ihe680_050311

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Occupational Safety & Health for Technologists, Engineers, and Managers By David L. Goetsch

© 2011, 2008, 2005, 2002, 1999 Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Prentice Hall - Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

Chapter 15 - Falling, Impact, Acceleration, Lifting and Vision Hazards

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CAUSES OF FALLS •  Falls account for over 16% of all disabling work

injuries.

•  Primary causes of falls: –  A foreign object on the walking surface. –  A design flaw in the walking surface. –  Slippery surfaces. –  An individual’s impaired physical condition.

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KINDS OF FALLS •  Common surface falls can be divided into four

categories: –  Trip and fall accidents occur when workers encounter

an unseen foreign object in their path. –  Stump and fall occurs when a worker’s foot suddenly

meets a sticky surface or defect in a walking surface. –  Step and fall accidents occur when a person’s foot

encounters an unexpected step down. –  Slip and fall occurs when the worker’s center of gravity

is suddenly thrown out of balance. •  This is the most common type of fall.

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Measuring Surface Traction An effective way for comparing the relative traction of

a given surface is to use the coefficient of friction. –  A numerical comparison of the resistance of one surface

(shoe or boot) against another surface (the floor).

A continuum showing coefficients of friction ratings from very slippery to good traction.

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Measuring Surface Traction •  An effective way for comparing the relative traction

of a given surface is to use the coefficient of friction.

A continuum showing coefficients of friction ratings from very slippery to good traction.

–  Ice 0.10; Waxed Oak 0.24; Linoleum 0.33; Concrete 0.43

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General Strategies for Preventing Slips •  Strategies that can help prevent slipping:

–  Choose the right material from the outset. •  Safety & health professionals should encourage selection of

surface materials with the highest possible coefficient of friction. –  Retrofit an existing surface.

•  Using materials like runners, skid strips, carpet, grooves, abrasive coatings, grills, and textured coverings.

–  Practice good housekeeping. •  Removed spilled water, grease, oil, solvents, etc., immediately.

–  Require nonskid footwear. •  Such footwear should be a normal part of a worker’s PPE.

–  Inspect surfaces frequently. •  Conduct frequent inspections & act immediately when a

hazard is identified.

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Building Lobbies •  Building lobbies often have slick, highly polished

floor surfaces, which can be a slipping hazard. –  Often increased by rain, sleet, or snow.

•  Methods to decrease hazard levels in lobbies: –  Use large welcome mats, wide enough to allow several

“drying steps” to be taken before reaching the slick floor; –  Provide umbrella holders so dripping umbrellas are not

brought onto the slick floor. –  Monitor floor surface continually, and dry any moisture

that makes its way onto the floor immediately. –  Substitute nonslip surfaces for slick, highly polished

flooring.

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Restrooms •  Certain tiles become slippery when water from the

sinks, toilets, or urinals splash the floor or overflow. –  Multiplied when soap is added in restrooms.

•  Methods to decrease restroom hazard levels: –  Monitor restrooms continually and clean up spills

immediately. –  Use “wet floors” warning signs. –  Block off wet areas until they dry. –  Conduct periodic inspections of public restrooms

on a systematic basis.

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Processing Areas •  Companies that process materials typically

experience high hazard levels in processing areas. –  Meat processors must contend with blood, fats,

and meat juices on the floor. •  Firms that process chemicals also contend with spillage.

•  Strategies to decrease hazards in processing areas: –  Use nonslip flooring. –  Monitor floor surfaces continually & take immediate

action to clean up spills. –  Require processing employees to wear slip-resistant

footwear. –  Inspect & clean floor surfaces on a regular basis.

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SLIP AND FALL PREVENTION PROGRAMS •  A company’s overall safety & health program

should include a slip and fall prevention component: –  A policy statement/commitment.

•  Management intent, responsibility/accountability, scope of activity, the safety professional’s role, authority & standards.

