pejabat dan menguatkuasa peraturan-peraturan penguasa tempatan. Pekerja teknikal pula terdiri daripada kumpulan pengurusan profesional (seperti jurutera, arkitek, juru ukur bahan dan perancang bandar) dan juruteknik-juruteknik yang terlibat dalam kerja-kerja pembinaan dan penyelenggaraan kerosakan dalam kawasan pentadbiran penguasa tempatan. Keseluruhan pekerja organisasi ini dibayar gaji dan menikmati kemudahan-kemudahan yang bersesuaian dengan kelayakan dan jawatan masing-masing. Mereka juga mendapat imbuhan asas dan tambahan (seperti elaun perkhidmatan, bonus dan insurans) sekiranya menjalankan tugas-tugas rasmi yang merbahaya dan bekerja di luar waktu kerja rasmi.

248 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

Dari segi perancangan perjawatan dalam organisasi ini, ia perlu mendapat kelulusan dari Kerajaan Persekutuan. Walaubagaimanapun, pembayaran ganjaran termasuk gaji dan bonus serta imbuhan-imbuhan lain yang diperuntukkan kepada kakitangannya ditentukan oleh kemampuan kewangan organisasi ini sendiri. Hal ini bermakna peruntukan ganjaran yang diterima seseorang pekerja akan menjadi semakin baik apabila beliau telah berkhidmat lebih lama atau mencapai prestasi kerja yang tinggi. Kriteria ganjaran seumpama ini dianggap dapat meningkatkan tahap kepuasan pekerja terutama apabila jumlah wang yang mereka terima daripada majikan dipercayai dapat memenuhi keperluan masing-masing, lantas mendorong pekerja untuk tidak berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Sungguhpun perhubungan sebegini diyakini pihak pengurusan wujud, namun peranan sikap terhadap wang sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana masih belum jelas diketahui dalam organisasi kajian.

Langkah ketiga, maklumat temu duga tersebut telah dibandingkan dengan kajian literatur yang berkaitan bagi meletakan kajian ini dalam konteks yang betul. Hasil perbandingan ini telah digunakan untuk mengkelas dan menyusun maklumat mengikut setiap pemboleh ubah kajian dalam jadual analisa kandungan bagi memahami gejala-gejala yang dikaji. Langkah terakhir, maklumat yang telah dikategori dan disusun tersebut telah diguna pakai sebagai garis panduan untuk menyedia kandungan borang soal selidik bagi kajian rintis. Seterusnya, satu kajian rintis telah dilaksanakan dengan membincangkan borang soal selidik dengan peserta temu duga di atas. Maklum balas yang diterima daripada peserta tersebut telah diguna pakai untuk mengesahkan tahap kerelevan, kepentingan, kesesuaian dan kejelasan soalan-soalan, serta keseluruhan format borang soal selidik bagi kajian sebenar. Kaedah penterjemahan balik (back translation) seperti dianjurkan oleh Hulland (1999) dan Wright (1996) telah dilakukan pada borang soal selidik ke dalam bahasa Melayu dan bahasa Inggeris bagi menjamin dan mempertingkatkan kesahan serta kebolehpercayaan skala pengukuran kajian.

Skala Pengukuran

Jadual 1 menunjukan bahawa borang soal selidik kajian ini mengandungi empat bahagian utama: kepuasan kerja intrinsik, kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik, sikap terhadap wang, dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Kesemua item diukur berdasarkan skala tujuh pilihan jawapan yang bermula dari “Sangat Tidak Setuju/Tidak Puas Hati” (skor 1) hingga “Sangat Setuju/Puas Hati” (skor 7). Ciri-ciri responden kajian ini telah digunakan sebagai pemboleh ubah kawalan kerana kajian ini menfokuskan terhadap sikap pekerja.

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 249

Jadu

al 1

Soal

an-s

oala

n ya

ng D

igun

akan

dal

am B

oran

g So

al S

elidi

k Ka

jian

Pem

bole

h ub

ahSo

alan

Sum

ber r

ujuk

an

Kep

uasa

n ke

rja in

trin

sik

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kita

ran

tem

pat k

erja

(2) c

ara

peng

urus

an o

rgan

isas

i and

a(3

) bila

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a.

