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Transcript of Iguana Surgeries
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Iguana
SurgeriesEdited for print and up
Scott J. Stahl, DVM
Dipl. ABVP-Avian Pract
Lucy Bartlett, DVMDipl. ABVP-Avian Pract
Teresa Lightfoot, DVDipl. ABVP-Avian Pract
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Orchiectomy
Tail Amputation
Adapted from Lightfoot T, Bartlett L: Exotic Companion Animal Surgeries Vol 1 CD-ROM, Zoological Education Network, 1999
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2
IGUANA
PATIENT EVALUATION
A complete physical exam, serum chemistry profile,
complete blood count and fecal exam for parasites should
be performed to assist in evaluation of the overall
condition of the patient prior to anesthesia and surgery.
It should be noted that elevated blood calcium levels arenormal in gestating iguanas.
The caudal tail vein is the preferred venipuncture site for
most lizards. Initial medical treatment should be adjusted
as indicated by the blood work results.
If sepsis is suspected, aerobic and anaerobic blood
cultures are recommended, and antibiotics should be
initiated to treat infection prior to anesthesia and surgery.
Patients should be hydrated prior to surgery with balanced
electrolyte solutions.
Pre-surgery
Subcutaneous fluidadministration
Caudal tail vein
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INSTRUMENTATION
Surgical instruments appropriate for a small animal
procedure are adequate if there are several small
mosquito hemostats included. Curved iris scissors a
useful.
Hemostatic clips come in several sizes and are very
but not necessary for vessel ligation. A 3-0 to 4-0
synthetic absorbable suture material may also be us
Clear plastic drapes allow better visualization of the
iguanas respiration and heartbeat during surgery.
Instrumentation for tail amputation includes Metzen
scissors, forceps, mosquito hemostats, needle holde
small Penrose drain, 2-0 nonabsorbable suture and
bandaging material.
Pre-surgery
Instruments neededfor a tail amputation
Instruments needed for
an ovariectomy or an
orchiectomy
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4
IGUANA
ANESTHESIA
Removal of food and water is recommended for 12-24
hours prior to surgery.
Supplemental heat is used to maintain the patient at
approximately 85F (29.5C). It is important to keep this
temperature consistent throughout the anesthetic
induction, the surgical procedure, and the recovery
phase.
Anesthetic induction with propofol at 5-10 mg/kg IV is
recommended. Alternate approaches for anesthesia
include induction with ketamine at 20-40 mg/kg IM or
tiletamine with zolazepam (Telazol) at 2-5 mg/kg IM.
Note that the tiletamine and zolazepam combination has
a narrow safety margin compared to ketamine.
When the iguana is sedated, it may be further induced
with isoflurane by face mask to allow intubation.
Pre-surgery Basking lamp providesa heat source
Anesthetic induction Face mask
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The iguana is intubated. Note that the glottis is pos
at the base of the tongue and is easily visualized. Th
no epiglottis.
Isoflurane gas anesthesia is maintained using a
nonrebreathing system.
An esophageal stethoscope or Doppler is useful foranesthetic monitoring during surgery.
During a surgical plane of anesthesia, iguanas often
become apneic, as the muscles involved with respir
are paralyzed. Therefore, assisted ventilation is usua
necessary during anesthetic procedures. Intermitten
positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) may be provided
the use of an automated electric ventilator to offer
consistent and accurate ventilation for reptile patien
Alternatively, IPPV can be provided manually with a
technician operating the breathing bag for the iguan
during the procedure.
For the adult green iguana, providing IPPV 4-6 times
minute is a good starting point. This may vary based
the depth of anesthesia and the animals voluntary
respiration.
Pre-surgery
Tongue
Tracheal
opening
Endotracheal tube
Tracheal
opening
Nonrebreathing
system
Tape
Esophagealstethoscope
Nonrebreathing
system
Ventilator
ScottStahl,DVM,
DiplABVP-AvianPractice
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IGUANA
CLINICAL SIGNS
Both pre- and post-ovulatory egg stasis (also called egg
binding) are common reproductive syndromes in captive
female iguanas. The causes are numerous and often
multifactorial. Lack of proper diet, less than optimalenvironmental temperatures, handling stress, improper
light sources and inadequate nesting sites are some of
the common causes of egg stasis in captive iguanas.