–  Review and acceptance of walkways. •  Establish the criteria that will be used for reviewing all

walking surfaces and determining if they are acceptable. –  Reconditioning and retrofitting.

•  Recommendations/timetables for reconditioning/retrofitting walking surfaces that do not meet review & acceptance criteria.

–  Maintenance standards and procedures. •  How often surfaces should be cleaned, resurfaced, replaced.

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SLIP AND FALL PREVENTION PROGRAMS

–  Inspections, audits, tests, and records. •  A comprehensive list of inspections, audits & tests—including

how frequently & where—maintaining records of the results.

•  A company’s overall safety & health program should include a slip and fall prevention component:

–  Employee footwear program. •  Specify type of footwear required of employees who work

on different types of walking surfaces. –  Defense methods for legal claims.

•  Aggressive action to be taken, to be able to show the company has not been negligent.

–  Measurement of results. •  Explanation of how the program will be evaluated & how often. •  Records of the results of these evaluations.

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This trigger height means that virtually every small residential builder & roofing

contractor is subject to the standard.

OSHA Fall Protection Standard for Construction •  The most comprehensive—and most

controversial—fall protection standard is OSHA Subpart M of 29 CFR 1926, which sets the trigger height at 6 feet. –  Any construction employee working

higher than 6’ off the ground must use a fall protection device such as a safety harness and line.

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Opponents counter that the cost of complying with the standard is almost

$300 million annually.

OSHA Fall Protection Standard for Construction •  The OSHA argues that the 6-foot trigger

height saves up to 80 lives per year, and prevents more than 56,000 injuries. –  6% of all lost-time construction industry

fall injuries are caused by falls from less than 10 feet.

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OSHA Recommendations for Fall Protection •  OSHA recommends the following strategies:

–  Have a plan - An organization should develop a written plan that is part of its larger safety & health plan.

–  Establish proper fall protection requirements - Any time an employee works above 4’ feet in general industry; 6’ in construction, and 10’ or more when on scaffolding.

–  Provide proper fall protection equipment/procedures and require their use - Personal fall arrest systems, guardrails, safety nets, positioning devices, warning lines, controlled access zones, and safety monitoring.

–  Ensure fall protection device replacement - Regularly, even if there are no significant signs of wear.

–  Provide training - Including how to recognize hazards & properly use all applicable fall protection equipment.

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Do’s and Don’ts of Ladder Use •  Following simple rules for proper use can reduce

risk of falls and other ladder-related accidents. –  Check for slipperiness on shoes & ladder rungs.

•  Don’t lean a ladder against a fragile, slippery, unstable surface. –  Secure the ladder firmly at the top & bottom.

•  Set the ladder’s base on a firm, level surface. –  Apply the four-to-one ratio

•  Base one foot away from the wall for every 4 feet between the base and the support point).

–  Face the ladder when climbing up or down. •  Don’t carry tools in your hands while climbing a ladder.

–  Barricade the base of the ladder when working near an entrance.

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Do’s and Don’ts of Ladder Use

–  Don’t lean too far to either side while working. •  Stop and move the ladder.

•  Following simple rules for proper use can reduce risk of falls and other ladder-related accidents.

–  Don’t rig a makeshift ladder. •  Use the real thing.

–  Don’t allow more than one person at a time on a ladder. –  Don’t allow your waist to go any higher than the last

rung when reaching upward on a ladder. –  Don’t separate the individual sections of extension

ladders and use them individually. –  Don’t place a ladder on a box, table, or bench to make

it reach higher.

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WHAT TO DO AFTER A FALL •  If a fall occurs on the job, what employees do in

the immediate aftermath can mean the difference between life and death for the victim.

•  Make sure your organization has a fall rescue plan: –  Training for all personnel in how to carry out a rescue—

what to do and what not to do. •  Proper equipment on site, and readily available.

–  Coordination with local emergency authorities •  Assigned responsibilities.