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sik

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ang

tela

h di

adap

tasi

dar

ipad

a ka

jian

liter

atur

ke

puas

an

kerja

(H

erzb

erg,

196

8; H

ulin

& S

mith

, 196

5;

Ken

dall

et a

l., 1

963;

Loc

ke e

t al

., 19

64;

Smith

et a

l., 1

969)

.

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n ke

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ksri

nsik

(1) p

engh

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an a

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la m

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da m

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dan

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da d

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(4) j

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an tu

gasa

n da

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ja a

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p te

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ang

(1) w

ang

digu

naka

n se

baga

i ala

t unt

uk m

emba

ndin

gkan

ant

ara

satu

pek

erja

de

ngan

yan

g la

in(2

) men

jadi

seo

rang

yan

g ka

ya–r

aya

adal

ah im

pian

say

a(3

) say

a m

eran

cang

pen

ggun

aan

wan

g de

ngan

san

gat b

aik

(4) i

ndiv

idu

yang

mel

akuk

an k

erja

yan

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ma

haru

s dib

ayar

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i ber

dasa

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m

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(5) p

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tah

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enda

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ngan

tan

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ab y

ang

kura

ng h

arus

di

baya

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ang.

5 ite

m y

ang

tela

h di

adap

tasi

dar

ipad

a ka

jian

liter

atur

sik

ap t

erha

dap

wan

g (F

urha

m, 1

982,

199

0, 1

996;

Judg

e, 1

990,

19

93; T

ang,

199

2, 1

993,

199

5; Y

amau

chi

& T

empl

er, 1

982)

.

Kei

ngin

an

untu

k be

rhen

ti se

cara

suk

arel

a(1

) say

a te

lah

berfi

kir

unt

uk m

elet

ak ja

wat

an d

arip

ada

kerja

say

a se

kara

ng(2

) say

a te

lah

men

ilai a

kiba

t jik

a sa

ya b

erhe

nti k

erja

(3) s

aya

mun

gkin

aka

n m

enca

ri p

eker

jaan

di t

empa

t lai

n(4

) say

a be

rfi k

ir u

ntuk

mel

etak

jaw

atan

bag

i ja

wat

an l

ain

dala

m t

empo

h te

rdek

at in

i(5

) say

a se

ring

kali

berfi

kir

unt

uk b

erhe

nti k

erja

(6) s

aya

seri

ng k

ali m

encu

ba u

ntuk

men

cari

pek

erja

an b

aru

di te

mpa

t lai

n.

6 ite

m y

ang

tela

h di

adap

tasi

dar

ipad

a ka

jian

liter

atur

ke

ingi

nan

untu

k be

rhen

ti ke

rja (

Abr

ams

et a

l., 1

998;

H

om

&

Griff e

th,

1991

; M

otow

idlo

, 19

83; S

teer

s &

Mow

day,

198

1).

250 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

Unit Analisis dan Persampelan

Unit analisis kajian ini terdiri daripada pekerja yang telah berkhidmat di sebuah organisasi pihak penguasa tempatan di Malaysia Timur, Malaysia. Sebelum borang soal selidik kajian ini diedarkan, pengkaji telah mendapat persetujuan daripada ketua organisasi ini dan mendapat pandangan beliau tentang peraturan mengumpul data di organisasi beliau. Setelah mengambil kira keadaan peraturan organisasi ini, sampel kuota telah digunakan untuk menentukan saiz sampel berdasarkan kemampuan kewangan dan tempoh kajian yang pendek, iaitu 300 orang. Kemudian, teknik pensampelan mudah telah digunakan untuk mengedar sejumlah 300 borang soal selidik kepada pekerja di pelbagai jabatan melalui bantuan pihak pengurus dan penolong pengurus bahagian sumber manusia organisasi berkenaan. Teknik pensampelan mudah terpaksa digunakan dalam kajian ini kerana pengkaji tidak diberikan senarai pekerja yang berdaftar dan dikehendaki mengedarkan borang-borang soal selidik kepada pekerja melalui Pejabat Pengurus Sumber Manusia. Keadaan ini menghalang pengkaji untuk memilih sampel kajian melalui teknik pensampelan rawak. Daripada jumlah itu, 140 borang soal selidik yang lengkap diisi telah dikembalikan kepada penyelidik. Borang soal selidik kajian ini dijawab berdasarkan kerelaan dan persertujuan responden kajian. Jumlah sampel kajian ini dianggap mencukupi kerana telah melebehi jumlah sampel minimum iaitu 30 individu bagi membolehkan hipotesis-hipotesis kajian ini diuji menggunakan analisis statistik inferens (Cresswell, 1998; Sekaran, 2003).