Local or systemic disease may also lead to egg stasis.
True gestation time in the green iguana is thought to be
60-90 days. Gravid females will often stop eating for a
3-4 week period prior to egg laying but remain active. A
change in behavior and restlessness may occur as the
iguana seeks a nesting site.
A quiet, depressed, gravid female indicates a problem.
Loss of weight or muscle mass may be evident over the
pelvis, shoulders and limbs.
The abdomen may distend dramatically, and eggs will often
be palpable in the abdomen or visible on the body wall.
Radiographs will reveal lobulated space-occupying masses
in the caudal abdomen. Calcification of eggs may be
visible in cases of post-ovulatory egg stasis.
It is difficult to differentiate between a coelomic cavity filled
with enlarged ovarian follicles and one with oviductal eggs.
Ovarian follicles tend to be spherical and are located more
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Distended
abdomen
Visible eggsin oviduct
ScottStahl,DVM,
DiplABVP-AvianPractice
ScottStahl,DVM,
DiplABVP-AvianPractice
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dorsally in the abdomen, whereas oviductal eggs are
oblong and are found in a more ventral/caudal locatio
Occasionally bladder stones may cause mechanical
binding, which can be diagnosed radiographically.
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
In cases of suspected post-ovulatory egg binding, ox
at a dose of 10-20 units/kg IM may be used in an
attempt to stimulate oviposition; however, prior to u
oxytocin for dystocia, the clinician must:
Confirm eggs in the oviduct by historical informati
(iguana has already laid some eggs), radiography
ultrasonography, as oxytocin is contraindicated for
pre-ovulatory egg stasis.
Confirm the dystocia is non-obstructive via radiogr
or ultrasonography, as oxytocin is contraindicated obstructive dystocia.
A very short window of opportunity exists for succes
oxytocin. It is most effective if given within 72-96 ho
after initial oviposition, attempt at oviposition or nesti
behavior. Eggs retained much longer will likely have
become adhered to the oviduct, and the use of oxyt
in these cases may result in torsion or tearing of the
oviduct.
Before using oxytocin, the iguana should be hydrate
and 10% calcium gluconate (100 mg/kg IM every 6
hours) should be administered if hypocalcemia is
suspected. If seizures or tremors are present, calciu
gluconate may be administered IV slowly PRN to eff
Ovariectomy/OvariosalpingectomyIM injection of oxytocinto stimulate oviposition
Subcutaneous fluid
administration
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8
IGUANA
INDICATIONS FOR SURGERY
If egg stasis fails to respond to correction of environmen-
tal or dietary factors or the use of oxytocin is inappropri-
ate or is appropriate but nonresponsive, surgery should
be pursued.
Even if the eggs are safely passed during this season with
the use of oxytocin, a similar episode will likely follow in
future seasons, and surgery will eliminate these
potentially dangerous issues.
It is recommended that pet iguanas not intended for
breeding should be stabilized and scheduled immediately
for surgery, as ovariectomy and ovariosalpingectomy will
resolve future reproductive issues for these pets.
PATIENT PREPARATION
The animal is placed in dorsal recumbency and secured
(masking tape works well).
The abdominal area is prepared for surgery in a routine
manner from the xiphoid to the pubis. Povidone iodine or
chlorhexidine surgical scrub may be used on reptiles.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Xiphoid process Pubis
Midline
Large ventral
abdominal vein is
usually within this area
Small initial incision
about 1 cm to the right
or left of midline to
avoid the ventral
abdominal vein
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SURGICAL STEPS
Iguanas and other lizards have a ventral
abdominal vein that is located caudal to the
umbilical scar along the ventral midline and is
suspended by a short mesentery from the
linea alba.
A paramedian incision is made 1-2 cm to the
right or left of the midline, depending on the
size of the iguana. The small initial incision is
used to identify the ventral abdominal vein and
reduce the likelihood of damaging it. This
incision can be made with a scalpel, then
extended with iris scissors. A large incision
should then be made to allow good
visualization.
Care should be taken to avoid incising thebladder, which is often located just under the
linea alba.