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WHAT TO DO AFTER A FALL •  Employees who work at heights or with others who

work at heights understand the following basics: –  Never work alone - There should always be two or more

people working in close proximity when working at heights. –  Keep legs moving - When a worker is dangling from fall

arrest gear, moving legs—rhythmically & regularly—helps prevent venous pooling of blood that can lead to shock.

•  If possible, the worker should try to move to an upright position. –  Raise the worker to a seated position - Once on the

ground, the tendency is to lie down in a horizontal position. •  This is a mistake because it can suddenly release pooled

blood that can strain the heart and cause death.

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IMPACT AND ACCELERATION HAZARDS •  Examples of accidents involving acceleration and

impact: –  An employee working on a catwalk drops a wrench. –  Any type of fall—having fallen, a person’s rate of fall

accelerates (increases)—until striking a surface (impact).

–  Motor vehicle accidents involve acceleration and impact.

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Head Protection •  Approximately 25% of workplace accidents each

year involve objects that become projectiles. –  Falling objects are involved in many of these accidents.

•  About 120,000 people sustain head injuries on the job each year. –  In spite of the fact that many were wearing hard hats.

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Head Protection •  Originally introduced in 1919, the first hard hats in

an industrial setting were inspired by the helmets worn by soldiers in World War I. –  Originally made of varnished resin-impregnated canvas,

hard hats have been made of vulcanized fiber, aluminum & fiberglass.

–  Today’s hard hats are typically made from polyethylene, a thermoplastic material, using an injection-molding process.

•  The use of hard hats in industrial settings in which falling objects are likely has been mandated by federal law since 1971.

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Head Protection •  Hard hats are designed to provide limited

protection from impact, primarily to the top of the head.

•  Hard hats are tested to withstand a 40-ft/lb impact. –  Equivalent to a two-pound hammer falling about 20

feet. •  They are also designed to limit penetration of

sharp objects & give some lateral penetration protection.

•  Some companies adhere double-stick tape or flat magnets to the upper visor area. –  To minimize dust or iron filings that fall into workers’ eyes.

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Three out of every five workers with eye injuries weren’t wearing eye protection, or not wearing the

right kind of eye protection.

Eye and Face Protection •  Eye & face protection are critical in the workplace.

–  About 1,000 U.S. workplace eye injuries occur daily.

•  Nearly half of accidents occurred in manufacturing, with just over 20% in construction. –  Flying particles cause most eye injuries. –  70% resulted from flying or falling objects or sparks. –  About 20% were caused by contact with chemicals.

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Eye and Face Protection

Eye and face protection typically consist of safety glasses, safety goggles,

or face shields.

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Eye and Face Protection •  OSHA has adopted ANSI standard Z87.1–2003

for face and eye protective, which requires that nonprescription eye & face protective devices pass two impact tests: –  A high-mass, low-speed test. –  A low-mass, high-speed test.

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Eye and Face Protection

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Requirements for Vision Protection Devices •  OSHA criteria for selecting vision protection devices:

–  Select only those meeting ANSI Z87.1–2003. –  Select devices that protect against specific hazard(s)

identified in that assessment. –  Select devices as comfortable as possible to wear. –  Select devices that do not restrict vision in any way. –  Select devices with fogging prevention capabilities built-in. –  Select durable, easy to clean, easy to disinfect devices –  Select devices that do not interfere with the functioning

of other personal protective equipment.

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Aid for Eye Injuries •  When an employee sustains an eye injury:

–  Be gentle with the employee. –  Don’t add to the injury with rough treatment. –  Do not attempt to remove objects embedded in

the eyeball. –  Rinse the eyes with a copious amount of water for

15 to 30 minutes to remove the chemicals. –  Call for professional help. –  Cover both eyes after the rinsing has been completed. –  Never press on an injured eye or put any pressure

on it (as when covering the eyes). –  Do not allow the employee to rub his or her eyes.