Analisa Data

Pakej Statistik untuk Sains Sosial (SPSS) versi 16.0 telah digunakan untuk menganalisis tahap psikometrik dari data soal selidik berdasarkan garis panduan yang disyorkan oleh Hair, Anderson, Tatham & Black (2006), dan Nunally dan Bernstein (1994). Walaubagaimanapun, sebelum analisis faktor dilakukan ke atas data tersebut, satu ujian bagi mengenal pasti kecukupan saiz sampel kajian perlu dilakukan (Hair et al., 2006; dan Nunally & Bernstein, 1994). Di sini, ujian Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) telah dilakukan bagi menunjukkan item-item dalam analisis mencapai nilai 0.6 dan lebih. Hal itu juga bagi memastikan ujian sferasiti Bartlett adalah signifi kan, agar saiz sampel kajian diyakini mencukupi untuk dilakukan ujian kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan bagi skala pengukuran. Selain itu, usaha memeriksa kesahan data borang soal selidik melalui teknik direct oblimin juga telah dilakukan. Hal ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti item-item yang mewakili setiap pemboleh ubah kajian telah mencapai nilai 0.40 dan lebih. Seterusnya, dilakukan penilaian ke

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 251

atas setiap pemboleh ubah kajian bagi menentukan sama ada setiap pemboleh ubah ujian telah mencapai nilai Eigen 1 dan lebih, serta nilai alpha Cronbach mencapai 0.70 dan lebih. Hal ini dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk memastikan sama ada pemboleh ubah kajian adalah sah dan boleh dipercayai. Lanjutan daripada ujian di atas, analisis korelasi Pearson juga telah digunakan untuk memeriksa masalah kolineariti dan menganggarkan tahap kebolehpercayaan di antara pemboleh ubah kajian.

Selain itu, prosedur pengujian kesan pemboleh ubah penyederhana ke atas darjah keteguhan perhubungan antara pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar dan pemboleh ubah bersandar telah dilakukan. Menurut Jaccard et al. (1990), hal ini perlu dilakukan bagi menentukan sama ada berlaku perubahan jika pemboleh ubah lain wujud dalam perhubungan tersebut. Akhir sekali, berikutan kekurangan yang terdapat pada analisis kolerasi Pearson yang tidak berkeupayaan untuk menentukan kesan pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam model konseptual kajian, maka analisis regresi berganda hierarki yang disyorkan oleh Cohen dan Cohen (1983) telah digunakan. Analisis regresi ini mampu menunjukan kehadiran kesan pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam kerangka konseptual apabila interaksi antara pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar dan pemboleh ubah penyederhana mempunyai hubungan yang signifi kan dengan pemboleh ubah bersandar (contohnya, pada tahap siginifi kan p=<0.05; p=<0.01; p=<0.001). Sekiranya analisis regresi hierarki menunjukan bahawa perhubungan langsung antara pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar dan pemboleh ubah bersandar adalah signifi kan, ia tidak akan menganggu tahap signifi kan yang terdapat pada pemboleh ubah penyederhana itu (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Sebaliknya, jika nilai korelasi berganda kuasa dua bagi pemboleh ubah penyederhana lebih tinggi daripada pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar, ini bererti pemboleh ubah penyederhana mempunyai kesan ke atas darjah kekuatan dalam sampel data (Cohen & Cohen, 1983; Jaccard, Turrisi & Wan 1990).

Dapatan Kajian

Latar Belakang Responden

Jadual 1 memaparkan profi l responden untuk kajian ini mengikut latar belakang demografi , sosial dan ekonomi. Kebanyakan responden kajian ini adalah perempuan (56.4%), berumur antara 26-35 tahun (45.0%), berpendidikan SPM (42.1%), berkhidmat 1-5 tahun (25.7%), staf teknikal (82.9%), dan berpendapatan bulanan di antara RM1000 – RM1999 (53.6%).