If the ventral abdominal vein is damaged,
ligation of the vein may be needed to control
hemorrhage.
Once the surgeon has accessed the coelomic
cavity, the reproductive tract and position of
the eggs or ova can be evaluated.
Ovariectomy/OvariosalpingectomyInitial paramedianincision
Ventral abdominal vein
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10
IGUANA
PRE-OVULATORY EGG STASIS
Pre-ovulatory egg stasis is characterized by
large yellow ovarian follicles that remain
attached to the ovaries like huge clusters of
grapes. There can be 20 or more follicles on
each ovary; each follicle may be approximately
2 cm in diameter. In some cases thesefollicles are greenish in color, necrotic and
friable. Other cases may demonstrate an
associated peritonitis with large amounts of
purulent material within the coelomic cavity.
In cases of pre-ovulatory egg stasis, the
ovaries are removed. It is not necessary to
remove the oviducts, as they appear to
atrophy and are not readily susceptible to
infection.
The left ovary is gently exteriorized and the
vein and artery supplying the ovary are
identified. When ligating the vessels to the left
ovary, care must be taken to avoid damaging
the renal vein or the left adrenal gland. The
adrenal gland in the iguana will appear pink,
long and relatively flat. It is located on either
side of the renal vein and should not be
removed inadvertently.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy Follicles on ovary
Left adrenal gland
Renal vein
Left ovary with follicles
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Apertures are created in the avascular meso-
varium, and the vessels are double ligated
close to the ovary to avoid the adrenal gland.
It is important to remove all ovarian tissue, as
any remnant tissue may regenerate. A 3-0 to
4-0 synthetic absorbable suture or vascular
clips are used.
Once the vessels are ligated, the tissue is
transected between the clips or sutures.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Hemostatic clips
Left adrenal gland
Hemostatic clips
Renal vein
Aperture
Transect here
IGUANA
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12
IGUANA
The right ovary is gently exteriorized with care
to avoid damaging the vena cava. Anatomically
the right ovary is attached directly to the vena
cava. The right adrenal gland is located on the
opposite side of the vena cava.
As with the approach to the left ovary,
apertures are created through the avascular
areas of the mesovarium, and the vessels
supplying the ovary are double ligated.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Right adrenal gland
Caudal vena cava
Right ovary
with follicle
Hemostatic clips
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The tissue between the ligatures is transected
and the ovary is removed. Any potential
bleeding is noted and corrected.
i
POST-OVULATORY EGG STASIS
In the case of post-ovulatory egg binding,
multiple, whitish-colored eggs are apparent
within the oviducts upon entering the coelomic
cavity. Oviducts with eggs are removed, and
the small inactive paired ovaries must be
identified and removed.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Vena cava
Hemostatic clip
Bladder
Multiple eggs
in oviduct
IGUANA
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14
The cranial and caudal aspects of an oviduct
are exteriorized, and the vascular supply is
identified.
From the cranially aspect, the thin fimbria
(infundibulum) is ligated with suture or
hemoclips. Moving caudally, the small groups
of vessels in the mesosalpinx are also ligated
with suture material or hemoclips.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Applying
vascular clips
Ligation placed at
the infundibulum
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At the distal end, the oviduct is double ligated
with suture or hemoclips close to the junction
with the urodeum. The tissue between the
ligatures is then transected and the entire
oviduct is removed. Any potential bleeding is
noted and corrected.
The procedure is repeated with the opposite
oviduct.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Bladder
Ligature on the
oviduct where itjoins the cloaca
Ligation of
oviduct
Ligature being
applied
IGUANA
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16
After removing both oviducts, the small paired
inactive (involuted) ovaries are identified
dorsally and along the midline. The ovarian
vascular supply is substantial, and the vessels
are short. Caution must be used when
attempting to elevate the ovaries. Often the
ovaries cannot be exteriorized, and the
surgeon must work within the coelom.
When removing the left ovary, care must be
taken not to damage the large renal vein or
the left adrenal gland, which is often located
between the renal vein and the ovary in the
mesovarium.