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Contact Lenses in a Chemical Environment •  Environments in which contacts lens should not

be worn include those in which certain chemicals are present, such as: –  1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP). –  4,4’-methylene dianiline (MDA). –  Ethyl or Isopropyl alcohol; Ethylene oxide; Methylene

chloride.

•  NIOSH’s Intelligence Bulletin 59: “Contact Lens Use in a Chemical Environment” is a good source of information when conducting hazard assessments of chemical environments.

This list is neither exhaustive nor comprehensive.

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Foot Protection •  Foot and toe injuries account for almost 20% of

all disabling workplace injuries in the U.S. –  Over 180,000 workplace foot & toe injuries each year.

•  Major injury types to the foot & toes: –  Falls or impact from sharp or heavy objects. –  Compression when rolled over/pressed by heavy objects. –  Punctures through the sole of the foot. –  Conductivity of electricity or heat. –  Electrocution from an energized, conducting material. –  Slips on unstable walking surfaces. –  Hot liquid/metal splashed into shoes or boots.

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Foot Protection •  The key to protecting workers’ feet & toes involves:

–  Identify the various types of hazards present in the workplace.

–  Identify the types of footwear available to counter the hazards.

–  Require that proper footwear be worn.

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Foot Protection •  Employers are not required to provide footwear for

employees, but are required to provide training on foot protection: –  Conditions when protective footwear should be worn. –  Type of footwear needed in a given situation. –  Limitations of protective footwear. –  Proper use of protective footwear.

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LIFTING HAZARDS •  Back injuries from improper lifting are among the

most common in an industrial setting. –  Accounting for $12 billion in annual workers’ comp costs. –  20 to 25% of all workers’ compensation claims. –  About 46,000 back injuries in the workplace, causing

100 million lost workdays each year. •  Typical cause of back injuries in the workplace:

–  Improper lifting, reaching, sitting, and bending. –  Poor posture, ergonomic factors, and personal lifestyles.

Prevention is critical in back safety.

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Proper Lifting Techniques –  Plan Ahead

•  Determine if you can lift the load—Is it too heavy or awkward? •  Check your route for obstructions and slippery surfaces.

–  Lift with Your Legs, Not Your Back •  Bend at your knees, keeping your back straight. •  Position your feet close to the object. •  Center your body over the load & lift straight up smoothly. •  Keep your torso straight; don’t twist while lifting or after the

load is lifted. •  Set the load down slowly and smoothly with a straight back

and bent knees; don’t let go until the object is on the floor. –  Push, Don’t Pull.

•  Pushing puts less strain on your back; don’t pull objects. •  Use rollers under the object whenever possible.

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NIOSH & Guidelines for Manual Material Handling •  NIOSH lifting/lowering guidelines include a

formula for recommended weight limits for a given lifting job. –  It also takes into account nonsymmetrical lifting and

lifting of items that don’t have handles. •  A multitask-analysis strategy gives a method for

considering a variety of related lifting variables. –  Useful when dealing with tasks in which the lifting

variables change throughout the task. •  For example, ergonomics of a stacking job change

with each successive item added to the stack. –  As do the corresponding hazards.

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STANDING HAZARDS •  Prolonged walking and/or standing can cause

lower back pain, sore feet, varicose veins, and a variety of other related problems.

•  Foot rails allow employees to elevate one foot at a time four or five inches and can help relieve the hazards of prolonged standing. –  The elevated foot rounds out the lower back, thereby

relieving some of the pressure on the spinal column. •  A rail should not be placed in a position that inhibits

movement or becomes a tripping hazard.

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Test mats on a trial basis before buying a large quantity. Mats that become slippery when wet should be avoided. Where chemicals are used, select mats that will hold up to the degrading effects of chemicals.

Antifatigue Mats •  Antifatigue mats provide cushioning between feet

hard working surfaces such as concrete floors. –  This effect can reduce muscle fatigue and lower back

pain.

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Workplace Design •  Sit/stand chairs—higher-than-normal chairs—allow

employees who typically stand while working to take quick mini-breaks and return to work with hazards associated with getting out of lower chairs.

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Proper Footwear •  Proper footwear is critical for employees who stand

for prolonged periods. –  Well-fitting, comfortable shoes that grip the work surface

and allow free movement of the toes are best.

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HAND PROTECTION •  In the U.S. there are more than 500,000 hand

injuries every year—both serious and costly for employers and for employees.

•  Section 138 of OSHA 29 CFR 1910.132 requires employers to base selection of hand protection (gloves) on a comprehensive assessment of the tasks performed for a given job, hazards present, and the duration of exposure to the hazards. –  The assessment must be documented in writing.

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HAND PROTECTION •  ANSI/ISEA joint hand-protection standard simplifies

glove selection by defining characteristics of protection, and standardizing tests to measure them. –  Cuts, puncture resistance, abrasion. –  Protection from cold and heat; flame/heat resistance. –  Chemical resistance (permeation and degradation). –  Viral penetration, dexterity, liquid-tightness.

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Common Glove Materials Depending on individual hazards in a given situation, the right gloves for the job may be made of a variety of different materials.

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Common Glove Materials •  Most widely used materials in making gloves are:

–  Leather - Offers comfort, excellent abrasion resistance, and minimum cut resistance.

–  Cotton - Offers comfort, minimal abrasion resistance, and minimum cut resistance.

–  Aramids - Offer comfort, good abrasion resistance, excellent cut resistance, and excellent heat resistance.

–  Polyethylene - Offers comfort, excellent abrasion resistance, and minimal cut resistance.

•  Should not be subjected to high temperatures. –  Stainless steel cord (wrapped in synthetic fiber) - Offers

comfort, good abrasion resistance, and optimal cut resistance.

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Common Glove Materials •  Most widely used materials in making gloves are:

–  Chain link or metal mesh - Offers very little comfort, but maximum abrasion and cut resistance.

–  Butyl rubber - Little comfort, but excellent resistance to heat, ozone, tearing, and certain chemicals.

–  Nitrile-based material - Offers greater comfort and protection, and there is increased use of this type of material for the substrate coating of glasses.

–  Viton rubber - Little comfort, but performs well with chemicals that butyl rubber cannot protect against, including aliphatics, halogenated, and aromatics.

•  Also perform well in handling alcohols, gases, and acids.

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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT •  Head, hand, back, eye, face, foot, skin &

breathing protection all involve the use of PPE—a critical component in the safety program of most firms.

•  Making employees comfortable with PPE is a serious, sometimes difficult challenge. –  They don’t like the way it looks or how it feels. –  They think it is cumbersome in which to work in or

time consuming to put on and take off. –  Sometimes, they just forget to use it.

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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT •  Strategies can be used to meet this challenge:

–  Maximum use of engineering/administrative controls. •  Use every control available to minimize potential hazards.

–  Ensure optimum PPE choice by using risk assessment. •  OSHA requires that PPE be selected on the basis of a

comprehensive risk assessment. –  Involve employees in all aspects of the PPE program.

•  Employees may be able to provide input that will improve the quality of the decisions being made.

•  Employees who are involved in the decision making are more likely to buy into and support that decision.

–  Provide comprehensive education and training programs. •  Employees need to understand why PPE is important, and

how to properly use it.

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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT •  Strategies can be used to meet this challenge:

–  Reinforce the proper PPE use & challenge improper use. •  Employers should never take PPE use for granted—proper

behavior should be reinforced by supervisors and managers. –  Be clear on who pays for PPE.

•  OSHA requires the employer to pay for basic minimal PPE. –  Be sensitive to fit, comfort, and style issues.

•  Ill-fitting PPE may not provide the necessary protection, and if it does not fit well, employees may be reluctant to wear it.

–  Work to make PPE a normal part of the uniform. •  When this happens, using PPE becomes standard operating

procedure, and proper use will cease to be an issue.

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•  A work environment in which the temperature is not properly controlled can be uncomfortable. –  Extremes of either heat or cold can be more than

uncomfortable—they can be dangerous. •  Heat stress, cold stress, and burns are major

concerns of modern safety & health professionals.

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THERMAL COMFORT •  Conduction is the transfer of heat between two

bodies that are touching, or from one location to another within a body.

•  Convection is transfer of heat from one location to another by way of a moving medium (gas or liquid).

•  Metabolic heat is produced within a body as a result of activity that burns energy.

•  Environmental heat is produced by external sources.

•  Radiant heat is the result of electromagnetic nonionizing energy transmitted through space, without the movement of matter within that space.

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HEAT STRESS •  Heat stress is the net heat load to which a worker

may be exposed from the combined contributions of: –  Metabolic effect of work; clothing requirements, –  Environmental factors,

•  Air temperature, humidity, movement, and radiant heat.

•  Mild or moderate heat stress may cause discomfort and may adversely affect performance and safety. –  As the heat stress approaches human tolerance limits,

the risk of heat-related disorders increases.

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HEAT STRESS •  Widely used heat stress-related terms:

–  Heat exhaustion - A physical state in which skin becomes clammy & moist and body temperature is still normal, or slightly higher than normal.

•  Results from fluid & salt loss through sweating, that are not properly replaced during exertion.

–  Heatstroke - Skin becomes hot & dry, there is mental confusion, and may be seizures or convulsions.

–  Heat cramps - muscle cramps that can occur when workers exert themselves sufficiently to lose fluids & salt through sweating, but replace only fluids by drinking large amounts of water containing no salt.

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HEAT STRESS •  Widely used heat stress-related terms:

–  Heat syncope or fainting - Workers who exert themselves in a hot environment will sometimes faint.

•  Especially those not accustomed to working in the environment. –  Heat rash - Workers in a hot environment in which sweat

does not evaporate can develop a prickly rash. •  Periodic rest breaks in a cool environment that allows

sweat to evaporate will prevent heat rash.

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HEAT STRAIN •  Heat strain is the overall physiological response

resulting from heat stress. –  Acclimatization is a gradual physiological adaptation that

improves an individual’s ability to tolerate heat stress.

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Recognizing Heat Strain •  Signs of excessive heat strain:

–  A sustained rapid heart rate. •  180 beats per minute, minus the employee’s age in years.

–  Core body temperature is greater than 38.5 deg C. –  Sudden & severe fatigue, nausea, dizziness, or light-

headedness.

•  Employees are at greater risk of excessive heat strain if they experience any of the following: –  Profuse sweating that continues for hours. –  Weight loss of more than 1.5% of body weight during

one work shift. –  Urinary sodium excretion of less than 50 moles.

•  Over a 24-hour period.

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COLD STRESS •  Excessive exposure to cold can cause

hypothermia, which can be fatal. –  Excessive exposure to cold stress can result in impaired

judgment, reduced alertness, and poor decision making. –  Acute cold stress can cause reduced muscular function,

decreased tactile sensitivity, reduced blood flow, and thickening of the synovial fluid.

–  Chronic cold stress can lead to reduced functioning of the peripheral nervous system.

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COLD STRESS

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Preventing Cold Stress •  Whether employees are exposed to cold air or are

immersed in cold water, wind can magnify the level of cold stress. –  The phenomenon often referred to as windchill.

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BURNS AND THEIR EFFECTS •  Human skin is the tough, continuous outer covering

of the body, consisting of two main layers: –  The outer layer, which is known as the epidermis. –  The inner layer, known as the dermis, cutis, or corium.

•  The dermis is connected to the underlying subcutaneous tissue.

•  Burns disrupt the normal functioning of the skin, the deeper the penetration, the more severe the burn. –  Burn severity of a burn depends on the depth the burn

penetrates, location of the burn, age of the victim, and amount of burned area.

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Human Skin Protection from fluid loss, water penetration, ultraviolet radiation, and infestation by microorganisms is a major function of the skin. Sensory functions of touching, sensing cold, feeling pain & sensing heat involve the skin. Skin helps regulate body heat through the sweating process. Excreted sweat removes electrolytes and certain toxins. By giving off minute amounts of carbon dioxide & absorbing small amounts of oxygen, the skin aids slightly in respiration

Burns can disrupt any or all of these functions,

depending on their severity.

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Severity of Burns •  The most widely used method of classifying burns is

by degree—first-, second-, or third-degree burns). –  First-degree burns are minor, and result only in a mild

inflammation of the skin, known as erythema. •  Sunburn is a common form of first-degree burn.

–  Second-degree burns are easily recognizable from the blisters that form on the skin.

•  If superficial, the skin will heal with little or no scarring. •  A deeper burn will form a thin layer of coagulated, dead cells,

that feels leathery to the touch. –  Third-degree burns are very dangerous and can be fatal.

•  Penetrates through both the epidermis and the dermis. •  A deep third-degree burn will penetrate body tissue.

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Severity of Burns •  Third-degree burns can be caused by both moist

and dry hazards. –  Moist hazards—such as steam & hot liquids—cause

burns that appear white. –  Dry hazards—such as fire & hot objects/surfaces—cause

burns that appear black and charred.

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Severity of Burns •  Amount of surface area covered is a critical concern.

–  Expressed as a percentage of body surface area (BSA).

Burns covering over 75% of BSA are usually fatal.

Using burn-degree classifications in conjunction with BSA percentages, burns can be classified

further as minor, moderate, or critical.

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Minor Burns •  All first-degree burns are considered minor. •  Second-degree burns covering less than 15%

of the body are considered minor. •  Third-degree burns can be considered minor

provided they cover only 2% or less of BSA.

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Moderate Burns •  Second-degree burns that penetrate the epidermis

and cover 15% or more of BSA are considered moderate. –  Those that penetrate the dermis & cover from 15 to 30%

of BSA are considered moderate. •  Third-degree burns can be considered moderate

provided they cover less than 10% of BSA. –  And are not on the hands, face, or feet.

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Critical Burns •  Second-degree burns covering more than 30%

percent of BSA or third-degree burns covering over 10% of BSA are considered critical.

•  Small-area third-degree burns to hands, face, or feet are considered critical due to greater potential for infection to these areas by their nature.

•  Burns complicated by other injuries (fractures, soft tissue damage, and so on) are considered critical.

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CHEMICAL BURNS •  Hazards of chemical burns are very similar to

those of thermal burns. –  They destroy body tissue, and extent of destruction

depends on the severity of the burn.

•  Chemical burns continue to destroy body tissue until the chemicals are washed away completely.

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Effects of Chemical Burns •  Different chemicals have different effects on the

body, the primary burn hazards being infection, loss of body fluids, and shock.

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Shock •  Shock is a depression of the nervous system, and

can be caused by physical or psychological trauma. –  In cases of serious burns, it may be caused by the

intense pain that can occur when skin is burned away.

•  Shock from burns can come in two forms: –  Primary shock, which is the first stage and results

from physical pain or psychological trauma. –  Secondary shock, which comes later, caused by a loss

of fluids and plasma proteins as a result of the burns.

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First Aid for Chemical Burns •  The proper response to chemical burns is to wash

off the chemical by flooding the burned areas with copious amounts of water as quickly as possible.

•  In the case of chemical burns to eyes, continuous flooding should continue for at least 15 minutes. –  Eyelids should be held open to ensure that chemicals

are not trapped under them.

•  If chemicals have saturated the employee’s clothes, they must be removed quickly, while flooding the body or the affected area. –  If necessary clothing should be ripped or cut off.

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First Aid for Chemical Burns •  Health and safety professionals should ensure that

special eye wash and shower facilities are available wherever employees handle chemicals.

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END

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