252 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

Jadual 1

Ciri-ciri Responden Kajian (N=140)

Ciri-ciri umum responden Ciri khusus Peratusan

Jantina LelakiPerempuan

43.656.4

Umur 18-25 tahun26-35 tahun36-45 tahun>46 tahun

13.645.026.415.0

Pendidikan SarjanaSarjana mudaDiplomaSTPM SPM/MCESRP/LCE/PMR

1.410.722.96.4

42.116.4

Lama berkhidmat <1 tahun1-5 tahun6-10 tahun11-15 tahun16-20 tahun> 21 tahun

7.925.720.715.75.7

24.3

Jawatan Staf pentadbiranStaf teknikal

17.182.9

Gaji bulanan < RM 800RM 800 – RM 999 RM 1000 – RM 1999RM 2000 – RM 2999RM 3000 – RM 3999> RM 4000

2.917.953.621.43.60.7

Nota: SRP/LCE/PMR: Sijil Rendah Pelajaran Malaysia/Lower Certifi cate of Education /Penilaian Menengah Rendah SPM/MCE: Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia/Malaysia Certifi cate of Education STPM: Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia

Kesahan dan Kebolehpercayaan Skala Pengukuran

Jadual 2 menunjukkan bahawa skala pengukuran yang digunakan telah mencapai tahap kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan yang memuaskan dan seterusnya digunakan dalam pengujian hipotesis-hipotesis kajian.

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 253

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254 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

Jadual 3 pula memaparkan hasil analisis statistik deskriptif dan korelasi Pearson. Nilai min untuk pembolehubah kajian ini berada di antara 4.83 dan 5.54. Hal ini bererti bahawa tahap kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik, sikap terhadap wang, dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela berada di antara tahap sederhana (4) dan sangat tinggi (7). Pekali kolerasi bagi perhubungan antara pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar (kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik), pemboleh ubah penyederhana (sikap terhadap wang), dan pemboleh ubah bersandar (keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela) pula mempunyai nilai yang rendah daripada 0.90. Hal ini membuktikan bahawa pemboleh ubah kajian ini adalah bebas daripada masalah kolineariti dan skala pengukuran kajian ini telah mencapai tahap kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi (Hair et al., 2006).

Keputusan pengujian model kesan langsung menunjukan bahawa kepuasan kerja intrinsik mempunyai hubungan yang tidak signifi kan dengan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (r=0.060, p>0.05), oleh itu H1 tidak disokong. Manakala, kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik mempunyai hubungan yang tidak signifi kan dengan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja (r=-0.053, p>0.05), oleh itu H2 tidak disokong. Dapatan ini mengesahkan bahawa kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik tidak bertindak sebagai faktor yang mempengaruhi keinginan untuk berhenti kerja di organisasi kajian.

Keputusan Pengujian Model Pembolehubah Penyederhana

Jadual 4 menunjukan keputusan analisa regresi hierarki dalam tiga model. Model 1 menunjukkan bahawa faktor demografi responden didapati tidak mempengaruhi secara signifi kan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Kemasukan faktor demografi responden ke dalam model ini telah menyumbang sebanyak 4 peratus kepada perubahan dalam pemboleh ubah bersandar. Model 2 memaparkan bahawa kepuasan kerja intrinsik didapati tidak berupaya mempengaruhi secara signifi kan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (Model 2: β=-0.15, p>0.05), dan kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik didapati berupaya mempengaruhi secara signifi kan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (Model 2: β=0.21, p<0.05). Kemasukan pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar ke dalam model ini telah menyumbang sebanyak 14 peratus kepada perubahan dalam pemboleh ubah bersandar.

Model 3 menerangkan bahawa interaksi antara kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan sikap terhadap wang mempunyai hubungan yang

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 255

signifi kan dengan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (Model 3: β=-1.44, p<0.01), dan hal ini bererti H3 adalah disokong. Manakala, interaksi antara kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik dan sikap terhadap wang mempunyai hubungan yang tidak signifi kan dengan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (Model 3: β=0.53, p>0.05), dan hal ini bererti H4 tidak disokong. Sebelum kemasukan pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam Model 3, kepuasan kerja intrinsik mempunyai hubungan yang tidak signifi kan dengan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (Model 2: β=-0.15, p>0.05), tetapi kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik didapati mempunyai hubungan yang signifi kan dengan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela (Model 2: β=0.21, p<0.05). Setelah kemasukan pemboleh ubah penyederhana ke dalam Model 3, hubungan yang tidak signifi kan di antara kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela tidak berubah kepada signifi kan (Model 3: β=0.84, p>0.05), dan hubungan yang signifi kan di antara kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela tidak berubah kepada signifi kan (Model 3: β=-0.10, p>0.05). Dari segi saiz kesan, kemasukan pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam Model 3 ini telah menyumbang sebanyak 18 peratus kepada perubahan dalam pemboleh ubah bersandar.