Anatomically the right ovary is situated very
close to the vena cava. The right adrenal gland
is usually found just medial to the vena cava.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Exteriorized ovaryattached to dorsum
by mesovarium
Right ovary
Vena cava
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Apertures are created through the avascular
areas of mesovarium, and clips or ligatures are
carefully placed around the vessels supplying
the left ovary. It is important to remove all
ovarian tissue, as regeneration of any remnant
tissue can occur.
The tissue between the ligatures and the ovaryis transected and the ovary is removed.
The right ovary is removed in the same
manner, taking care not to damage the vena
cava. The right adrenal gland is usually found
on the opposite side of the vena cava.
Tissues for histopathology and swabs for
bacterial cultures should be taken when
indicated. If ovarian follicles or purulent
material is present in the coelomic cavity,
copious irrigation is recommended followed by
appropriate use of antibiotics.
Before closing, the ovarian ligatures should be
checked for hemorrhage.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Removing ovary
post-ligation
Ovary
Apertures or windows
in avascular areas of
mesovarium
OvaryVascular clip
Vascular clip
Three vascular clips are visible
along the vena cava at the pointwhere the ovary was removed
Vena cava
IGUANA
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18
The coelom/peritoneum is gently closed with a
simple continuous pattern using 4-0 absorb-
able suture. This closure is not the holding
layer but helps to seal the coelom. The fragile
coelom/peritoneum musculature is easy to
tear so this tissue must be handled with care
during suturing.
The primary holding layer is the skin layer.
Nonabsorbable suture material, such as 2-0 to
3-0 nylon or polypropylene should be used.
The tendency of iguana skin to invert is
discouraged with the use of an everting suture
pattern, such as a horizontal mattress pattern.
This allows the proper apposition of the edges
to promote faster healing.
In general, it is recommended that sutures be
removed in 6-8 weeks. Often skin sutures will
be shed out during this time frame.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy Muscular layerin place
Interrupted horizontal
mattress pattern
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POSTOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
Recovery is usually uneventful as long as the iguana
was in good condition prior to surgery and the prope
temperature of approximately 85F (29.5C) is
maintained throughout recovery.
Butorphanol (Torbutrol) at 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM and/o
meloxicam (Metacam) at 0.2-0.3 mg/kg IM q24h f3-5 days may be used for pain management.
A slight serohemorrhagic discharge from the incision
occur for the first 24 hours post surgery.
Post-surgical antibiotics, if necessary, should be sele
based on culture and sensitivity results.
Iguanas should not soak for 10-14 days following su
Hydration can be maintained orally and by daily mis
Oral or subcutaneous fluids may be warranted, depe
on the condition of the patient.
Additional supportive care postoperatively may inclu
assist-feeding or tube-feeding with a slurry of soake
rabbit chow and strained green baby food or other h
fiber-based enterals.
The iguana is placed in an incubator to recover from
anesthesia; a hunched posture reflects abdominal
discomfort.
Return to normal activity and appetite should take
3-5 days.
Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
ScottStahl,DVM,
DiplABVP-AvianPractice
IGUANA
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20
INDICATIONS/CLINICAL SIGNS
As pet iguanas mature, they may display offensive
aggression towards owners or others, particularly during
the breeding season. These iguanas often have free roam
of the house and begin biting without provocation.
PRE-SURGICAL CONCERNS
Before recommending castration of adult male iguanas,
offensive aggression must be differentiated from
defensive aggression.
Environmental changes should be initiated. These include
decreasing the photoperiod and confining the iguana to a
smaller territory, especially during breeding season. If
these measures do not help resolve the problem, surgical
castration may be considered.
Owners should be forewarned that castration may not
decrease the aggression. Behavioral changes postsurgery
do not occur immediately and may not be appreciable.
Castration is a more effective behavioral modifier in pre-
pubescent iguanas than in mature male iguanas.
PATIENT PREPARATION
The animal is placed in dorsal recumbency and secured
(masking tape works well).
The abdominal area is prepared for surgery in a routine
manner from the xiphoid to the pubis. Povidone iodine or
chlorhexidine surgical scrub may be used on reptiles.
Orchiectomy
Xiphoid process Pubis
Midline
Large ventral
abdominal vein is
usually within this area
Small initial incision
about 1 cm to the right
or left of midline to
avoid the ventral
abdominal vein
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SURGICAL STEPS
Iguanas and other lizards have a ventral
abdominal vein that is located caudal to the
umbilical scar along the ventral midline and is
suspended by a short mesentery from the
linea alba.