Keputusan statistik ini menerangkan bahawa sikap positif terhadap wang di kalangan pekerja yang mempunyai kepuasan kerja intrinsik berupaya mengurangkan keinginan pekerja untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Sebaliknya, sikap positif terhadap wang di kalangan pekerja yang mempunyai kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik tidak berupaya mengurangkan keinginan pekerja untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Secara keseluruhan, dapatan kajian ini memberi isyarat yang jelas bahawa sikap terhadap wang hanya berkuasa sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana separa dalam model kepuasan kerja di organisasi kajian.

Perbincangan dan Implikasi

Keputusan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa sikap terhadap wang hanya bertindak sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana separa di antara kepuasan kerja dan keinginan untuk berhenti secara sukarela. Dalam organisasi kajian, pekerja melaksanakan tugas dan tanggungjawab mengikut fail meja jawatan masing-masing. Pekerja yang ditemuduga melahirkan perasaan puas hati yang tinggi terhadap pekerjaan. Pekerja juga menunjukan reaksi positif terhadap wang yang diterima daripada majikan. Dari segi korelasi, pekerja yang mempunyai tahap kepuasan kerja intrinsik yang tinggi merasa

256 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

tidak ingin untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela kerana mereka percaya bahawa ganjaran wang yang diterima daripada pekerjaan dapat memenuhi kehendak dan pengharapan mereka.

Jadual 4

Keputusan Ujian Analisis Regresi Hierarki

Pemboleh ubah

Pemboleh ubah Bersandar(Keinginan untuk Berhenti

Kerja Secara Sukarela)

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Pemboleh Ubah KawalanJantinaJawatanUmurPendidikan Lama berkhidmatGaji Bulanan

-0.160.170.03

-0.040.010.06

-0.160.210.17

-0.10-0.000.04

-0.17*0.22*0.12

-0.110.020.08

Pemboleh Ubah Tidak BersandarKepuasan Kerja IntrinsikKepuasan Kerja Ekstrinsik Sikap Terhadap Wang

-0.150.21*

-0.30**

0.84-0.100.22

Pemboleh Ubah PenyederhanaKepuasan Kerja Intrinsik X Sikap Terhadap WangKepuasan Kerja Ekstrinsik X Sikap Terhadap Wang

-1.44**0.53

R2

Adjusted R SquareFR Square ChangeF ∆ R Square

0.040.000.100.040.10

0.140.082.34**0.104.85**

0.180.112.54**0.043.09*

Nota: Signifi kan pada *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001

Implikasi kajian ini dibahagikan kepada tiga aspek: teori, kaedah penyelidikan dan pengamal sumber manusia. Dari perspektif teori, dapatan kajian ini menunjukan dua penemuan penting. Pertama, interaksi di antara kepuasan kerja intrinsik dan sikap positif terhadap wang berjaya mengurangkan keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Dapatan ini menyokong kajian-kajian lepas seperti yang dilaksanakan oleh Tang et al. (1995, 2000, 2004a, 2004b). Kedua, interaksi di antara kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik dan sikap positif terhadap wang didapati tidak berjaya mengurangkan keinginan untuk berhenti

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 257

kerja secara sukarela. Dapatan ini pula tidak menyokong kajian lepas seperti yang dikendalikan oleh Tang et al. (2000), dan Ismail et al. (2008).

Berdasarkan pengamatan yang mendalam terhadap dapatan temuduga terperinci, sikap positif terhadap wang tidak berupaya menyederhanakan kesan kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik ke atas keinginan untuk berhenti secara sukarela mungkin disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor luaran. Pertama, kebanyakan pekerja yang mempunyai kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik meletakkan keutamaan terhadap faktor fi zikal kerja, seperti deskripsi tugas, peraturan kerja, protokol kerja dan kemudahan fi zikal. Sekiranya seseorang pekerja merasa sukar untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan keadaan persekitaran luaran kerja, hal ini boleh mendorongnya untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela bagi mencari kepuasan melaksanakan tugas di organisasi lain. Kedua, polisi dan prosedur yang perlu diikuti pihak pengurusan sumber manusia adalah seragam, formal dan rigid. Pengurus dan pekerja tidak diberi kuasa yang mencukupi untuk merancang sesuatu tugas yang sesuai dengan keadaan kognitif, emosi dan nilai-nilai pekerja. Bagi pekerja yang mementingkan ciri-ciri kerja ekstrinsik, keadaan ini boleh mendorong mereka untuk berhenti kerja bagi mencari kepuasan di organisasi yang lain.

Ketiga, kriteria pembahagian ganjaran kewangan lebih tertumpu kepada ciri-ciri kerja ekstrinsik seperti menjalin persahabatan dengan ketua atau penyelia berbanding menekankan kepada ciri-ciri kerja intrinsik seperti rasa kebertanggungjawaban terhadap tugas. Dalam situasi ini, kebolehan keterampilan diri semasa berhubung dengan ketua terdekat dan pegawai atasan adalah satu keistimewaan untuk memperoleh jawatan yang lebih tinggi dan menikmati ganjaran kerja yang lebih baik. Bagi seseorang pekerja yang mementingkan tugas akan merasa tidak puas hati dengan keadaan yang wujud, hal ini boleh membangkitkan keinginan dalam diri pekerja itu untuk mencari kepuasan di organisasi yang lain. Keempat, amalan komunikasi terbuka di antara pengurus dan pekerja kurang dilaksanakan. Para pengurus lebih gemar mematuhi peraturan dan protokol kerja bagi menjaga imej dan status quo daripada mengamalkan perbincangan, pertukaran maklumat dan perkongsian pengalaman secara terbuka, jujur dan akauntabiliti dengan pekerja. Keadaan ini boleh membangkitkan salah faham, prasangka buruk dan pandangan serong dalam kalangan pekerja yang mempunyai kepuasan ekstrinsik yang tinggi terhadap polisi dan prosedur penilaian prestasi kerja. Akibatnya, mereka lebih cenderung untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela bagi mencari kepuasan di organisasi lain.

258 IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011)

Dari segi kaedah penyelidikan, borang soal selidik kajian ini direka berdasarkan data yang dikumpulkan melalui kajian literatur, temuduga terperinci, dan kajian rintis telah berjaya mencapai tahap kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi. Keadaan ini dapat membantu menghasilkan dapatan kajian yang tepat dan boleh dipercayai.

Dari sudut pengamal, dapatan kajian ini boleh digunakan sebagai panduan oleh pengurus sumber manusia untuk menambah baik program pembangunan dan pengurusan sumber manusia. Antara langkah yang perlu diambil kira bagi mencapai matlamat ini ialah: pertama, senarai tugas perlu direka bentuk dengan penglibatan bersama para pekerja. Cara ini dapat meningkatkan kefahaman, mengurangkan buruk sangka, membangkitkan perasaan kepunyaan dan rasa bertanggungjawab dalam diri pekerja terhadap tugas. Kedua, latihan bersesuaian dengan keperluan kerja perlu disediakan oleh pihak pengurusan. Kandungan latihan ini akan meningkatkan pengetahuan, kemahiran, kebolehan dan nilai-nilai moral yang baik dalam diri pekerja, lantas mendorong pekerja meningkatkan prestasi, kepuasan, komitmen dan etika dalam organisasi. Ketiga, perancangan merekrut pekerja perlu diubah daripada mengambil berdasarkan kelayakan akademik semata-mata kepada pemilihan mengikut berkelulusan akademik yang bersesuaian, dan mempunyai pengetahuan, pengalaman dan sahsiah yang baik bagi mengisi kekosongan jawatan-jawatan penting. Pekerja seumpama ini mempunyai kebolehan untuk membentuk ciri-ciri dalaman dan luaran kerja yang sesuai dengan pelbagai jenis jawatan, menyediakan proses kerja yang teratur bagi setiap jenis kerja, dan berupaya menggunakan kaedah melayan yang berhikmah, penuh kasih sayang dan tegas bagi mengendalikan pelbagai aduan dan tuntutan yang dibuat oleh pekerja.