A paramedian incision is made 1-2 cm to theright or left of the midline, depending on the
size of the iguana. The small initial incision is
used to identify the ventral abdominal vein and
reduce the likelihood of damaging it. This
incision can be made with a scalpel, then
extended with iris scissors. A large incision
should then be made to allow good
visualization.
Care should be taken to avoid incising thebladder, which is often located just under the
linea alba.
If the ventral abdominal vein is damaged,
ligation of the vein may be needed to control
hemorrhage.
OrchiectomyInitial paramedianincision
Ventral abdominal vein
IGUANA
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22
Care should be taken to avoid damaging the
coelomic organs beneath the incision.
The fat pads will be first noted upon entering
the coelomic cavity. The testicles are locateddeep in the coelom along the dorsal midline
and under the gastrointestinal tract.
Orchiectomy
Ventral abdominal vein
Coelomic contents
Testicles
Colon
O h
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The testicles are covered by a capsule and
must be gently elevated to expose the vessels.
The left testicle receives its blood supply from
the testicular vein and artery, which are
supplied by the large renal vein and artery. The
left adrenal gland is located between the left
testicle and these vessels and should be kept
intact if at all possible.
Medium hemostatic clips or absorbable suture
material are used to double ligate the vesselsrunning through the transparent capsule.
Orchiectomy
Adrenal glandHemostatic clip applied
Testicle
Left adrenal gland
Renal vein
Stay suture
IGUANA
O hi t
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24
The testicle is removed and the area is
checked for bleeding.
The right testicle is attached to the vena cava
by extremely short vessels. The right adrenalgland is located on the opposite side of the
vena cava and is therefore easy to avoid.
Orchiectomy
Right adrenal gland
Stay suture
Right testicle
Caudal vena cava
OrchiectomyTesticle
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Apertures are placed through the capsule
and each vessel is double clipped or double
ligated.
A small hemostat is placed above the clips,
and the capsule is transected.
Orchiectomy
Vascular clip
Vascular clip
Aperture
Double clamped
Testicle
IGUANA
Orchiectomy Vascular clips Abdominal musculature
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26
The testicle is removed and the ligatures are
checked for bleeding prior to closing the
coelom.
The coelom/peritoneum is gently closed with a
simple continuous pattern using 4-0
absorbable suture. This closure is not the
holding layer but helps to seal the coelom. Thefragile/peritoneum musculature is easy to tear
so be gentle with suturing this tissue.
The primary holding layer is the skin layer.
Nonabsorbable suture material, such as 2-0 to3-0 nylon or polypropylene should be used.
The tendency of iguana skin to invert is
discouraged with the use of an everting suture
pattern such as a horizontal mattress pattern.
This allows the proper apposition of the edges
to promote faster healing.
In general, it is recommended that sutures be
removed in 6-8 weeks. Often skin sutures will
be shed out during this time frame.
Orchiectomy
Interrupted horizontal
mattress pattern
Vena cava
Vascular clips Abdominal musculature
OrchiectomyBasking lamp
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POSTOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
Recovery is usually uneventful as long as the iguana
in good condition prior to surgery and the proper tem
ature of approximately 85F (29.5C) is maintained
throughout recovery.
Butorphanol (Torbutrol) at 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM and/o
meloxicam (Metacam
) at 0.2-0.3 mg/kg IM q24h f3-5 days may be used for pain management.
A slight serohemorrhagic discharge from the incision
occur for the first 24 hours post surgery.
Post-surgical antibiotics, if necessary, should be sele
based on culture and sensitivity results.
Iguanas should not soak for 10-14 days following su
Hydration can be maintained orally and by daily mis
Oral or subcutaneous fluids may be warranted, depe
on the condition of the patient.
Additional supportive care postoperatively may inclu
assist-feeding or tube-feeding with a slurry of soake
rabbit chow and strained green or other high fiber-b
enterals.
The iguana is placed in an incubator to recover from
anesthesia; a hunched posture reflects abdominal
discomfort.
Return to normal activity and appetite should take3-5 days.