Akhir sekali, kaedah penetapan ganjaran perlu mempertimbangkan keperluan individu pekerja. Sebagai contoh, pekerja yang berkeluarga, lama berkhidmat dan berprestasi tinggi perlu diberikan ganjaran yang lebih (seperti rawatan kesihatan, pakej pelancongan sebagai insentif untuk diri staf dan keluarga dan imbuhan-imbuhan tambahan selain dari gaji pokok) bagi menghargai jasa, pengorbanan dan kesetiaan mereka kepada organisasi. Sekiranya cadangan-cadangan di atas diberi perhatian yang sewajarnya, hal ini akan meningkatkan sikap dan gelagat pekerja yang positif termasuk meningkatkan kepuasan, komitmen, prestasi dan amalan beretika yang baik di tempat kerja. Hal ini seterusnya boleh membantu menjayakan matlamat dan strategi organisasi ke arah lebih cemerlang.

IJMS 18 (1), 239–267 (2011) 259

Kesimpulan

Kajian ini mencadangkan kerangka konseptual berdasarkan kajian literatur yang berkaitan dengan kepuasan kerja. Pemboleh ubah yang digunakan dalam kajian ini mempunyai tahap kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi. Keputusan analisis regresi hierarki mengesahkan bahawa sikap positif terhadap wang berupaya menyederhanakan kesan kepuasan kerja instrinsik ke atas keinginan pekerja untuk berhenti kerja. Dapatan ini menerangkan bahawa sikap terhadap wang di kalangan pekerja yang mempunyai kepuasan kerja intrinsik (contohnya, tidak mementingkan ganjaran kebendaan) mampu menghalang hasrat mereka untuk berhenti kerja secara pilihan. Manakala, sikap positif terhadap wang tidak berupaya menyederhanakan kesan kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik ke atas keinginan pekerja untuk berhenti kerja secara pilihan. Dapatan ini menghuraikan bahawa sikap positif terhadap wang di kalangan pekerja yang mempunyai kepuasan kerja ekstrinsik (contohnya, mementingkan ganjaran kebendaan) tidak pula mampu menghalang hasrat mereka untuk berhenti kerja secara pilihan. Oleh itu, dapatan kajian ini mengesahkan bahawa sikap terhadap wang hanya bertindak sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana separa dalam model kepuasan kerja di organisasi kajian. Seterusnya, kajian akan datang perlu mengiktiraf sikap terhadap wang sebagai elemen penting dalam model kepuasan kerja. Cadangan ini menjangkakan bahawa kewujudan sikap yang positif terhadap wang boleh menghalang pekerja untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela dan sebaliknya meningkatkan sikap serta tingkah laku yang positif terutama dari segi komitmen, prestasi dan etika kerja. Seterusnya, keadaan ini boleh mendorong pekerja untuk meningkatkan tahap daya saing organisasi di pasaran ekonomi global.

Kesimpulan kajian ini mengambil kira batasan kerangka konseptual dan metodologi kajian. Pertama, kaedah keratan rentas yang digunakan dalam kajian ini tidak dapat mengesan isu-isu pembangunan atau/dan sebab-sebab berlakunya perhubungan di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah yang lebih khusus. Kedua, kajian ini tidak mengenengahkan perhubungan di antara indikator-indikator khusus bagi pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar, pemboleh ubah penyederhana dan pemboleh ubah bersandar. Ketiga, keputusan analisis regresi berganda hanya memfokuskan kepada penerangan tentang varian tahap prestasi berdasarkan persamaan regresi (Tabachnick, Barbara & Fidell 2001), tetapi masih banyak lagi faktor lain yang penting tidak dihuraikan. Sebagai contoh, kandungan tugas, sifat tugas, ganjaran, persekitaran fi zikal dan kaedah mengurus kerja perlu diperincikan

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dalam kepuasan kerja. Manakala gaji, bonus dan elaun perlu dikelasifi kasikan dalam sikap terhadap wang. Seterusnya, keinginan untuk berhenti kerana persaraan awal, keinginan untuk berhenti kerana mendapat tawaran yang lebih baik, dan keinginan untuk berhenti kerana tujuan peribadi perlu diasingkan dalam keinginan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela. Sekiranya faktor ini diambil kira dalam analisis regresi ia dapat menentukan secara jelas tentang sifat perhubungan di antara pemboleh ubah tidak bersandar dan pemboleh ubah bersandar, serta menganggarkan darjah kekuatan perhubungan di antara pemboleh ubah tersebut.

Keempat, kebanyakan responden kajian ini berketurunan bumiputera dan persepsi kumpulan ini mungkin lebih banyak mempengaruhi dapatan kajian ini. Kelima, kajian ini menggunakan teknik pensampelan mudah bagi mengumpul data daripada pekerja tempatan yang berkhidmat di sebuah organisasi. Kelima, akhir sekali, dapatan kajian ini hanya mencerminkan sifat interaksi yang wujud di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah kajian umum dalam sebuah penguasa tempatan. Keenam, bias secara sistematik atau varian metod umum yang mempengaruhi tahap korelasi yang tinggi di antara pemboleh ubah kajian sukar untuk dielakkan kerana borang soal selidik ini dijawab oleh responden yang bersifat homogenous. Batasan-batasan di atas boleh mengurangkan keupayaan dapatan kajian ini untuk digeneralisasikan kepada pelbagai latar organisasi yang berlainan.

Kekurangan kajian ini perlu dijadikan sebagai panduan bagi memperkukuhkan kaedah penyelidikan dan kerangka teori kepuasan kerja dalam kajian akan datang. Pertama, elemen-elemen yang berkaitan dengan kepuasan kerja, sikap dan tingkah laku individu perlu ditambah supaya ia mampu menerangkan dengan lebih jelas sejauh mana berkesannya peranan sikap terhadap wang sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam kerangka konseptual kajian. Kedua, faktor-faktor demografi (seperti jantina, umur, pendidikan, lama berkhidmat, jawatan dan gaji) dan organisasi (seperti bahagian, jabatan dan jenis) telah diabaikan dalam kerangka konseptual yang sedia ada. Sekiranya faktor-faktor demografi dan organisasi tersebut diambil kira ia boleh mengesan sejauh mana darjah kekuatan peranan sikap terhadap wang sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam kerangka konseptual kajian. Ketiga, kekurangan yang terdapat dalam kaedah merentas seksyen boleh diatasi melalui penggabungan kaedah kajian berturutan (longitudinal study) bagi menghasilkan kesimpulan kajian yang mampu mengambil kira perkara-perkara yang lebih dinamik dalam sampel data.

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Keempat, kajian akan datang dapat menghasilkan kesimpulan yang lebih mantap apabila saiz sampel yang lebih besar diambil daripada beberapa organisasi melalui teknik persampelan rawak. Kelima, mengambil kira saranan literatur kepuasan kerja yang mengesyorkan bahawa kecintaan terhadap wang, nilai etika wang, dan kepuasan terhadap wang perlu dimasukkan sebagai pemboleh ubah penyederhana dalam analisis supaya kesan kepuasan kerja ke atas keinginan untuk berhenti secara sukarela dapat diukur dari perspektif yang lebih lengkap dan menghasilkan kesimpulan kajian yang lebih meyakinkan (Currall et al., 2005; Ismail et al., 2008; Tang, 2007; Tang et al., 2002a, 2002a, 2004a, 2004b). Akhir sekali, literatur kepuasan kerja menerangkan bahawa sikap dan tingkah laku individu boleh diterjemahkan dalam beberapa aspek, seperti komitmen, prestasi, setia dan etika (Charles & Schwepker, 2001; Ismail et al., 2008; Judge, Thoresen, Bono & Patt en 2001; Mrayyan, 2007; Wu & Norman, 2006). Sekiranya aspek-aspek sikap dan tingkah laku tersebut dihubungkan dengan kepuasan kerja, ia akan dapat menunjukkan dengan jelas aspek-aspek sikap dan tingkah laku yang mana lebih kuat disederhanakan oleh sikap terhadap wang. Cadangan-cadangan yang dibincangkan di atas perlu diberi perhatian yang sewajarnya bagi memantapkan lagi kajian akan datang.

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