The owners should be reminded that behavioral cha
may not be noticed until the following breeding seas
OrchiectomyBasking lampprovides heat source
IGUANA
T il Am t tio
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28
Necrotic tail
INDICATIONS/CLINICAL SIGNS
Iguana tail amputation may be necessary in cases of
trauma or necrosis.
Tail necrosis may progress from the tip cranially. When
this is the case, it is important to determine the extent of
devitalized tissue prior to selecting the site for amputation.
EVALUATION/PRE-SURGICAL CONCERNS
A complete physical examination, serum chemistry profile
and complete blood count should be performed to assist
in the evaluation of the overall condition of the iguana
prior to anesthesia and removal of the tail.
Additionally, radiographs are important to determine the
extent of bone involvement in the infected tail and to rule
out associated metabolic diseases.
If the iguana is in renal failure or has other metabolic
diseases, these issues should be addressed prior to
proceeding with tail amputation.
Tail necrosis can occur as a result of septicemia leading
to vascular thrombosis.
Dysecdysis, or abnormal shed, may constrict the tail and
result in ischemia that necessitates amputation.
PATIENT PREPARATIONThe chosen area of tail separation is aseptically prepared.
A wide margin between the amputation site and devitalized
tissue is recommended when tail necrosis is progressive.
Tail Amputation
Area of necrosis
dorsal to visible lineof demarcation
Devitalized area Area prepared
for amputation
Tail Amputation
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SURGICAL STEPS
The tail of an iguana is designed to break
away when needed to protect the lizard from
capture by predators. This feature allows the
tail to break at a natural point, and very little
bleeding takes place. The surgeon holds the
tail with one hand cranial and one hand
caudal to the area chosen for the break.
The tail is bent and twisted at the same time.
The combined forces applied are lateral and
dorsoventral with some rotation. On a large
iguana, a fair amount of force is necessary to
separate the tail.
Audible popping will precede separation.
Muscle tissue will extend from both ends as
the tail separates. Bleeding is minimal tononexistent.
The protruding tissue may be trimmed flush
with the skin or left as is.
p
IGUANA
Tail Amputation
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30
Two pieces of Penrose drain are cut and
placed on either side of the remaining tail.
Nonabsorbable 2-0 suture material is placed
in a simple interrupted pattern through the
skin and the Penrose drain on each side.
The Penrose drain and sutures are used to
decrease the area of exposed muscle tissue
and pull the edges of the skin closer together
without directly apposing them. The tail will
grow back more slowly if the skin is closed
over the amputated end.
A gauze pad with antibiotic ointment applied
is placed on the end of the tail to absorbdrainage.
The tail is bandaged to prevent contamination.
Vetrap
Antibiotic ointment
on gauze pad
Tail Amputation
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POSTOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
The bandage is changed every 2-3 days. The suture
drain material are removed in 7-10 days.
Postoperative antibiotics are used at the surgeons
discretion.
The tail remains bandaged until a smooth layer of p
granulation tissue covers the amputated area.
The tail will begin to regrow 3-6 weeks after surgery
The regrown tail will be slightly smaller in diameter t
the original tail, and the scales will be smaller and dThe regenerated section of tail will lack the ventral t
vein and bones.
Regrown tail
Healthy granulation Tail regrowth
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1. Frye F: Biomedical and Surgical Aspects of Captive
Reptile Husbandry 2nd ed. Melbourne, FL, Krieger
Publishing Co, 1991.2. Johnson-Delaney CA: Exotic Companion Medicine
Handbook. Lake Worth, FL, Zoological Education
Network, 2000.
3. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed.
Philadelphia, PA, WB Saunders Co, 2006.
4. Stahl S: Reproductive diseases in the green iguana.Proc No Am Vet Conf, 1998, pp 810-813.
5. Stahl S: Surgical resolution of reproductive disorders
in female green iguanas. Exotic DVM 1(0):5-9, 1998.
6. Stahl S: Reptile Obstetrics. Proc No Am Vet Conf,2006, pp 1680-1683.
Zoological Education Network 2006
Photographs copyrighted by Teresa Lightfoot, Lucy Bartlett and Zoological Education Network except photos by Scott Stahl and Stephen Hernandez-Divers where noted.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING