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UP TO DATE

Final report for the Institute for Learning (IfL)

June 2012

IfL preparatory research to inform the work of the Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning

2 | IfL preparatory research to inform the work of the Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning www.ifl.ac.uk

About the Institute for Learning (IfL)

IfL is the independent, professional membership body representing teachers, trainers, tutors, assessors, instructors and student teachers in the further education and skills system.

Terminology

Throughout this document we use the term “teachers and trainers” or “teachers” to cover all those who directly support learning in further education and skills, including lecturers, teachers, trainers, tutors, assessors, instructors and trainee teachers. We use the terms “colleges” and “learning providers” to cover the range of organisations that provide learning outside schools and higher education.

Glossary of abbreviations and acronyms used in this documentAELP Association of Employment and Learning Providers

ATLS Associate Teacher Learning and Skills status, conferred by IfL

BIS Department for Business, Innovation and Skills

BUS business studies teacher or trainer

CPD continuing professional development

CTLLS Certificate in Teaching in the Lifelong Learning Sector

DTLLS Diploma in Teaching in the Lifelong Learning Sector

ENG engineering teacher or trainer

HOSP hospitality teacher or trainer

LSIS Learning and Skills Improvement Service

PTLLS Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector

QTLS Qualified Teacher Learning and Skills status, conferred by IfL

QTS Qualified Teacher Status (for teaching in schools)

WBL work-based learning

Author

Dr Joe Harkin, Oxford Brookes University

Publisher

Published the Institute for Learning, June 2012.

© Institute for Learning (IfL)

www.ifl.ac.uk

www.ifl.ac.uk IfL preparatory research to inform the work of the Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning | 3

Contents

Executive summary 5

Introduction 9

1A. How adequately does vocational education prepare learners for employment? 11

1B. Links to employers 15

1C. Barriers to greater employer involvement 19

2A. Which teaching methods give learners the best learning opportunities? 21

2B Barriers to improving teaching approaches in vocational learning 29

3. Linking maths, science and English to vocational learning 33

4. Key qualities of the most effective teachers of vocational subjects 41

5. The effectiveness of initial teacher training 45

6. The role of vocational subject mentors 49

7. How may the status of vocational subjects be raised? 53

8. Other issues in developing vocational learning 56

References 58

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Executive summary

The Institute for Learning (IfL) was asked by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) to work alongside the Learning and Skills Improvement Service (LSIS) on preparatory work to support and inform the independent Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning, set up in response to New Challenges, New Chances (BIS, December 2011).

IfL invited members who are teachers and trainers in the areas of engineering/motor vehicle engineering, hospitality and catering, and business administration to volunteer to keep a reflective diary that addressed key issues in promoting vocational learning and teaching known about from previous research. They were also asked to attend one of a number of regional seminars, to debate the issues further.

In total, 120 respondents submitted written evidence, drawn from across the vocational learning spectrum, including teachers, trainers and assessors from colleges, private training providers, prisons, and the military. Of the respondents, 42 were from business studies; 40 from engineering; 25 from hospitality and catering; and others bringing a variety of perspectives, including vocational assessors from private training providers.

Seventy-eight of the respondents also attended one of six regional seminars, where they discussed the key issues and other topics they considered important to improving adult vocational learning. At three of the venues, seminars with 26 learners were also held. Additionally, 35 IfL members took part in a Policy Review TV symposium, either remotely or in person. The Association of Employment and Learning Providers (AELP) also discussed the issues and provided feedback, and BIS and LSIS attended one of the seminars.

The key issues addressed by participants were:

z How adequately, in your experience, does vocational education prepare learners for employment?

z Does vocational education and training have adequate links to employers? You may wish to consider the extent to which employers are involved in:

— Curriculum design — Curriculum delivery — Assessment for and of learning.

z What are some of the barriers that might exist to greater employer involvement in vocational education and training programmes?

z Which teaching methods give learners the best learning opportunities?

z Are there barriers to improving teaching approaches in vocational education?

z What do you think are the key qualities of the most effective teachers of vocational subjects?

z What in your experience are the best ways of linking maths, science and English to vocational subjects?

z What are/were your experiences of the effectiveness of initial training in helping you to teach your vocational subject?

z What do you see as the role of vocational subject mentors in helping people to become effective teachers of vocational subjects?

z Do you think there are ways in which the status of vocational subjects may be raised?

z Any other issues you think may be important in promoting effective vocational education.

The main focus of the Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning is to improve teaching and learning. In consulting IfL members a wider range of issues emerged, such as government policy, funding, the comparative status of vocational teachers and trainers, and so forth. It is impossible to isolate learning and teaching issues from the context in which this takes place.

Nonetheless, this report endeavours to highlight IfL members’ views about improving learning and teaching in vocational education, whilst honestly reporting their wider concerns.

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Summary of issues

Here, in summary, are the issues emerging from vocational teachers’ and trainers’ views that the national Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning may wish to consider further:

1A. How adequately does vocational education prepare learners for employment?

There is disquiet about the extent to which some current vocational education prepares learners for employment. The commission may consider:

� Are existing vocational programmes fit for purpose?

� Is provision for reviewing and developing programmes adequate?

� Is there adequate information, advice and guidance to ensure that learners are recruited to the most appropriate programmes?

� Is there enough investment (including up to date vocational equipment and resources) by BIS and employers to provide adequate vocational learning and, in particular, to provide necessary work experience, or simulations of realistic working environments?

1B. Links to employers

There is some good practice in developing links between vocational learning providers and employers, to the benefit of both, as well as to the economy.

� Is it possible to find examples of good practice, to determine what factors brought it about; may sustain it; and how it may be disseminated to both vocational education providers and to employers?

� What may be done to help more hands-on employer involvement in providing suitable work placements and equipment – particularly at level 3 and above?

� Just as parents and communities are being encouraged to take a more active part in schooling, should employers take a more active role in vocational education and training – including curriculum design, delivery and assessment?

1C. Barriers to greater employer involvement

� Is it possible to develop the concept of ‘employer involvement’ so that the mutual benefits of employer input to curriculum planning, vocational equipment and delivery; and of assessment for learning and of learning, are more widely known and appreciated?

� Is it possible to identify some examples of effective practice in forging such links and show how the time and other resource was found to establish and sustain links?

2A. Which teaching methods give learners the best learning opportunities?

It may be helpful to think not of vocational pedagogy but of a series of overlapping pedagogies for learning, depending on subject area, level, the location of the learning, and the ages of the learners. There is no one-size-fits-all approach.

There is a strong consensus that effective teaching methods for vocational learning are based on realistic work problems and scenarios, led by teachers and trainers who have recent and relevant vocational experience.

� Is there sufficient provision of realistic working practices?

� Do teachers have adequate access to vocational experience?

The best teaching is based on mutual respect between teachers and learners. The most effective teaching methods are interactive and develop learner autonomy as well as specific skills and knowledge.

� Is it possible to identify examples of successful practice across several vocational areas of different types, and to disseminate this? (I will add a caveat. Norton Grubb (1999), in his work on American vocational education, found that the managers of community colleges were often unaware of the really good practice in their own colleges. He believed that the same was almost certainly true of British further education.)

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2B. Barriers to improving teaching approaches in vocational learning

� How can we address the biggest and most pressing issue – weak resources of staff time, and of realistic or simulated working environments with up to date equipment, particularly at level 3 and beyond?

� How do we ensure that all vocational teachers and trainers have recent and relevant vocational experience?

� Are vocational syllabuses fit for purpose? In particular, do they, and awarding bodies, encourage the use of the best, most interactive and creative teaching methods?

3. Linking maths, science and English to vocational learning

� What can be done to help vocational teachers and trainers build on the widespread acceptance that they have a personal and professional responsibility to help develop skills in the use of English, maths and science, as appropriate to the vocational area and level of qualification?

There is an almost universal agreement that embedding of English, maths and science within vocational qualifications is good practice.

� How may this endeavour best be supported so that embedding leads to real progress in learners’ skills?

� What role in this do awarding and other national bodies have?

� How may English, maths and science specialists be integrated into vocational subject teams to give support to staff and learners, as needed?

� Are syllabuses fit for purpose in supporting these endeavours? In particular, and in light of the Wolf report (2011), do functional skills need to be reviewed?

� What are the root causes of poor basic skills and should there be a cross-sectoral study of this issue?

4. Key qualities of the most effective teachers of vocational subjects

There is a lot of consensus among teachers and learners about the key qualities of effective teachers. However, developing these qualities requires a national endeavour.

� What can be done to reinforce the view that the fundamental qualities of ‘good’ teachers are the same across ages, stages and subjects?

� What more can be done to develop the dual professionalism of vocational teachers and trainers – occupational specialists who are also teachers?

� What can be done to ensure that vocational teachers and trainers remain up to date in their occupational area, through CPD, and the active cooperation of employers?

5. The effectiveness of initial teacher training

Initial training to teach has been compulsory for teachers and trainers in the learning and skills sector only since 2001, with improved initial teacher qualifications from 2007. The majority of respondents valued their initial teacher training and its positive effects on teaching and learning; especially as Qualified Teacher Learning and Skills (QTLS) and Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) are both universally recognised and create a more level professional playing field.

� What may be done to protect and promote initial training at a time of austerity?

Initial training is intended to begin a continuing process of professional development.

� What may be done to help teachers and trainers access high-quality CPD opportunities?

6. The role of vocational subject mentors

Most respondents had not received subject mentoring but would have welcomed it. Respondents who had received mentoring support valued it greatly. In order to raise the standard of teaching and learning in vocational education it is important to develop the provision of subject mentors.

� What can be done to increase the provision of vocational subject mentors to raise the quality of vocational learning?

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7. How may the status of vocational subjects be raised?

Respondents expressed frustration with the widespread belief that vocational education is of lower status than ‘academic’ education, even if that does not always lead to jobs. They believed that more can and should be done to raise the status of vocational learning.

� What can be done to ensure that schools and schoolteachers have a better understanding and appreciation of the range of vocational qualifications? Only with this knowledge, can appropriate advice and guidance be given to learners.

� What can be done to improve the marketing and image of vocational qualifications so that schools, employers and the general public have a more positive awareness of the importance of vocational learning for individuals, employers and the nation?

� At present, it is perceived that fragmentation of responsibility, and artificial divisions within education provision, impede progress towards an education and training system that matches the needs of individuals, employers and the country.

� What can be done to bring about more joined-up, partnership working between government departments, awarding bodies, education providers, and employers?

8. Other issues in developing vocational learning

The concerns of vocational teachers and trainers cannot be neatly confined to issues of pedagogy. The capacity for even dedicated, well-qualified and experienced staff to teach well is heavily dependent on the policies of governments, and the funding streams, organisational cultures and partnerships to which these give rise.

The policies of successive governments towards vocational education and training were criticised by teachers and trainers.

The commission no doubt has a narrower remit than the ground covered by the evidence presented in this report, but no part of the education fabric can be unstitched without affecting the rest. The commission was set up, in part, because of concern that Ofsted grades very few colleges outstanding for teaching. Setting aside the issue of whether Ofsted inspections are a help or hindrance in raising teaching standards, it is obvious that the circumstances in which vocational teachers and trainers work must affect grades.

� Can the commission embed concern to raise the standard of teaching and learning in vocational education in a proper context of government policy and longer-term strategic thinking?

Some parts of the vocational education and training system perform better than others,

� What can be learned from existing good practice that may benefit practice elsewhere?

By its nature, this report will not provide answers to these issues but, it is hoped, insights into current practice and the concerns of teachers and trainers that will help to guide the Commission in its work. In so far as possible, quotations from vocational teachers and trainers have been used to give an authentic sense of their concerns. Some literature has been referred to, but has been kept to a minimum; as has commentary on the teachers’ and trainers’ own views.

Further work may be necessary to show how the issues raised by vocational teachers, trainers and learners relate to previous research reports, and to investigate key aspects of their views. It may be helpful to find examples of good practice in:

z teaching and learning that develops high levels of learner autonomy, as well as high levels of skill and knowledge

z the use of competitive events, including UK Skills and WorldSkills, as a way of increasing learner motivation and standards of work

z teams of teachers, including both vocational specialist and functional skills staff, who work together to successfully develop learners’ functional skills

z employers working in partnership with colleges to support vocational learning through the provision of up to date equipment and vocational placements for college staff.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the 120 busy people who gave generously of their time to submit evidence on the Key Issues in Promoting Vocational Learning and Teaching in extended writing; the 78 teachers and trainers and the 26 vocational learners who attended a regional seminar.

Thanks also to the Association of Employment and Learning Providers (AELP) for their assistance; and to the staff of IfL for setting up and facilitating the seminars and for their professional input throughout.

Dr Joe HarkinJune [email protected]

www.ifl.ac.uk

mailto:[email protected]


Introduction

“We don’t talk about education reform too often in an economic context, but it is probably the most important thing this government is doing to try and improve the British economy.” George Osborne, 22 March 2012

The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) asked the Institute for Learning (IfL) to work alongside the Learning and Skills Improvement Service (LSIS) on preparatory work to support and inform the independent commission on Adult1 Vocational Learning, announced in New Challenges, New Chances (BIS, December 2011).

IfL is uniquely placed as the professional body for teachers and trainers in further education and skills to gain critical insight into vocational pedagogy from the perspective of teachers and trainers. IfL called for the establishment of such a commission first in response to the introduction of student loans in FE, and in its response to the Wolf review, with over 5,000 members helping to shape this strong message to the government.

IfL now looks forward to offering its members, the expert teachers and trainers who provide rewarding vocational education and training for young people and adults, the opportunity to inform priorities for the independent commission.

In planning its contribution to the work of the commission, IfL sought to maximise the opportunities for members to become involved in the preparatory phase through to the end of March 2012; and then to continue to inform the commission as its work developed to ensure the outcomes made a real impact on teaching, training and learning.

To facilitate this, IfL invited members who are teachers and trainers in the areas of engineering, motor vehicle engineering, hospitality and catering, and business administration to volunteer to participate. Volunteers kept a reflective diary that addressed key issues in promoting vocational learning and teaching known about from previous research. They were also asked to attend one of a number of regional seminars to debate the issues further.

1 The term “adult” in this report refers to young adults aged between 16 and 25, as well as to more mature learners.

In total, 120 respondents submitted written evidence, drawn from across the vocational learning spectrum, including staff from colleges, private training providers, prisons, and the military. Seventy-eight respondents also attended one of six regional seminars, where they discussed the key issues and other topics they considered important to improving adult vocational learning. They gave additional evidence in feedback sheets.

One of the regional seminars was attended by representatives of BIS and LSIS; and 26 students attended focus groups held at three of the venues.

Key issues

The key issues addressed by participants were:

z How adequately, in your experience, does vocational education prepare learners for employment?

z Does vocational education and training have adequate links to employers? You may wish to consider the extent to which employers are involved in:

— Curriculum design — Curriculum delivery — Assessment for and of learning

z What are some of the barriers that might exist to greater employer involvement in vocational education and training programmes?

z Which teaching methods give learners the best learning opportunities?

z Are there barriers to improving teaching approaches in vocational education?

z What do you think are the key qualities of the most effective teachers of vocational subjects?

z What in your experience are the best ways of linking maths, science and English to vocational subjects?

z What are or were your experiences of the effectiveness of initial training in helping you to teach your vocational subject?

www.ifl.ac.uk


z What do you see as the role of vocational subject mentors in helping people to become effective teachers of vocational subjects?

z Do you think there are ways in which the status of vocational subjects may be raised?

z Any other issues you think may be important in promoting effective vocational education.

By its nature, this report will not provide answers to these issues but, it is hoped, insights into current practice and the concerns of teachers and trainers that will help to guide the commission in its work. In so far as possible, quotations from vocational teachers and trainers have been used to give an authentic sense of their concerns. Some literature has been referred to, but has been kept to a minimum, as has commentary on the teachers’ and trainers’ own views.

Further work may be necessary to show how the issues raised by vocational teachers, trainers and learners relate to previous research reports, and to investigate key aspects of their views. It may be helpful to find examples of good practice in:

z teaching and learning that develops high levels of learner autonomy, as well as high levels of skill and knowledge

z the use of competitive events, including UK Skills and WorldSkills, as a way of increasing learner motivation and standards of work

z teams of teachers, including vocational specialist and functional skills staff, who work together to successfully develop learners’ functional skills

z employers working in partnership with colleges to support vocational learning through the provision of up to date equipment and vocational placements for college staff.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the 120 busy people who gave generously of their time to submit evidence on the Key Issues in Promoting Vocational Learning and Teaching in extended writing; the 78 teachers and trainers and the 26 vocational learners who attended a regional seminar.

Thanks also to the Association of Employment and Learning Providers (AELP) for their assistance; and to the staff of IfL for setting up and facilitating the seminars and for their professional input throughout.

Dr Joe HarkinJune [email protected]

www.ifl.ac.uk



1A. How adequately does vocational education prepare learners for employment?

The diversity of vocational education

Compared to compulsory schooling, vocational education covers a very diverse range of provision. Different levels and types of vocational education provide different degrees of preparation for employment.

Many level 1 courses aim to provide no more than a general orientation to employment; while level 3 courses are expected to develop the skills, knowledge and experience to be employable. All programmes should provide a basis for further progression, but expectations of preparedness for employment should match the level and type of course.

It is also clear that work-based programmes, such as apprenticeships, often have a much closer match to employment needs than college-based programmes, especially if the latter are delivered full-time, with little work experience; most particularly when colleges are unable to simulate a realistic working environment (RWE).

“The gap between college activities and the workplace I feel is fast becoming insurmountable … time pressure ... does not afford the opportunity for consistent working as would be required in a workplace. Most of the learners have never worked as there is limited scope for ‘Saturday jobs’ also a large number of them have a support network that are long term unemployed so have not witnessed the daily routines associated with employment. I feel all of this could be improved by the inclusion of mandatory work experience segment for each year of their course accompanied by a diary of experience.” (ENG)

“The work experience does in some ways introduce the students to the realities of the trade. But it could never go as far as the relentless day in day out grind of a busy kitchen. I think that in many ways it is good that the VRQ is replacing the NVQ2 in colleges.”(HOSP)

2 NVQs are based on national occupational standards and are competence based, describing what you’re expected to be able to do at work. The VRQ is a knowledge based qualification that can be taken at school or college without the work experience necessary for NVQs.

“My current role sees me working closely with both the employers and the learners on a one to one basis and allows me to involve the employer very closely in all aspects of the training, a luxury that was not easily attainable in the college environment. Having such close links with the employers gives the training a ‘real world’ aspect, which, in my opinion, is vital to ensure learner success.” (ENG)

It is important to recognise that, at the lower levels of provision, vocational education provides a very important service in engaging or re-engaging learners. Vocational education appeals to many learners precisely because it is not school – but offers a more ‘adult’ experience. Learner engagement addresses wider goals than preparation for employment and may include raising standards of literacy and numeracy, confidence building, and social inclusion. If successful, general vocational courses can give learners the capability to progress to higher level programmes.

“In general, a vocational education appears to be more attractive to many students for many reasons: it is not school, the environment is considered more respectful regarding the individuals as young adults, and many of the lecturers have industrial experience which enables a connection to be made between studies and real‑world scenarios.” (ENG)

“My teaching career has given me the opportunity to work with young students, who in their own words, had felt that education and school had no part for them. They had completed their GCSEs and had failed to secure any higher grades and so had limited life chances or prospects. Vocational courses offer young people a clear route into which they can focus.” (BUS)

“I have had the experience of working with a small group of Year 10 learners talking about work and what they thought it would be like, when I discovered that none of them had a parent who was in work, so they had little idea of what to expect and very low expectations of finding work.”(HOSP)

“The role of education in helping young people develop the right characteristics, as well as skills, for the workplace also needs to be considered.” (ENG)

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“Developing the work ethic of turning up every day, completing routine tasks, communicating with those we work, recognising that if you don’t do the work someone else has to, are core skills that sometimes do not come from being in the full‑time education environment.”(HOSP)

“Unless there is a viable‑sized group of learners, all of whom need the same provision, an element of modularity may be necessary to tailor programmes to need. For example, a learner aiming for an engineering degree will need the further maths unit, while a learner looking for a mechanical fitting apprenticeship would be better off with the secondary finishing, or welding techniques units. We try to take into account the needs of a cohort when selecting units for the second year of study, and if we can we will run a unit for a small group as long as it does not impact on resource costs.” (ENG)

At any age, some individuals are ready to learn particular knowledge and skills – no one tries to teach a baby to read, or an elderly person to pole vault. The same is true of genuine vocational learning. Some young adults may simply not be mature enough to cope with the demands of work but need an introduction to vocational skills and an orientation to work.

“There are an increasing number of learners who are not ready for vocational education at 16. We have had several leave the programme this year for performance reasons. Learners seem better equipped at 18 to meet employers’ expectations and have matured sufficiently to understand the requirements of work.” (BUS)

At best, vocational education uses practical, ‘real life’ scenarios and problems to act as a focus for the development of a wide range of knowledge, skills and understanding. The question is, is the range of knowledge developed appropriate? Some employers may wish for a relatively narrow range of learning that matches their own, immediate needs; while it may be in the interest of the lifelong learner, and the economy as a whole, that a wider range of learning takes place. These are tensions that can only be addressed in context, through marketing, negotiation and awarding body regulation.

Are existing vocational curricula fit for purpose?

Have sector skills councils, awarding bodies, and local providers got the depth and breadth of vocational curricula right? And does public funding flow to support the best programmes, and also actively encourage their development? Furthermore, do inspection and auditing regimes provide the necessary data upon which to make the best decisions about how to shape provision?

“From the employers that I have talked to, they have said that what we are teaching has been so watered down over the years that the students leaving college with a level 1 qualification do not have the basic underpinning knowledge that they expect from a level 1 college student.” (ENG)

Although some employers may have unreasonable expectations of young people in work,

“…reinforce with the employer that the learner is an apprentice, on £2.60 per hour and needs more support and time to complete tasks.” (BUS)

nonetheless, have curricula become too watered down? Are national skills levels a match for the best world skills levels?

“… my father spoke of five‑year apprenticeships and his father seven. My own training was indentured for four years and today, I find myself delivering similar qualifications to apprentices in the short space of two or three years at best. The recent announcement from John Hayes, minister of state for further education, skills and lifelong learning, was warmly welcomed. He stated that a minimum duration of 12 months will apply to all 16 to 18‑year‑old apprenticeships from August 2012, a change brought about by the shocking news that some apprenticeships were being delivered fully over the course of 10 weeks. With this constant erosion of timescale, vocational qualifications are devalued and undermined at a time when the very subjects themselves are increasing in difficulty and becoming ever more complex.” (ENG)

“The curriculum covers what is needed but covers only the very basics and over time it has been watered down further by awarding bodies and college funding. So in my short time in further education I have seen teaching time drop and with this the options for the student to benefit from a wider curriculum. (ENG)

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“As a general point, many staff consider the syllabus of the Edexcel/BTec engineering qualifications to be poorly written, yet we are told the content is based on sector skills council (SSC) input. If this is the case, the SSCs are a bit out of touch; with the lack of opportunity (due to funding) to visit industry and with the syllabus being somewhat ‘old‑style’ in structure, a modern approach to engineering in vocational education is a long way away.” (ENG)

Some respondents thought that BTec qualifications are too theoretical and therefore do not adequately prepare learners for job roles:

“Considering the level 3 BTec engineering course, some of the units are purely theoretical units. Although this information is essential for an engineering career, it does nothing in preparing them for employment. On the outcomes of these unit assignments, it states that students merely need to gain an understanding of the topic. My feelings are that they need to be able to do the work. Level 2 and 3 qualifications should be more practically orientated; a working knowledge is more valuable and longer lasting than a mere understanding of something. (ENG)

There was a view that, in the design of programmes, cooperation between education providers and employers ought to be at the level of employer organisations and awarding bodies, as the task of liaising with large numbers of employers locally is too time-consuming and may lead to distorted courses.

“In my experience, employers have limited engagement in the development, delivery and assessment of business learning … Fuller engagement must be via institutions and trade bodies and not simply through single companies as there is a possibility, or even likelihood, of bias creeping in.” (BUS)

“Analysis of employer feedback indicates some frustration about the methods and practices taught in the classroom when compared to the practices carried out in the workplace, for example, latest fashion and trends in hairdressing and more innovative techniques in carpentry. This is a big issue for employers and disadvantages newly qualified learners who have gained skills that, at the very least, need an immediate update.” (BUS)

“In my opinion, and some of my employers’, the national occupational standards are not set high enough.” (ENG)

Is there enough investment in vocational learning?

Two main dimensions come together to form a learning programme – resources of staffing, equipment and materials; and the resources of learners from previous education and training, and current commitment. Both dimensions show resource weaknesses. Is there enough investment of resource by BIS and employers to provide adequate vocational learning?

“I have discussed this with caterers and some prefer to keep staff untrained as they believe that they will lose them when trained; rather than that the quality of the service they are offering will improve – giving greater profits so they can pay a greater hourly rate and keep the staff.”(HOSP)

“Lash (1994 p195) suggested that ‘It is irrational for any one company to invest heavily in training workers, though it is eminently rational for companies as a whole to invest in such training’.”(HOSP)

And are learners recruited to the most appropriate courses?

“… vocational education does prepare those learners for employment – provided that the learners on the course actually want to become chefs (or hairdressers etc). What makes my job extremely difficult is teaching those students who are on the course by default, their GCSEs weren’t high enough to do what they really wanted to do, or the plumbing course was oversubscribed. It is essential that vocational courses focus on their core concern, be it cooking, beauty or fixing a car. There must be enough hours for students to do a task and do it again until they become fluent and competent.”(HOSP)

Some groups of people may face particular difficulty in moving from vocational education to employment, for example, some people with disabilities, and ex-offenders.

“One of the greatest disappointments associated with working in offender learning is the reluctance of employers to ‘take a chance’ on those with a criminal record … I am a great believer that if just one person would ‘risk’ becoming involved with the people we teach, others would follow and give our learners the opportunities that many of them really deserve.”(HOSP)

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There is some disquiet about whether recent changes to provision, following the Wolf report, might make matters worse; reducing, rather than increasing, endeavours to provide high-quality vocational learning.

“The recent move by the government to remove so many of the vocational options for 14–16 is a negative one in my view. Negative in terms of removing options for students to find something they enjoy and can excel at, and negative in terms of providing employers with what they need.” (ENG)

The government has since cut the funding for YAs (young apprenticeships) and so this course finishes this year. We have had some good successes with this course finding a good number of students’ apprenticeships after they have gained their qualification with their work placement. So I feel the government is being short‑sighted cutting funding from a course that is getting young people employed.” (ENG)

As state funding is reduced, and private providers are encouraged to step in, do they give value for money? Some for profit training providers have been criticised for poor performance, and even in some cases for fraud. Here is a cautionary account from a trainer.

“I have worked with a company who has stated that all vocational learning was completed within six weeks. A lot of this was tick box against the criteria and gave the impression to employees that it was not really worth the paper it was written on. I think more than half the learners did not really know what they had done to achieve their level 2 certificate. Feedback like this is not good for business and gives a poor impression of vocational learning which will not encourage companies to get involved in it. I think there should be stricter measures in place so that there is sufficient time for the learning to be undertaken and the learners more involved and know what their learning is towards and demonstrate the benefits to themselves as well as the company they work for.” Trainer, private training provider

Some people favour a reorientation of the practice of some college-based vocational education, so that it effectively becomes a business environment.

“Colleges are under pressure to make money and maximise resources so I feel investment in new facilities will need FE colleges to look at ways of bringing money in through these facilities … So to make the facilities truly RWE [realistic working environment] a college restaurant offering lunches and dinners and in‑house hospitality should be, and must be, run like a business ... These facilities should be used to showcase young people’s talents, to showcase the college and increase the profile of further education within the education and training sector. The same should apply to colleges’ beauty salons, MOT bays and garage facilities.”(HOSP)

Issues that the national Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning may wish to consider further

There is disquiet about the extent to which some current vocational education prepares learners for employment. The commission may consider:

z Are existing vocational programmes fit for purpose?

z Is provision for reviewing and developing programmes adequate?

z Is there adequate information, advice and guidance to ensure that learners are recruited to the most appropriate programmes?

z Is there enough investment by BIS and employers to provide adequate vocational learning and, in particular, to provide necessary work experience, or simulations of realistic working environments?

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1B. Links to employers

Both the Fryer Report (1997) and the Leitch review (2006) recommended greater employer involvement in vocational learning. And the literature on applied learning shows that employer engagement in curriculum design and delivery; and in assessment for and of learning, is beneficial.

“It will be for employers themselves to determine, in consultation with employees and their representatives, their particular needs and learning requirements and the best ways in which these can be met. They will need to adopt a positive approach to investment in learning. They should have regard for the importance not only of the development of particular skills and aptitudes, but also for those core and transferable skills that are most likely to promote the adaptability and flexibility of their workforces and the future employment prospects of their staff.” Fryer, pp10–11

The Leitch review recommended increasing employer investment in level 3 and 4 qualifications in the workplace and dramatically increasing apprenticeship volumes.

“Employer investment in skills varies significantly by type of employee, type of employer and sector of the economy. Training by employers is disproportionately focused on highly skilled workers, who are five times more likely to be trained at work than low skill workers. Around one‑third of firms do no training at all…employers, to increase their investment in skills to raise productivity, wherever possible increasing investment in portable, accredited training. Ensuring that the skills system delivers economically valuable skills by effectively influencing the system. Pledging to support their low‑skilled employees to reach at least a first, full level 2. Introducing sectoral measures such as levies, where a majority of employers in the sector agree.”Leitch, p24

The evidence gathered for this report indicates that in practice there is still a long way to go to achieve satisfactory levels of employer engagement in vocational learning. The economic downturn has made this more difficult – the country faces a dilemma – economic recession makes investment more difficult, but investment in skills is necessary to aid economic recovery.

There are some examples of relatively good employer engagement, particularly with large employers:

“…working with a large employer … to develop a course to meet their needs that will give their employees a City and Guilds qualification … I believe by involving employers in the design stage gives the employer a course they can own and at the same time giving them value for money. If another employer wants the course it should be tailored for them. I do not believe in a one‑size‑fits‑all approach, or that it is too much trouble to bespoke courses for employers.” (ENG)

“I do believe there are good links. The Academy of Food and Wine Service, for example, has forged many connections between employers and FE providers. I also found that Southgate College has good connections. It has an on‑site restaurant and has also put a big effort into finding placements for students. Its notice boards have current vacancies drawn from the restaurant business and the atmosphere is very much geared to working.”(HOSP)

“A great start to the week … because a senior member of the company had taken the time out (fully engaged in the vocational training process) to mentor the learner and to be present at the delivery providing encouragement and support. Chalk one up for employer involvement!” (BUS)

“The leadership and management in the Air Travel Industry Foundation Degree (LMATI FDA) [is an] innovative programme supported by a three‑way partnership between an HE institution (University of Exeter), an FE college (Exeter College) and an employer (Flybe). The University of Exeter is the awarding institute and Exeter College is the academic partner responsible for staffing, curriculum and delivery. The employer, Flybe, has involvement in the programme delivery and assessment.” (BUS)

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“Local engineering employers have regular input into the apprenticeship programmes, and the larger companies, such as the MOD and Babcock Marine Ltd, also send their staff on ‘bespoke’ courses within the apprenticeship framework. This means that the full‑time offer is kept up to date to match employer requirements through this interaction. The employers have had significant influence on what the awarding bodies have put into their curriculum offer, through SEMTA … Local employers are involved with the apprentice framework choices and all bespoke courses…they are not specifically involved in the delivery, although they are used as guest speakers and for industry visits, to a limited extent. The depth of involvement in the assessment for and of learning is applicable only to apprentice provision.” (ENG)

“I teach on Association of Accounting Technician programmes ... Employers are heavily involved in curriculum design and delivery at a national level as well as acting as external verifiers. This involvement adds to the credibility of the qualification and it is well recognised and valued by employers. At a college‑based level some (but an increasingly diminishing number of) learners are sponsored by their employers to gain the qualification.” (BUS)

There were caveats expressed about too much employer involvement.

“It is important for employers to be consulted in relation to vocational education and training programmes as they can help inform the teaching and planning of the teaching professionals…However, it would not be beneficial to allow employers to completely take over, as education is about developing the whole individual and not just developing the skills which the employers require.” (BUS)

“In the context of an ever‑changing world it is important for FE lecturers to have an understanding of what is possible. Some integration with employers would benefit both groups, but full integration could move us away from ‘education’ to churning out ‘employees’ with a much narrower view of the world instead of rounded individuals with transferable skills across diverse settings.”(BUS)

Large employers may be in a position to negotiate bespoke training but most firms are SMEs.

“It would be too cumbersome to involve each and every employer in design or delivery, so much of this would have been done through sector representation and employer groups.” (ENG)

“At Highbury College, the business and computing departments have excellent links with employers and create an array of opportunities for students to develop professionally. I personally do not see the great value in employers playing a part in curriculum design as the course is tailored to the demands of the students, our customers, not the businesses in the surrounding area.” (BUS)

Some vocational learning providers hold employers’ forums as a way of building relationships.

“We also run an employers’ forum, which allows interested employers (with or without apprentices) to come in and discuss issues that are important to them. Allows us to build relationships and develop the right courses for them. This has been key in allowing us to grow our work‑based learning numbers. It also has the benefit of opening up opportunities to visit local industry with learners. We can also help full‑time learners find apprenticeships or work experience.” (ENG)

While there may be good general employer engagement, and some more specific engagement by large employers who train significant numbers of staff, most employer engagement is more limited, such as choice of modules and occasional visiting speakers.

“Executive head chef from the Marriott Group came in today to talk to the students about an open day ... Students were well behaved and listened attentively to what the chef had to say, asked lots of formal questions and took notes about what is available. Excellent.”(HOSP)

“Finding guest speakers from the fashion retail industry has been difficult due to the current economic climate, where they are already running their businesses on minimal staff ... I had a guest speaker from a local accountancy firm to show the learners how accounting ratios are applied to businesses and which are more relevant depending upon their trade. This gave the learners the opportunity to ask questions about real life experiences in the accounting workplace.” (BUS)

Employers are, of course, running businesses and their capacity to be involved in detail is therefore limited. Nevertheless, some trainers would welcome greater involvement, for example, in assessment.

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“The delivery and assessment of learning outcomes is currently too focused upon simplistic tools such as multiple choice questions. In order to make the link between the employer and the delivery, assessment in the workplace of actual outcomes is very important; however this needs to be more than the NVQ tick box. Trainers should be able to work with employers to set specific outcomes that can be measured and assessed.” (BUS)

Could and should vocational learning providers do more to engage employers and market programmes?

“Curriculum design – there was minimal consultation with the employer. The Assessment Centre had sold the programme somewhat aggressively, leaving little detailed understanding of the process and commitment needed. Various centres produced leaflets and contract documents were left with the employer, but from my later contacts there was almost no employer understanding.” (ENG)

Lack of time – for vocational staff to go out to employers; and for employers to engage with learning providers – was cited as a limiting factor in forming closer links between vocational learning providers and employers.

“Greater employer involvement would also add to this so the courses offered are designed around what the employer needs, but this is always difficult because of time and finding enough employers to take part.” (ENG)

“I feel this is one area that can be vastly improved, especially within my department and college. We have good links with companies via our work‑based learning team and a high number of apprentices and employed learners but the employers do not get involved with curriculum design or curriculum delivery.” (ENG)

“What is missing for me, in vocational learning, is adequate development of the relationship between employers and learners. Until industry itself, takes ownership in local community of practise fashion, with the local institutions that provide their future employees, they will remain judgemental of the quality of student performance and disconnected from the responsibility of doing anything about it.” (BUS)

“Because of the present economic downturn, businesses are reluctant to invest in training or apprenticeships, preferring to employ staff only when necessary and choosing fully trained technicians over trainees ... This leads me to the conclusion that if local employers were more involved in curriculum design and delivery it would increase the chance of employment for the learners on the courses who would be better equipped with skills specifically asked for by employers.” (ENG)

As Leitch found, employer commitment is variable.

I have found the level of buy‑in from employers to be variable. The commercial sector is low, the public sector is more engaging, while the voluntary sector in particular is well linked and engaging throughout the assessment process.” (ENG)

“The employers are not overly interested in the design or delivery of a course, but more if it will fulfil the statutory and mandatory requirements that they have to meet.”(HOSP)

“As far as I am aware, employers do not have involvement in the curriculum design of the majority of our courses, with the exception of our links to the local job centres ... Employers are very much involved in the assessment of the skills that their employees have acquired, particularly with our work‑based learners, such as level 2 and 3 NVQ apprentices and level 2 Train to Gain learners.”(HOSP)

There are national initiatives that aim to have much tighter and more productive links with employers. At the Cambridge seminar, one respondent from North Hertfordshire College spoke favourably of the college’s sponsoring of the Da Vinci Studio School of Science and Engineering for 14+ learners, as a way of engaging learners of relatively high ability in vocational learning.

However, another commentator was doubtful, concerned that such studio schools might narrow the curriculum, possibly encouraging specialisation too soon in a young person’s education, and may not serve the interests of learners who are still maturing and forming their vocational interests.

No specific references were made by teachers to university technical colleges (UTCs), probably as they are in the early stages of development.

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Some teachers cited with approval the German dual model of vocational education.

“The German dual system, in which students alternate blocks of time in a vocational learning environment with paid employment, enables young people to connect their learning with practical elements of the job. The European Union rates Germany’s model of vocational education the ‘best practice’ model for the qualification of young people” (Comparative Education Review, 2000). (BUS)

More recent studies, however, have shown that even the German model is under strain as employers recruit fewer staff and take a more cautious approach to investment in training.


z There is some good practice in developing links between vocational learning providers and employers, to the benefit of both, as well as to the economy.

z Is it possible to find examples of good practice, to determine what factors brought it about; may sustain it; and how it may be disseminated to both vocational education providers and to employers?

z What may be done to help more hands-on employer involvement in providing suitable work placements – particularly at level 3 and above?

z Just as parents and communities are being encouraged to take a more active part in schooling, should employers take a more active role in vocational education and training, including curriculum design, delivery and assessment?

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1C. Barriers to greater employer involvement

The perspective of IfL respondents to this research is based mainly on their experience of local vocational learning and employer engagement. They had little to say about employer involvement nationally. LSIS, in parallel work to this, is looking at this wider dimension.

The most often cited barrier to greater employer involvement in vocational learning at a local level is lack of time – employer time and vocational staff time. And the economic downturn has made this worse.

“The recession and austerity measures remain a key barrier for increasing employer involvement. Time pressure is another barrier. Sometimes this is due to the incompatibility of college timetables; increased use of part‑time staff in further education colleges (so development and liaison work is not undertaken) as well as lack of time from employers and other stakeholders for liaison and development work.” (BUS)

Some employers may be reluctant to release staff to fulfil all the guided learning hours set for a programme:

“[Using] guided learning hours is a good idea because before there were so many corners cut. NVQs were very much ticking boxes, now they have to incorporate learning; but many employers are very reluctant to release staff for guided learning hours.”Cambridge seminar

“Lack of flexibility due to the scheduling of timetables and meetings already in place for the educational staff, who have little or no spare capacity within their working day to accommodate items outside their teaching remit.” (ENG)

“Generally the barriers to greater employer involvement is a combination of a lack of time, not knowing who to talk to, either in the college or in the company and getting the message out to the employers of how and what they can get involved in.” (ENG)

“Time and the fear of increased administration. Unless a training division (or person) exists, managers may feel they are wasting valuable time for ‘real work’ … SMEs … are the least likely to have access to the right facilities; less able to give time off for study, less able to access resources and are the most needy for team flexibility.”(HOSP)

“…the availability of appropriate staff in meetings with course organisers. Frequently the meetings take place at senior management level and do not involve the practitioners and delivery staff. Consequently the strategic viewpoint is considered more often than the practical delivery and enhancement for courses.” (ENG)

“My links with employers are restricted to taking occasional trips; placements for level 2 and three students, of any significance, are rare. Apprenticeship and intern opportunities are limited; supply of students high, and as a consequence, experiencing business education is isolated and unnatural.” (BUS)

“There are many barriers to greater employer involvement, as employers are often too busy to organise work placements or say that they can’t afford the time to spend with someone who can’t do anything productive. I must say that one or two companies are excellent when it comes to setting up work experience but that we need many more if this sort of thing is ever to be effective. The vast majority of learners on our welding courses are middle‑aged men, ie between 25 and 45 … The small companies are so busy they don’t have time to take on and train apprentices, so anything training establishments can do to help would benefit them. Some of the smaller companies complain about the type of training the learners are getting because it isn’t tailored to their specific requirements, which as things stand, is virtually impossible to overcome due to the high cost.” (ENG)

“Greater employer involvement would also add to this so the courses offered are designed around what the employer needs, but this is always difficult because of time and finding enough employers to take part. This would give the employers greater confidence in the students we are producing and know they have gained some of the experiences they are looking for.” (ENG)

“… work placements that the students have to complete … a great way for employers to be involved in what we do as a college, sometimes it feels like it’s a them‑and‑us situation with employers. This year due to the recession, even the most motivated and able students seem to be struggling to get part‑time jobs.”(HOSP)

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“Barriers that I feel may exist in preventing greater employer involvement are a lack of knowledge of the criteria needed for taking on students for some of our vocational training programmes. We have, however, in our department, recently taken on a new marketing officer whose role is to recruit new learners by contacting and visiting local employers. The current tough economic situation has not helped as some employers are not recruiting at the moment.”(HOSP)

“We are in the process of planning another ‘teaching day’ among other employer engagement programmes but the time, money and effort it takes is quite substantial. We do not receive any remission in teaching hours for organising these activities ... I feel these are the main barriers. Lecturers simply do not have the time and budget required.” (BUS)

“College structures can be very complex and it is often difficult to get to speak to the appropriate person initially. The first contact is not necessarily able to route the employer through to the right faculty either due to the changing nature of the curriculum offer. Whilst it is very easy for established areas to engage with this, it is hard for new areas to develop.” (ENG)

Some employers have many requests for work placements, often for courses for very young people, on level 1 programmes, with limited skills. Would it be better to limit work placements to learners who can genuinely contribute to and benefit from the experience?

When vocational staff do have the time to attempt to make contact with employers, they may not reach the right people.

“With individual companies and organisations, academic institutions are frequently directed to HR or training departments rather than experienced practitioners. This results in an interpretation between the ‘front line’ needs and the educational establishment and some dilution or distortion of those real needs.” (BUS)

The marketing of the benefits of greater employer engagement in vocational learning may be improved.

“The bottom line for most employers is going to be value for money. Employers want to see a return on the time and money invested in training their staff and equipping them with vocational qualifications. They need to be shown that the vocational qualification will add value to their business. Time is a big issue and a big barrier for many employers. If they can be shown that the qualification is worth the time invested, they will be more willing to pursue it. The gains are many: increased staff morale, knowledge and skills based around their job role, and a knock on effect of staff retention if they feel they are valued. These are all big benefits which are difficult to quantify in monetary terms, but that is what employers want to see.” (BUS)

This better marketing may be achieved if education is more open to translating often opaque jargon into language that employers understand.

“… creating meaningful discussions around developing learning outcomes with employers, that show explicit mappings between the expert employer language and academic or pedagogic language and the eventual learning outcomes used in formal course documentation.” (BUS)

A topic that was given no mention in reports was whether the concept of employer involvement is adequately developed. At present most activities involve relatively superficial contact – such as choice of modules for larger employers; providing work placements or actual work on apprenticeships but without necessarily engaging with apprentice learning; site visits; occasional guest speakers. It is possible to envisage a deeper engagement, in which employers share responsibility for developing, delivering and assessing programmes of vocational learning. It is also possible that a firm’s staff are employed part-time as educators, thus maintaining up to date knowledge of current working practices.


z Is it possible to develop the concept of ‘employer involvement’, so that the mutual benefits of employer input to curriculum planning and delivery; and of assessment for learning are more widely known and appreciated?

z Is it possible to identify some examples of effective practice in forging such links and show how the time and other resource was found to establish and sustain links?

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2A. Which teaching methods give learners the best learning opportunities?

The importance of learning working practices

As may be expected, there is a strong agreement among teachers and trainers that vocational learning must be rooted in actual practice, or as close as possible to the conditions of actual, workplace practice. Only in this way can learners develop not only the skills of the trade, but also its cultural norms, both specific to particular industries and firms, and general, such as turning up on time.

“Our college is at the forefront of experiential learning and our principal Fintan Donohue has co‑written a book about it and is keen for our teaching to be experiential and entrepreneurial. This basically means linking the learning to the workplace, or keeping it real and letting the learner be at the centre of the learning.” (ENG)

“It can only do this [vocational education prepares learners for the workplace] if the learning outcomes and training link to the real world. This does not mean just practical workplace activities. I use role plays, scenarios, exercises and practical challenges to enable delegates to assimilate and turn explicit skills into tacit knowledge.” (BUS)

“… unemployed running a café in an unused catering section at a satellite campus, they will learn real skills and see the result of their work ... we run a café just as if it was a commercial enterprise ... All students get an opportunity to try all the trades … real training where the students are making the decisions and seeing the results, mass catering for real customers.”(HOSP)

Making it real, by engaging learners in real work experience, is universally recognised as the best basis for vocational learning. However, this may not be easy to arrange, and may involve the teacher in considerable extra-curricular activity. It may be that some vocational areas, such as engineering, find it more challenging to develop skills off the job that other areas, such as business studies where classroom-based simulations are much easier to organise.

The difficulties of matching college-based, and even apprentice off-the-job training, to actual practice is a recurring theme in teachers’ and trainers’ responses.

“I have placed students with real motor racing teams and have found this has provided the students with the most valuable ‘learning’. However, this relies heavily on me supporting the students at weekends, as that is when races take place.”Policy Review TV symposium (AN)

In practice, it is not always possible to use real workplaces as a basis for aspects of vocational learning and then programmes must fall back on simulations.

“Business simulation games are good tools to develop a better understanding of business concepts as they help build a range of skills such as team working and problem solving while at the same time using higher level thinking skills such as problem solving, evaluation. They also enable learners to see business in a real‑life context and assess the impact of different situations. I also feel scenario based methods work very well in business and methods that enable them to apply concepts rather than describe or explain them.” BUS programme director

It is practice that makes perfect and teachers and trainers are concerned that sufficient practical opportunities are given to learners.

“There must be enough hours for students to do a task and do it again until they become fluent and competent.”(HOSP)

“Our foundation students tell us the best way they learn is by implementing what they learn in college straight back in their businesses. But our BA students don’t get that opportunity most of the time. Some BTec students after two years are so bored with the classroom that their attendance falls.” (BUS)

Students too were clear about the key features of effective vocational learning.

“There needs to be a mix of theoretical and practical approaches based in a real working environment and the approaches need to be flexible and relevant to the subject. What does not work is a teacher or trainer either giving you a hand out or pack of materials and then leaving you to get on with it, or, even worse, asking you to copy things down from a book, board or lecture. Both have been experienced.” Student seminar feedback

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The delivery of more theoretical knowledge, and of key or functional skills, is often carried out by stealth – which may be an important fact for the commission to investigate. Why is there so much learner resistance to important aspects of vocational learning?

“All in all I managed to get a group of learners, who don’t like reading or writing, to fully research a certain topic and answer some questions without them realising that they were learning – by incorporating movement and an element of competition into the session. It was a great success.” (ENG)

If vocational learning, to be effective, should be closely linked to actual practice – producing relatively autonomous people with the skills and knowledge to work productively – then are there significant differences between teaching work-based learners, such as apprentices, and full-time learners in college?

“There are a few units on the BTec level 3 programme that I teach to both WBL and full‑time groups on different days. I find that progress is much quicker with the WBL groups than with full‑time, and the experience of the WBL means the materials and content of the lessons also is different.” (ENG)

“While at the college, I was always surprised by the difference in attitude and practical ability between our full‑time learners and our day‑release learners. The day‑release students were generally much more interested in progression and had superior technical skills and knowledge. Many of the full‑time students gave me the impression that they attended out of necessity rather than desire, either due to parental pressure or for other socioeconomic reasons.” (ENG)

“Engineering students are not particularly keen on the ‘games’ type approach to learning – they seem to prefer the traditional approaches of ‘being taught’, and ‘practical application’. However, there is a clear difference between the apprentices and the full‑time learners. While the full‑time learners prefer a wide variety of teaching methods, encompassing many of the recent changes in pedagogy, the apprentices prefer the old fashioned ‘being taught’. Using students to show methods or discuss techniques works well with full‑time learners, but apprentices and part‑time learners are not happy with this. They see it that the lecturer is ‘not doing their job – teaching is what they are paid to do – not to get us to do it for them’.” (ENG)

Work-based learning often includes a large element of one-to-one training and assessment that is more difficult to find time for in full-time education and that, therefore, falls back on classroom work, often with large groups of students. It is hard, therefore, to avoid a feeling of being back in school.

“I work on a one‑to‑one basis with my learners, even when I have more than one in the same company … Dealing with the learners on a one‑to‑one basis gives me the opportunity to tailor the teaching and learning experience to suit the learner.” (BUS)

“Learners seem to prefer workbooks which they can complete at their own pace rather than being a classroom – this is too much like school. Group work can be useful but weaker learners are often not able to learn so one‑to‑one sessions with assessors do help in these instances. As learners become older – coming back into a workshop is more acceptable where views are shared, and often specific skills can be taught at this time.” (BUS)

There is a strong belief, perhaps especially among work-based training providers, that learners must suit the learning.

“Before my learners embark on the apprenticeship I spend a great deal of time preparing them through a process of information, advice and guidance (IAG) which, I believe, is the one of the most important factors in successful preparation, retention and timely achievement.” (ENG)

“It [initial advice and guidance] can help quickly resolve any misunderstandings as to the expectations of the learners, the teacher, the employer and any other stakeholder. It also sets out the amount of input necessary from all those involved and the proposed timeframe for each element to be completed. If there are any additional support needs required these can be addressed from the start of the learning programme rather than allowing these to become barriers in themselves. This is very important for the confidence of the learner.”(HOSP)

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Learning styles and strategies

The views of teachers and trainers about effective learning were sometimes pithy, such as this one:

“Tell me and I forget, Teach me and I remember, Involve me and I learn.” Benjamin Franklin (1706‑1790)MISC training provider

“The old Chinese proverb, ‘I hear – I forget, I see – I remember, I do – I understand’, describes the teaching methods that give learners the best learning opportunities in vocational education.” (HOSP)

Pedagogy – the use of a repertoire of teaching techniques to help learners develop a range of relevant skills and knowledge – is constrained by several factors – among which respondents raised: initial advice and guidance that places learners on appropriate programmes; the pastoral support of learners, especially young learners with unsatisfactory experiences of schooling; and of course the resourcing of learning, including the time available to teach.

It may, therefore, be helpful to think not of vocational pedagogy but of a series of overlapping pedagogies for learning, depending on subject area, level, the location of the learning, and the ages of the learners. There is no one-size-fits-all approach.

It may also be recognised that learning by doing, active learning, is not just about what teachers do. It requires a set of learner attributes and attitudes, such as these posted on the wall of Cambridge Regional College engineering block:

Learning to Learn

Effective Participants Reflective Learners Team Workers Self Managers

These attributes may not walk through the door with the learner, but often have to be developed in the approach to learning taken by teachers and trainers. Teaching and learning are reciprocal activities: both teachers and learners have to work appropriately, and this often requires training – of both the learner and the teacher. Moreover, employers too have an important part to play in the activities of learning.

“For vocational education to be effective, it is important that there is a close link between the training, the employer and the learner. This requires the training to be ‘fit for purpose’, the employer to be clear as to what they want from their new employee, and the learner to recognise their part in the programme. They need to be committed to completing work set by the teacher, attending all parts of the training and being a responsible member of the workforce when on work placement. The more the employer can be involved with all aspects of the development programme the more effective vocational education will be.”(HOSP)

The active engagement of learners – rather than passive recipients of teaching – is seen as essential by both learners and teachers but, for some respondents, there are tensions between what they see as the current, dominant model of education; and the most useful and desirable learning and teaching methods that are based on the empowerment of learners to be excited by, and to take considerable responsibility for, their own learning.

“Best teaching and learning methods (see work of Frank Coffield, 2007 and 2012) need to adopt models of learning that are more empowering for both learners and teachers, rather than pressuring them to meet targets. The participation model of learning needs to be given more prominence over the current oriented, acquisition model of learning. In order for this to happen we must encourage the development of communities of learning that enable teachers to exercise their own judgement of the shape of teaching and learning.” Policy Review TV symposium (MS)

“Some of the best teachers I know deliver seamless and effortless lessons that are fun, exciting and provide opportunities for stimulating discussion and thought. I think the importance of thinking skills mustn’t be overlooked, and education should be about empowering people to make critical judgements. This is best done through constructivist approaches that promote discovery and learning. However, there is often a tension between the demands of outcome‑based curricula that restrict time for thinking and exploration of ideas and concepts.”(BUS)

“Some barriers to improving teaching approaches are the narrow focus of the assessment grading criteria which I feel has an emphasis on cognitive domain of learning. For instance, to meet the pass criteria in the courses that I teach, learners are often asked to ‘describe’ and ‘explain’ rather than ‘apply’ or ‘calculate’.”(BUS)

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A more personalised approach to learning, that develops learner autonomy and genuine work knowledge, skills and attitudes, needs adequate resourcing. Here is an example of a well-resourced programme that treats off-the-job vocational learning as an integral part of employment practices.

“Each learner is assigned his or her own machine at the beginning of the six‑week course. They are then responsible for the cleaning of their machine and for all equipment assigned to that machine. Training 2000 provides transport for the majority of apprentices; this is in the form of minibuses driven by training instructors ... All apprentices at their place of work by eight o’clock. Every apprentice has their own individual clock‑card like in industry. They use this to clock in, in the morning and again to clock out at the end of the day. These electronic swipe cards enable staff to monitor the punctuality and absenteeism of apprentices. This process also prepares them for a working routine, making them accountable for their timekeeping and giving them responsibility. Reports are completed regarding each apprentice at the end of each week. Categories such as attitude, ability to learn and progress made are all graded from 1‑5 on a Likert scale. At the end of the six‑week period, the instructor writes their comments relating to that apprentice; the apprentice then gets the chance to respond.” (ENG)

In full-time education, including higher education, there is more distance between college-based and work-based practices, so that teachers have to consciously consider how to bridge the gap; and must also have had the personal work experience that enables them to do this. The use of virtual learning environments (VLE) may help, but interestingly, as the following account shows, this may work best with students who have work experience, such as these block-release HE engineering students.

“It was heartening to find that this entire group had accessed VLE materials and made some attempt at the problems, with variable success. I was able to give more challenging problems to those with some confidence ... These students are already employed, so every effort is made to provide them with industry‑relevant challenges, which are often significantly different from the numerical problems which the academic syllabus might suggest.” (ENG)

By contrast, this teacher found that in a group with a number of first year full-time students a VLE did not work as well.

“I am attempting to develop skills of enquiry and analysis in these students through presenting them with practical real‑world situations and asking them to predict the behaviour of key aspects, all without mathematical analysis. I put substantial material on the VLE for the students to download, read and work through. The group are reluctant to access the materials and take command of their own learning, expecting again to be spoon‑fed knowledge and led through its application. Dealing with this situation is a challenge: should students not complying with instructions to undertake study outside class‑time be sanctioned? What would the impact be on the college’s precious success rates?” (ENG)

“There is extensive use of the VLE for course materials/sessions and assessment so that students can access this in their own time and flexibly according to need. This is then supplemented by practical demonstrations and hands‑on experience in an appropriate workplace setting. This mixture the students found really motivating because a certain amount was under their control.”Student seminar feedback

The use of e-based technologies and blended learning is not unproblematic – it requires learners who are capable of taking a good deal of personal responsibility for their learning.

“A greater responsibility is placed upon the learner to study through the use of remote delivery resources such as a VLE, web‑based content or structured question and answer methods. The main barrier to this style of delivery is learner initiative and enterprise, the learner has to manage their time effectively and be proactive in order to complete this work between my scheduled workplace visits.” (ENG)”

“… the new electronic portfolio system … as a means of recording evidence and progress, is a very efficient tool. As a teaching aid it also has its advantages ... It however lacks the face‑to‑face element of training which, in my opinion, takes away the hands‑on encouragement and motivation of the learner/trainer relationship. It also hinders the element of guided development and preparation for future and current employment ... So care is needed not to lose the human part of the trainer/learner interface.” (BUS)

“Moodle and similar e‑means to teach and learn are being used more but there was concern that this may not always be beneficial to learners unless balanced with direct interaction with teachers. There was a clear message from learners that they want face‑to‑face interaction with teachers, and getting help when they need it.” Birmingham seminar

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For realistic working environments to be effective as sites for learning teachers and trainers must have authentic and relevant work experience – this is necessary to be able to pass on the skills and knowledge required; but also to gain the confidence and respect of learners.

“By far the most effective classroom business teaching occurs when students are able to access teachers with experience in industry; where scenarios and simulations accurately reflect the sophistications of the working environment; and where they can be involved in individual and group project activities – so ‘doing’ and not just theorising. This is not to dismiss theory, but to see its application amongst a context and where possible to draw upon relevant resources, informed guest speakers, visits, case studies and simulations which engage student thinking.” (BUS)

Although most classroom teaching is carried out by solitary teachers, much vocational education and training takes place in workshops and kitchens and other social environments. Team working is, therefore, an essential element of effective teaching.

“Our department does lots of peer observations and this is recorded monthly, any issues are raised in staff appraisals or in team meetings. Our team meets every Friday to discuss any at risk students, curriculum issues, ideas on innovation and good practice.”(HOSP)

“[I am] part of the work‑based assessor team. We constantly bounce ideas off each other, which is really good, and help each other in different ways.” (ENG)

The most potent theoretical construct influencing teaching methods is that of learning styles – based on Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) – which, despite criticism as being under-theorised and unproven to raise achievement (Coffield et al, 2004) is alive and well in the professed practice of vocational teachers. The term ‘kinaesthetic’ learners or learning was cited quite often, referring to the preference of vocational learners for learning by doing, employing physical activity.

“Learners in vocational areas are predominantly kinaesthetic in their learner profile (2011 apprentice questionnaire). The approach taken is to align the theory with the practical sessions.” (ENG)

“Business can be a very classroom‑based and theoretical subject but this unit makes the qualification a lot more practical for the learner and really suits the kinaesthetic learners of the group, which many are that undertake a vocational course.” (BUS)

“Tailor an approach to teaching and learning that gives students multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas. This then requires employers to be flexible in their approach to instructing, adjusting the curriculum and presentation of information to their learners rather than expecting students to modify themselves for the curriculum.” (ENG)

“The students prefer a kinaesthetic or ‘hands on’ style.”(HOSP)

However, the idea of learning styles, leading to a form of personalised learning, was critiqued by one teacher because, in practice, most teaching is carried out with groups of learners. Although a variety of teaching strategies may be used, these cannot be tailored to each individual.

“The course of study I followed to attain my certificate in education equipped me to recognise the various preferred learning styles of my students, and although this is an important factor in tailoring teaching to suit the individual, I feel that it benefits the learner far more to have a well‑rounded approach to learning and to recognise the value of learning in all its varied forms. A personalised approach is easily achievable in a one‑to‑one teaching situation, but very difficult when delivering to a group. As the vast majority of further education is delivered in group sessions, less emphasis should be placed upon the importance of this during initial teacher training and a greater focus placed upon producing and using engaging, interesting content to enthuse the learner.” (ENG)

However, what this quotation also shows is confusion between ‘personalised’ learning – which is based on the recognition of each learner as a person who should be made to feel part of the learning experience; and ‘individualised’ learning, which is indeed impracticable in most education.

Some vocational teachers have a sophisticated sense of teaching and learning strategies, presumably gained from teacher training.

“In an effort to lend more breadth and depth I actively support constructivist learning by planning for lessons that contain group problem‑solving activities that require cooperation, with rules for exploratory conversations ... Learning should be situated and social, so group work promotes team building and motivates learning using practical based activities, and applying problem solving skills to the situation drawing on previous experiences and knowledge.” (BUS)

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Interestingly, this respondent found it increasingly difficult to teach in this way:

“Vocational lecturers are under pressure to reduce time spent on vocational skills, whilst pressure to hit targets has led to more coaching and the absence of any real teaching of content. Summative assessment dominates much pedagogy in vocational education, with tracking and signing‑off targets dominating, with many students expecting to pass and to be coached to do so – a belief also held by parents in a climate driven by tables and success rates. But this is counter‑productive because students have not developed the autonomous work situated skills they will need and employers become disengaged from this source of employee.” (BUS)

An awareness of teaching strategies that may lead learners to fuller engagement with knowledge has wide, although not universal, influence in vocational education and training – here is an example from military training:

“Successful learning opportunities are very much down to the individual learner but also rely heavily on the teacher, FSW (Food Services Wing) tries to create and facilitate a social learning environment which in most cases encourages a positive learning experience ... FSW adapts its strategies and methods to meet the needs of the learner…changes it teaching strategy and then finally helps the individual to develop their own preferred way of learning, helping them to take control of the learning experience ... In the past the military has tended to favour the ‘talk and chalk’ method of vocational lectures and lessons but is now steering away from this style of learning and is now conducting much of their vocational training in lifelike situations that mirror placements in a social context and vocational environment that is beyond training.”(HOSP)

And this from a military engineering tutor:

“We teach various methodologies, such as learning by rote, drill and practice. I had recently explored another methodology, which is collaborative learning. A methodology I would argue promotes critical thinking and problem‑solving skills, those very attributes required to achieve competency for students learning to be engineers.” (ENG)

Vocational education is not only about developing practice in skills and knowledge, but also about developing appropriate self-discipline and attitudes to work. This may be much more challenging with full-time students.

“Developing the work ethic of turning up every day, completing routine tasks, communicating with those we work with, recognising that if you don’t do the work someone else has to, are core skills that sometimes do not come from being in the full‑time education environment.”(HOSP)

“The teacher is a role model for becoming resourceful. The key skill we can develop in our learners is to facilitate them to satisfy their own thirst by thinking creatively. This requires encouraging learners to be bold and challenge fears and procrastination or dependence on others. This is at the heart of both being an autonomous learner in and out of the classroom and links to individual responsibility.”

Policy Review TV symposium (JK)

“One of the main themes running throughout the recent changes in FE is the shift from a teacher‑centred approach to a more learner‑centred approach. This is not just a semantic shift, but involves actually putting the learner’s needs at the centre of activities … making a psychological shift to a learner‑centred approach which involves learners, can actually be helpful because whereas there are opportunities for learning in virtually every activity lecturers carry out, there are not always opportunities for formal teaching events.” (ENG)

Once on a course, especially for full-time learners, an important part of many teachers’ role is giving pastoral support to learners.

“… had one‑to‑one with two students: one for poor motivation; and another who had just returned after poor health and absence ... angry about me calling her mum about her being absent. Anyway, I was calm, respectful and listened. I then managed to get her to come up with a plan to move on and I could feel her anger dwindling away. Next student was the one being absent a lot due to ill‑health. She clearly did not look well and she also confirmed that she was pregnant. So not good news on a two‑year business course. However, she is very capable so we discussed a plan to catch‑up and I made an effort to be understanding, at the same time saying about our standards of attendance and punctuality. Both ended one‑to‑ones worth doing with hopefully some change in behaviour. (BUS)

It is worth remarking that these one-to-one conversations – potentially so important to the students – took place during class time, so that the teacher has to manage the rest of the learners at the same time.

“Checked that others now knew what to do and sent different students off to do it. Before that, ensured that all students had relevant task to complete ... I set a place in the corner of the room.” (BUS)

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The combined processes of pedagogy specifically aimed at developing skills and knowledge, and pedagogy aimed at building learner confidence and morale, come together in the aim of developing more autonomous learners, able to take more responsibility for themselves and for work tasks. This is an important dimension of successful learning, although I read over 40 respondents’ accounts before coming across any explicit mention of this.

“… helps the individual to develop their own preferred way of learning, helping them to take control of the learning experience.”(HOSP)

Note that autonomy is not something that all learners, especially young learners, display to begin with, but a set of attitudes and abilities that it is necessary for teachers and trainers to nurture and develop – possibly by specific interventions, such as PLTS (personal learning and thinking skills); but more importantly through pedagogic practice – the way that teachers treat learners, the expectations they mutually hold, the tasks that are set.

“With the new apprenticeships aimed at 16 to 18‑year‑olds, the introduction of PLTS is designed to get the learner thinking about and taking charge of their career and life and not just aimlessly wonder through life being spoon‑fed. In an engineering subject, skills like creative thinking are just as important as diagnostic skills, allowing the learner to think out of the box and come up with solutions to challenges and problems that will come their way that cannot be taught in the conventional pedagogic way.” (ENG)

“Most learners carry out different tasks as I allow them to choose what units they wish to carry out in order to achieve the award. By allowing them to choose they are more likely to succeed as it is self‑directed learning. In my opinion self‑directed learning should be used whenever possible.” (ENG)

It is widely acknowledged in responses that successful teaching – whether for subject-specific or pastoral purposes – is founded upon respect for the learner.

“As a lecturer, I always teach the student not the group and treat individual students with respect and try to cater to all their needs. I draw on my own experiences at school where I was treated as slow and unteachable.” (ENG)

“I often fall back on my humanistic approach which I like because it allows me to progress my relationship with each individual learner, as well as motivating and helping to increase their self‑esteem.” (ENG)

“I believe the learner‑lecturer relationship to be very fundamental in the progression and lifelong learning of our learners. Treat them like adults and with respect, and I mean respect that these young adults need; listen and learn from them; give them responsibility outside that of what they would normally have, and the results that you end up with are amazing.”(HOSP)

“I work well with teenagers and often they receive a bad press, but I find if you work with them they will work with you, it is a two‑way street – give respect first and it will come back.”(HOSP)

“I teach my subjects with passion and enthusiasm, which I believe is integral to motivating students to do well in my lessons. I treat students fairly and with respect.” (BUS)

Respect for learners is not confined to developing their specific skills – as has always been the case in the best apprenticeships, it is also about developing learners as people.

“I think it is important to encourage vocational students to adopt a more fluid and flexible model towards their learning goals. Through autonomy and taking responsibility for their own learning not only helps them to achieve these goals but may result in an attitude change towards other areas of their lives – they may become rounded citizens. Through citizenship, the student will benefit, but so too will the local community, the country and its economic wealth. As teachers we need to remember that we are not only imparting subject knowledge but can influence, by our own ethical professionalism, the student’s overall life attitude.” (BUS)

A mutually respectful relationship with learners was often regarded as essential to effective learning.

“The best teaching methods are generally accompanied by a confident non‑confrontational atmosphere where tutor and student know, respect and can comfortably communicate with each other. I found engineering students respond best to a session that starts with a short introduction, a video clip then a mini lecture/discussion with some key points put onto the white board, followed by a short activity that is closely related. This gives them a short relaxing time where they can think about what they have just learnt. Then move back into the topic with a small test/peer assessment to see what they have learnt. Conclude with a consolidation and finally review the outcomes.” (ENG)

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“The most effective teaching methods are those where the learner is at the centre of the activity. They need to be involved in the selection of methods.” Policy Review TV symposium (JS)

“Engineering is clearly a team‑based vocation and it is vital to link the pedagogy to the requirements of the vocation. The mechanisms of being able to assess a team member’s contribution individually needs to be clearly developed. Some of the key lessons learnt during initial teacher training were to always involve the learners in activities. It is very important to listen to learners and where they are, so that they can be assisted on their learning journey. Learners are often focused very much on how they are to be assessed, therefore it is vital to keep the assessment close to terms that they can relate to.” (ENG)

Competitions and special events were mentioned by several respondents as a way of energising learning and raising learner motivation.

“… practising for his competition (quite a prestigious one) the Salon Culinaire in London. It amazes me that, when challenged by others, certain situations or peers, we as humans rise to the challenge.”(HOSP)

“Group work is introduced as well as opportunities to present to the class, as they take ownership of part of the teaching if they are presenting, and each group will try to shine above the others.”(HOSP)

Interestingly, no respondent mentioned WorldSkills as a way of enhancing learner performance and the standards of their work.

Devising engaging and interesting content occupies the thoughts and work of many teachers, and leads in some cases to staging special events, a lot of work for teachers, but reaping rewards in learner motivation.

“Today is the long‑awaited Enfield Innovation Event with all the business students in today and some who are on study day, plus visitors. Normal timetables were suspended for this event; workbooks, application forms and certificates were prepared. Visitors arrived, equipment tested and room ready for 80 students. Good buzz, not sure quite what to expect but it is a lot of students to engage with at once. Majority all appropriate dress code which is a good sign and anticipation in the air ... It was remarkably focused, professional and learners were engaged. It was great to see different levels of learners working together.” (BUS)

When learning is successful, then it is important to celebrate success – in recognition of the efforts of both teachers and trainers and learners.

“The awards night is a celebration of the success of the previous year’s apprentices. Various awards are presented, including best apprentice, best milling apprentice and most improved apprentice, as well as best portfolio. This year’s event is held at a local hotel with a sit‑down meal prior to the awards for approximately 200 people. These include the parents of any winners as well as their company representatives.” (ENG)


It may be helpful to think not of vocational pedagogy but of a series of overlapping pedagogies for learning, depending on subject area, level, the location of the learning, and the ages of the learners. There is no one-size-fits-all approach.

There is a strong consensus that effective teaching methods for vocational learning are based on realistic work problems and scenarios, led by teachers and trainers who have recent and relevant vocational experience.

z Is there sufficient provision of realistic working practices?

z Do teachers have adequate access to vocational experience?

The best teaching is based on mutual respect between teachers and learners. The most effective teaching methods are interactive, and develop learner autonomy as well as specific skills and knowledge.

Is it possible to identify examples of successful practice, across several vocational areas, of different types, and to disseminate this? (I will add a caveat. Norton Grubb (1999), in his work on American vocational education, found that the managers of community colleges were often unaware of the really good practice in their own colleges. He believed that the same was almost certainly true of British further education.)

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2B Barriers to improving teaching approaches in vocational learning

Lack of resources for vocational learning

Overwhelmingly, the major barrier to improving teaching approaches in vocational learning, identified by respondents, was inadequate resources for learning, especially but not exclusively, in college-based vocational education. This may be most marked in areas like engineering, with higher resource demands.

“With around 300 learners working on the same vehicles during an academic year, the resources soon become somewhat used.” (ENG)

“The teaching in this area could be further enhanced through practical demonstrations; unfortunately, a lot of equipment for engineering demonstrations is expensive, due to the complexity required. Attempts at budgeting for laboratory and practical equipment and a dedicated facility have been unsuccessful.” (ENG)

“Being a teaching environment means that we are at the back of the queue when it comes to replacing tools.”(ENG)

“BTec unit covering electrical motors. Unfortunately there is no practical element built into the assessment, which is heavily biased towards descriptive work, eg lots of research and report writing. I can do some practical in the delivery, as I have got some useful motor testing equipment. However, I do not have sufficient time in the GLH (guided learning hours) to build enough in and still cover the assessment requirements (a problem with this qualification). I am also slightly restricted as I have access to only one motor test rig, sharing it between 16 learners!” (ENG)

“There are a number of barriers to improving teaching approaches in vocational education; one of these in my college is the fact that investment in new, up to date machines has not been forthcoming so some machines are 40 to 50 years old and in need of repair and replacement.” (ENG)

The difficulties of running vocational learning programmes without realistic simulations of real work places are not confined to areas such as engineering.

“I know it may seem like the same excuse all the time, but funding is always a constraint. At the university I attended, we had a purpose‑built wine tasting suite, a fully functioning bar, three restaurants, a twenty‑six bedroom hotel and a conference centre. At the college where I teach we don’t even sell beer on‑tap. That certainly makes it difficult to teach students how to pour a beer! In the years that I have been in further education, funding has been cut to the extent that most extra curriculum trips have been excluded from the programme.”(HOSP)

“What has hampered us this year is the cut in funded learning hours, which has resulted in the loss of the college catering restaurant – our RWE.”(HOSP)

“The project method allows the learner to express themselves through a wide range of interesting ideas. The main barrier to this method of teaching and learning is lack of expertise, resources and time to develop high‑quality learning materials and assessment tools. All too often I see assignments and projects that are re‑used year on year with very little consideration given to the current working practices of the subject sector. The awarding bodies need to provide much more support and resources to ensure that teaching is effective and learners are engaged with interesting and challenging tasks.” (BUS)

It may be argued that responsibility for providing adequate resources for college-based learning rests partly with local employers.

“What is missing for me, in vocational learning, is adequate development of the relationship between employers and learners. Until industry itself, takes ownership in local community of practise fashion, with the local institutions that provide their future employees, they will remain judgemental of the quality of student performance and disconnected from the responsibility of doing anything about it.” (BUS)

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Lack of recent vocational employment experience of teachers

The lack of recent vocational employment experience by some teaching staff is also a barrier and, again, this may be more acute in some subjects than others. If workplace methods and technology change rapidly then even a few years away from now can make teacher knowledge and skills outdated. However, the processes by which vocational teachers may update, and the resources for this, are patchy at best.

“To improve the vocational teaching departments we, as lecturers, need to keep ourselves up to date and colleges need to fund training to help with the continual updating of its lecturers in their vocational teaching.” (ENG)

However, some colleges do have systems in place to address the updating of vocational staff.

“We have a very good CPD system in place for industry updating where any new technology or processes is learnt by a team member(s) and then fed back to the curriculum area via standardisation meetings.”(ENG)

“There could be another factor to consider: the age of the FE workforce. If young staff with recent industrial experience cannot be attracted to the job, then we will never be current with modern technology.” (ENG)

In some vocational subject areas, it is difficult to attract suitable staff because people can earn more in industry, commerce and the professions.

“Lecturers and practical workshop learning supervisors are difficult to find. The pay in education is a lot less than industry‑based work.” (ENG)

“With the economy how it is, and the squeeze on my finances, the temptation to get back out into industry is strong. It would not be too difficult to get back into a job paying £10,000–£12,000 more a year.” (ENG)

Lack of time for teachers to teach

Vocational teachers and trainers do not only teach – they have to prepare to teach, keep paperwork, assess learners, keep up to date, attend meetings, and so forth. Many respondents expressed the view that they lack sufficient time to do their job as they would wish.

“I feel that there is a growing gap between the expectations from Ofsted, the requirements from the awarding body, and the time given by the college in ‘contact time’. Contact time covers administration, reporting, meeting, marking, class preparation, lesson planning, interviewing, open evening and pastoral care. This contact time can be as low as two paid hours per week for 40 students and the rest is expected to be carried out in our own time. Regular reporting and analysis have become a growing part of my teaching job, though the time allocated for the task has been considerably reduced. Differentiation in teaching takes time to organise and is a major part of effective teaching. The most successful experiential learning activities linked with enrichment will require time to organise. With the current funding pressures, colleges are pushed to employ course leaders and teachers on a sessional basis. This has a direct impact on staff motivation and loyalty and an effect on the quality of teaching.”(BUS)

“The staff appear to be loaded up to the limit on teaching hours and asked to cover new subjects as well as a whole range of extra duties like course tutorship. This lack of time and extra duties must be barriers to improving the teaching approaches in vocational education.” (ENG)

“Another problem area is covering for other lecturers when they are off sick. We all teach our full hours and we can only have staff for the number of students enrolled. There is no slack and this week we have an instructor off today. I am called upon to cover a three‑hour practical for his group. I already teach in the morning of this day, so lose my prep time.” (ENG)

“I find that the only area that I struggle with during the week is being able to have enough time to do all the things that are required. I find that I am spending more time in the evenings researching the courses that I am going to use, due to not having any set development during the working week, apart from the 45 minutes that are available as long as we have no meetings on Monday to Thursday.” (ENG)

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“There is now so much extra paperwork involved in every course, session and for every qualification, the tutors do not have the time or the inclination to develop new and innovative ideas for their classes.”Vocational education coordinator

“Vocational lecturers also acknowledge they are under pressure to reduce time spent on vocational skills ... Summative assessment dominates much pedagogy in vocational education, with tracking and signing‑off targets dominating.” (BUS)

Part-time staff find it even more difficult to engage with a range of roles beyond actual teaching.

“As a college part‑time staff bank lecturer, I am paid only for the three hours I have in front of the class, so attendance at team meetings, marking or CPD is in my own time.” (ENG)

Other barriers to improving vocational learning

Other barriers to more effective teaching approaches include issues around teaching staff motivation and up to date knowledge, skills and attitudes.

“One of the greatest barriers to learning is unmotivated teachers who lack the knowledge or wherewithal to give their all to the learners, seeing it as just a job and not a vocation that can bring great satisfaction and get people into work.”(HOSP)

“I am working with lecturers within my area who have been with the college for a good number of years and in my opinion need to update their teaching styles. It is too teacher‑led, with no opportunities for the students to interact. I have seen the students become uninterested and switch off, which then leaves gaps in their knowledge.” (ENG)

Given the adverse time and resource constraints under which many staff work, low levels of motivation by some are unsurprising. A lack of opportunities to update subject specialist skills and knowledge may itself act as a demotivator. Similarly, a lack of updating and refreshing of a teacher’s repertoire of approaches to teaching, leading as it often does to adverse student reactions, may also undermine the motivation of teachers. In addition, it is worth mentioning that feedback from regional seminars was that many work-based trainers earn no more than c£18,000 per year for a full-time job. In general, vocational teachers think that they are paid less than schoolteachers, for doing a job that, in many ways, is more complex and demanding.

Teaching approaches may also be constrained by curricula. Do teachers and learners have enough scope for innovative practice, and for making connections with the world of work?

“Having experienced and taught curricula at many levels from more formal GCSE to distinctively vocational BTec and through level 2 to postgraduate, the modular design and delivery of outcomes has become so dominant, that students are coercively and prescriptively being constrained. In this structure they are required to provide evidence that they have met the prescription, and not that they can appreciate the circumstances of its application. In specifically vocational terms, inadequate opportunities for application make the process too abstract. Curricula are accepted by institutions like mine, without question. Directions from awarding bodies (ABs) result in teachers like me feeling disempowered in influencing change … When curricula are creatively interpreted by teachers, so that students can ‘do’ active learning, then the encounter is generative, more engaged and students are content to enjoy and participate in the learning experience. I contend through practice, that the present situation is too abstract and simulated, and lacks a sense of ‘real world’ business meaning.” (BUS)

Another factor that inevitably acts as a barrier to teaching approaches is if unsuitable learners are recruited to programmes, making the teacher’s task more difficult.

“I strongly believe that without suitable inquiry, discussion and advice at the induction stage, a correct, appropriate and successful learner journey becomes potentially nightmarish.” (BUS)

Sometimes learners do not show the attributes necessary to complete courses successfully and a lot of teacher time and effort goes not into teaching but into behaviour management.

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“... these learners are around four months away from finishing their time in full‑time study and, unless they are constantly coaxed and guided, still they will sit and discuss what they did at the weekend. There is no sense of urgency as to seeking employment. (ENG)

“The continuing priority is attendance and punctuality.” (BUS)

The previous education experiences of learners may also be problematic at times. It may be argued that it is precisely the task of education and a vital part of the role of teachers, to take people with potential from where they are and develop them.

“I previously tried to introduce an holistic assessment task at the beginning to get the students to analyse the problem and identify the gaps in their knowledge and skills, with a view to their developing a scheme of work for the topic for me to support. This has proved problematic. Half of the group are former apprentices with BTec National level 3 qualifications; their experience of engineering education has been spoon‑feeding of concepts and their knowledge of solving applied problems from their previous colleges has been limited to no more challenge than changing the numbers in the worked examples. These students cannot approach an open‑ended problem without significant guidance in where to start, let alone analyse an unfamiliar situation and build their own knowledge as they go along.

“The other half of the group has previously studied A levels; their mathematical ability and scientific knowledge is very strong and has been reinforced by having to remember material under examination conditions, however, they have been ‘coached’ into ways of assimilating and applying knowledge and are equally poor in applying this to unfamiliar problems.” (ENG)

Vocational education serves very diverse purposes and groups of learners, some of them with low levels of achievement, low levels of confidence and motivation, and who therefore pose challenges to even the most gifted and hard-working teachers. However, without adequate resources of time, and the provision of realistic work scenarios, particularly at level 3 and above, the task of developing learners is sometimes very challenging indeed.


z How can we address the biggest and most pressing issue – weak resources of staff time, and of realistic or simulated working environments, particularly at level 3 and beyond?

z How do we ensure that all vocational teachers and trainers have recent and relevant vocational experience?

z Are vocational syllabuses fit for purpose? In particular, do they, and awarding bodies, encourage the use of the best, most interactive and creative teaching methods?

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3. Linking maths, science and English to vocational learning

Why vocational learning includes functional skills

It is clear that use of English, maths and science underpins vocational skills, and the performance of work roles. Their development, not as an adjunct to, but as a vital part of vocational learning is something that, as a country, we have wrestled with for a century.

The Newbolt Report of 1921 referred to “that thronged and ill-built structure, behind the main educational facade, known as technical education”. The report found little support among employers for a narrow vocational training – they wanted rounded people, able to read and write, and take initiative. Thompson (1949) identified, “a sense of rudderlessness”, a moral malaise in society, which was linked to a lack of real educational opportunities – “the most important trend in industrial training today is the steadily increasing realisation among employers of the need to consider something beyond technical training”.

As a means of addressing these perennial concerns, key skills were introduced in the late 1980s/early 1990s by the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ). However, in an attempt to specify everything – in accordance with a (misplaced) belief that what could be clearly stated could therefore be delivered – the specifications were hopelessly wordy and opaque. And key skills proved unpopular with learners and teachers. Several attempts to reform the specifications have been made since, the latest iteration being functional skills. And, as can be seen from the views of teachers in this research, perhaps we haven’t got it right yet.

The Leitch review (2006) was carried out because of the UK’s difficulties in competing internationally due to poor levels of literacy and numeracy, as well as a relatively poor international position in intermediate level skills and productivity – due, in part, to barriers to progression caused by poor literacy and numeracy.

Compared to work I carried out some years ago, acknowledgement that literacy and numeracy are vital aspects of vocational learning is now widespread – although not universal – among vocational teachers and trainers; and also, even more importantly, that they have a professional responsibility to do something about it through their teaching.

“I would even venture that it is essential that maths, science and English skills are fully developed to ensure young people entering the workplace are of value to the employer. Even with our business taking the ‘cream’ of the schools and university crop, I still see gaps in what I would consider basic education.” (ENG)

The problems caused by poor basic skills are worse in some areas of vocational learning, such as prisons and level 1 craft courses.

“Many students come into college and the vocational workshops with few or no qualifications whatsoever. In some instances, the ability to either read or write is very poor and at worst non‑existent; the college therefore does its utmost to improve these standards.” (ENG)

“Unfortunately there is an outdated assumption in compulsory education that vocational learning does not require reading, writing, mathematics or sciences … The reduced written requirement for level 1 has improved overall achievement and accessibility but it is not preparing them for the level 2 qualification.” (ENG)

There are, however, a minority of vocational teachers and trainers who believe that the development of literacy and numeracy is over-emphasised and sometimes unnecessary.

“I fail to see the need to teach every student to level 2 maths, literacy and ITC other than as a means of raising more money from the funding pot. Many students do well as the adults, are often good workers and are turned off by the teaching of the aforementioned qualifications and find that employers are not prepared to give paid time off for the hours needed … but many education establishments see this as the most important part of the training and will often hold back the real skill training until they have completed maths, literacy and ITC.”(HOSP)

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The reluctance of some vocational staff to take responsibility for developing English can be frustrating for colleagues.

“As to the use of good English, I admit to a little frustration with some colleagues who view it is not their role to be correcting grammar and spelling, provided the main message is clear. This is wrong because being able to write a report for your boss or submit a design proposal to the executive board, using clear and effective English, is essential for success in your career and for the benefit of the company you work for. In the project lesson this week I had returned many assignments for amendment, not because the content was invalid or inferior, but mainly because I required corrections to the English. I sometimes wonder if it is lack of confidence with their own language skills that limits my colleagues’ approach.” (ENG)

The concept of ‘lifelong learning’, prevalent and at times laughed at, seems to have largely disappeared from current education-speak – and yet some respondents felt that through the prism of this concept, we may better understand the need to develop people’s functional skills in maths and literacy.

“Lifelong learning – qualifications should prepare people not just for immediate use but for future personal and professional development and progression.”South‑west seminar

There may be some scope for reducing the burden of basic skills requirements in some vocational areas, but it should be borne in mind that the inter-generational effects of poor basic skills are very marked. If you are illiterate, there is a 70 per cent chance that your children will be too. As stated previously, at lower levels of qualification, vocational education has a very important general educational purpose. And at all levels, it is important to prepare learners for progression – the country needs technician skills and above. Many learners are blocked in their ambitions by too low skills in maths, science and English. This was acknowledged by Leitch and has led, for example, to increased focus on the development of numeracy and literacy within the military.

“One of the key areas of development in the military was in the areas of functional skills ... this has massively developed, and chefs will now leave their military careers with a level of numeracy and literacy that will be transferable into the civilian sector. The Basic Skills Agency reported in 2007 that a high percentage of military recruits would join the forces with basic skills at national entry level 3 and below … ‘this lack of skills, will affect the recipients ability to assimilate education and take advantage of career opportunities’ … Much of the development and integration of maths, English and sciences has relied on the individual teacher being able to effectively embed these functional skills into their lesson delivery.”(HOSP)

Without a bedrock of basic skills, individual learners may find it very difficult to become autonomous – how to discover what they don’t know, access information and data, express their ideas, show what they know? In other words, it is difficult to take part in a community of learning if you lack the basic skills involved. As one respondent put it:

“It’s those transferable (key and functional) skills (together with the ability to turn up on time, behave, take responsibility, link knowledge and skills to rewards and want to contribute to UK plc), which is real autonomy.” Policy Review TV symposium (YL)

Embedding of functional skills

Casey et al (2006) showed that embedded courses had higher retention and success rates; and higher levels of achievement in literacy and numeracy.

Embedding of functional or key skills is widely declared by respondents to be the best way to develop them for two principal, inter-locking reasons – embedding takes advantage of the learners’ interest in the vocational area; and it by-passes, to some extent, a widespread aversion to repeating what has been done – without much success – in school.

“Embedding literacy and numeracy (especially numeracy) three years ago into the mainstream programme worked very well. The students seemed more focused and interested in what they were being taught, because at the end of the day they were training to go into a practical industry where ultimately maths and English are fundamental and as important as cooking. However, getting students to realise the importance of this is the challenge, maybe school has put them off? This I see as a barrier that needs addressing.”(HOSP)

“There is good research to show that embedding maths and English as well as ICT into something relevant to the learner is better than delivering it separately to their subject. I created a project for my apprentices in which they had to design an integrated reception system and draw a schematic diagram calculating loss and gain to prove their design would work. This required them to use logs and anti‑logs and a scientific calculator which were never taught to them at school.” (ENG)

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“Mathematics, I recall, was disastrously configured in the era of ‘key skills’ as separate from the core of the business vocational curriculum and must not be part of any future approach. English: at levels 2 and 3, it is appropriate to ‘apprentice’ students into expected norms and conventions and here, curricula, I believe, should embrace not just embedding of use, but the assessment criteria must include correct and developing use of the language.” (BUS)

“In the business department we are constantly striving to increase the literacy and numeracy levels of the students as that is one of the main points local employers have highlighted to us. Maths and English skills are regularly embedded in business/computing lessons. For example, in business we have several finance units and in computing there is actually a maths unit. In regard to English, my speciality is marketing, so developing students’ persuasive writing skills to create mission statements works extremely well.” (BUS)

“I have found the most effective way of linking to the maths, science and English core skills is to keep it relevant to the learner. For example, maths to a chef seems pointless, but put it in context of how far a salary will go, or the importance of balancing the books through effective costing of recipes and portion control, and maths becomes a very useful skill.”(HOSP)

“Maths, science and English are essential for engineers. All the engineering courses contain units which cover these three subject areas. The majority of provision contains not only maths but further maths. We also run extra maths and English classes to support learners who struggle as this is seen as important in all aspects of engineering. Science is not always as clear cut – it is often distributed across other subject areas, but it is all engineering‑based. English is tied in with ICT in a communications unit. As the subjects are already linked into the engineering aspects, they are not seen as being different from the engineering, just a part of it. To be effective, the learners need to see how these subjects work within engineering rather than just as theoretical information. The application of these within engineering is the key to best delivery and improved understanding.” (ENG)

Many respondents believed that some learners without the necessary level of functional skills are accepted on to vocational programmes, in the hope or expectation that they will catch up. This is almost certainly the case – but how common is the practice? And in fact do most learners catch up?

It is tough enough for vocational teachers and trainers to develop skills in English and maths – if they have to do this with learners who are struggling, this becomes a much more difficult job and one that requires the help of others.

“Teachers should share resources and not work in isolation. Materials need to reflect the attitudes and interests of students. Vocational courses give pupils the foundation to strengthen literacy and numeracy skills. We should not be afraid to tailor courses to meet pupils’ individual needs.” Policy Review TV symposium (JW)

However, there was concern expressed by respondents about how infrequently course teams meet.

“Only four of us in a small engineering team, one of them part‑time. We just can’t get together to develop practice. South‑west seminar

Should schools do more to prepare learners for vocational education?

There was a widespread contention that schools can and should do more to prepare learners for vocational education – by providing a sufficient grounding in maths and English, and by giving learners a more realistic understanding of what vocational studies require – they are not all about getting your hands messy; and even those that do often require high levels of knowledge and skill in English, maths and science.

“Unfortunately a large majority of vocational learners do not like mathematics, English or science which is often due to negative experiences from school: being sat in uniform and in rows of tables writing into a book for the majority of the session and without interaction. The key I have found again is to disguise learning by introducing activities that are engaging and appealing to them.” (ENG)

“Maths is one of the main obstacles in this programme as students are required to understand how to calculate profit, margins, break‑even, VAT and retail prices. The first issue I encounter is those who were taught at school they could not ‘do maths’. With science, maths and English the great advantage the trainer has over the teacher is application.” (BUS)

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“With a parents’ evening coming up, I’ve been considering what vocational education means to most people. There does seem to be a commonly held view that it is all about hands on practical skills. As an example, a lot of enquiries we get from prospective learners looking for engineering courses tend to focus on welding or machining. Quite often they don’t consider that numeracy or literacy might be part of the course, and are surprised that it is included as part of a level 2 course. This is similarly true of level 3 courses, where learners don’t appreciate that engineering at this level requires a lot of maths and science. This could be a result of the portrayal of engineering in the media, or it could be down to careers advice during compulsory education.” (ENG)

“One of the biggest challenges I face in my vocational teaching is the effective delivery of key or functional skills. If these basic subjects of maths, English and IT have not been covered sufficiently in the learner’s 11 years of compulsory education, the responsibility is passed on to the further education sector, in what seems to be a final vain attempt to recover this lost time and opportunity. The only way I have found to successfully deliver these subjects after such a period of resentment by the learners is to hide or embed them within the technical training.” (ENG)

Vocational teachers and trainers face a formidable task – to strive, largely untrained in maths and English, to raise the achievement of learners who have long been put off these subjects, in order to equip them with the knowledge and skills to progress in their vocational area. They must do this alongside teaching their vocational subjects. And to do so often – perhaps nearly always – on lower pay and conditions of service than schoolteachers who – for whatever reason – and there was no sense of blaming schoolteachers – have failed to develop these skills in 11 years or more of compulsory schooling.

Do we need a cross-sectoral study of this issue? Where does the problem of low basic skills, leading to blocks in progression begin? In some secondary education? Does the problem begin earlier, in primary? How do schools link with colleges and training providers to ensure some continuity of provision? Are employers and universities correct in thinking that there is a persistent problem, even with people with relatively high levels of education?

The advantage that vocational staff have over schoolteachers is that they can embed English, maths and science in the vocational context.

“The key I have found again is to disguise learning by introducing activities that are engaging and appealing to them, this keeps them alert so they again don’t realise they are learning during the process. This has been very successful, particularly at lower levels, because the attention span can be reduced. The majority of things that are of a mathematical or scientific nature are carried out in a practical manner, thus harnessing the kinaesthetic nature of the learner and the English concept is produced by again choosing a task that is engaging to the learner’s style.” (ENG)

“… included linking in the core school subjects of maths, English and science. The learners have had to create displays using currency, pricing, and discount percentage rates; which are imbedded into the assignment as it relates to every day maths in the retail sector. The learners are creating displays with posters, slogans, and logos, which all develop their English skills. The learners have had to look at the psychology of the customer in relation to the odds versus evens product display theory and psychological pricing of the products – which is the scientific element to their assignment.” (BUS)

The embedding of English, maths and science almost by stealth or disguise, carries a danger that embedding can be so deep (or superficial) that the development of English, maths or science knowledge may virtually disappear. Or that, while there is some development, it is not sufficient to really progress learners’ knowledge sufficiently for progression.

“During the session I found the opportunity to demonstrate my take on combining maths, science and English. Using the communications section of the key skills and the requirement to provide a short presentation, I showed how careful choice of a subject to research could combine the use of spread sheets and graphs for the maths summary document to demonstrate the use of English and colour manipulation in producing graphics as the art of science.” (BUS)

“I might point out that while we tinker with the teaching of maths, making it more ‘exciting’, the overseas students that ours are compared to will be quick to tell you they learn their maths in the same way many of us learnt our maths up to 15 to 20 years ago – through regular skills and drill sessions. In essence, maths is a ‘doing’ subject and we have missed this point. Technical fluency is critical to being able to apply mathematics to real‑world situations, and in particular in modelling engineering problems. A significant barrier to maths education will be further government interference without proper consultation to establish what works, as told by front‑line practitioners and users of mathematics.” (ENG)

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Are functional skills fit for purpose?

There was considerable uncertainty about whether functional skills are fit for purpose; with views expressed that they are generally below the level required by the vocational programme; and sometimes taken only because of the funding attached, with little commitment to the skills themselves.

“Functional skills are not fit for purpose, neither in the set‑up of them (content is convoluted) or in the time frame for exams and results. We believe that key skills should continue until a full evaluation of functional skills, which demonstrates they match the requirements of apprenticeship frameworks, is completed.”AELP response to Wolf report

In brief, AELP believes that:

z functional skills are not fit for purpose z the barriers are in the names ‘maths’, ‘science’ and

‘English’ z need to focus activities on practical applications.

It was thought that good practice entails:

z part embedding, discrete lessons z both contextualised and non-contextualised so that

learners have transferable skills z better cross-departmental links within the subject

and across college.

There was also a belief that functional skills work less well than key skills.

“The change from key skills to functional skills is having an impact on how effectively numeracy and literacy can be embedded into their course. In the past, the writing they need to do for their key skills project could be based around their work, and the same goes for the numeracy project. Very often we were able to find a work‑related project that embedded into their vocational course; had direct relevancy to their job role; and could provide direct benefits both to the learner and their employer. The move to functional skills requires tutors to be far more imaginative in how numeracy and literacy are embedded. In vocational education this makes it much harder to do, as the resources available and most widely used are previous exam papers. These have to be used, because the student must be shown how to lay out all of their workings and how the questions are marked, in order to understand what is required of them to pass the test.” (BUS)

Although functional skills will soon take over from key skills, why change something that works? I believe the project side where the learner produces a portfolio covering English, maths and ICT did improve the learner’s skills in these areas.” (ENG)

“There is deep resistance to formal learning relating to maths and literacy skills; currently there is a constant struggle to maintain attendance at obligatory functional skills which are now a separate entity and of a more traditional nature. Previously, when delivering key skills curriculum, it was possible to deeply embed aspects of this development within the underpinning knowledge delivery or design a portfolio task based around a technical aspect.” (ENG)

Another concern is that the level of functional skills is not high enough.

“A main issue is functional skills at the moment. The levels of functional skills learning seems to be at odds with the key subject of electrical installation. The mathematics is far below the learners’ capabilities. This leads to frustration and lack of attention to detail.” (ENG)

“Sometimes the content of functional skills classes is lower than learners are asked to do in their chosen subject. Some students will progress quickly and could continue to a higher level. This is not now possible as the college will not be funded.” (BUS)

“One of the main problems this year has been functional skills… I believe a lot of students were graded way too low. This resulted in teaching that did not challenge the student and this caused issues with boredom and behaviour within the classroom.” (ENG)

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Supporting vocational teachers to embed functional skills

It is widely recognised that while embedding motivates learners more than discrete provision, vocational staff are not English, maths or science specialists and often need help to build their own knowledge and skills, and to help prepare suitable schemes of work.

“The term ‘functional’ should be considered in the broad sense of providing learners with the skills and abilities they need to take an active and responsible role in their communities, the workplace and educational settings. It really must be emphasised by the educator that these skills underpin much of the vocational groundwork that will be needed in industry. But it must also be emphasised that not only does the student require these set of skills, but also that of the teacher. It may even be that some teachers may have to work with specialists in certain areas in order to deliver the appropriate learning.” (ENG)

“Teachers must have a significant command of [English, maths, and science, as appropriate] … (warranted by teacher training providers, not examination bodies), in order to be able to effectively deliver the subject, and to assess student capabilities in an accurate and moreover, developmental way.” (BUS)

“The main problem with the current system [of embedding functional skills] is the large variation in the quality of provision, depending on the approach and experience of the instructor concerned.”(HOSP)

There is a strong case for ensuring that English, maths and science specialists form part of vocational teams to give two kinds of support – support to vocational teachers and trainers so that they have the knowledge, skills and confidence to embed these subjects in the curriculum; and support to some learners who have additional needs that vocational teachers cannot be expected to deal with.

“Linking English, maths and science into vocational learning in engineering is reasonably straightforward as all of these elements naturally fit. However, to maximise the individual subject expertise my team includes these subject staff as an integral part. They are not ‘servicing’ staff – but actual members employed to be part of my teams. This allows them to be part of staff room discussions, part of the planning process, involved in team meetings and able to join in the reflective practice.

“This means a team approach is easier to adopt as it can easily be discussed and different approaches considered, to best bring out the knowledge from the students and provide a seamless package rather than stand‑alone units that have no links with each other. This not only improves the delivery of these embedded subjects it also gives the students a better experience, as well as enabling vocational staff to deliver some topics in a more appropriate way.” Policy Review TV symposium (DT)

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Inevitably, there are some additional logistical problems in developing English, maths and literacy outside mainstream further education. Working one-to-one with learners, especially if they have particular problems, such as dyslexia, may be particularly challenging for workplace trainers.

“We then had the issue that one learner was dyslexic and initial assessment had identified that their literacy was entry three level and needed to achieve level 2 for the framework. The plan was for five two‑hour sessions, but this would clearly not be enough for this one learner. The employer was keen for the key skills to be achieved however the commitment to release an employee over and above the programme already agreed would have been difficult to achieve. Dealing with such diversity in workplace learning means planning for delivery to be effective and is very challenging.” (BUS)

Again, a system of support from specialist English, maths and science staff may be put in place, although this would need funding and a culture of cooperation between providers – both of which pose their own challenges.

The evidence supports the view that the most effective way to develop learners’ functional skills is to embed within the vocational curriculum, with specialists embedded in the course team – a double embedding, that is already practised in some places. However, across the country there is little common sense of what constitutes good practice. Possibly for operational reasons, colleges sometimes move from having specialist support departments, to embedding within vocational programmes, with or without specialist support, and back again.

Just as so many respondents want consistency of government policy, and a level playing field of resources and conditions of service with other parts of education, so too many wish to see a consistency of good practice in the development of functional skills – exemplars of what should be done.


z What can be done to help vocational teachers and trainers build on the widespread acceptance that they have a personal, professional responsibility to help develop skills in the use of English, maths and science, as appropriate to the vocational area and level of qualification?

There is an almost universal agreement that embedding of English, maths and science within vocational qualifications is good practice.

z How may this endeavour best be supported so that embedding leads to real progress in learners’ skills?

z What role in this do awarding and other national bodies have?

z How may English, maths and science specialists be integrated into vocational subject teams, to give support to staff and to learners, as needed?

z Are syllabuses fit for purpose in supporting these endeavours? In particular, and in light of the Wolf report (2011) do functional skills need to be reviewed?

z What are the root causes of poor basic skills and should there be a cross-sectoral study of this issue?

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4. Key qualities of the most effective teachers of vocational subjects

“The key qualities of effective vocational teachers are identical to those of any other teacher but also need to include a sound technical competence in their selected specialism and a first hand, ‘real world’ experience of the industries that they represent.” (ENG)

“As teaching is professionally recognised so must the training that follows, with their job roles being interchangeable. Teaching the young and the mature is challenging in different ways, but the processes of enabling students to learn are the same and should be treated as such.” (BUS)

Evidence from European research, including research conducted in England (Harkin, 1998; Johannessen, Harkin, and Mikalsen, 2002) corroborates these views – the basic knowledge, skills and attributes of teachers are the same across ages and stages and subjects. What differs is the specific knowledge of the subject area, its health and safety requirements, and pedagogic approaches to develop specific skills.

Furthermore, if a person is experienced in using specific vocational or academic skills, it does not automatically follow that they are able to teach them – at high levels of competence, many skills are tacit and people may not be able to articulate clearly how they do what they do.

Pedagogy (or andragogy) is the set of skills, knowledge and understanding needed to help other people develop what you already know or can do. The qualities that good teachers and trainers exhibit are very similar across subjects and vocational areas – up to date knowledge of their subject, high standards of leadership, and commitment to the needs of the learner, including a need to develop learner autonomy. Some of these attributes are rooted in character and personality; some in subject and work experience; and some in teacher training and CPD. Any artificial division of vocational teachers and trainers from the mainstream would simply serve to further widen the gap between ‘academic’ and ‘vocational’ subjects.

What all teachers need is knowledge of their subject area and, in the case of vocational teachers, this needs to be up to date knowledge, especially in areas of rapid technological change, such as engineering and ICT.

“One of the most valuable assets I have is the ability to empathise and relate to the job roles of the apprentices I teach. The capacity to talk about one’s own experiences and to discuss previous jobs and issues with learners builds a certain level of respect and nurtures a mutual feeling of equality and comradeship which seems natural and right in the workplace. After all, how could any tutor expect a learner to carry out jobs and tasks which they have never carried out themselves?” (ENG)

“Vocational teachers need experience in their specialist areas and what would further strengthen vocational teaching may be to make it a requirement to do a specialist form of CPD each year just in their area to ensure that they remain at the forefront of their knowledge and skills.”(HOSP)

“In order to be effective, it is essential that teachers of vocational subjects are highly knowledgeable in their subject; have direct experience of their subject; are very enthusiastic about their subject; have excellent verbal and written communication skills, listening as well as speaking, to be able to lead and coach their learners; maintain currency with their subject.” (BUS)

One engineer held a meeting with colleagues to agree a list of key qualities of effective vocational teachers. Here is what they came up with:

z Occupational competence on subject matters z Skills of communication and facilitation (rather

obvious) z Understanding and responding to the needs of

learners z Understanding the learner(s) organisation, its

culture and operating principles and be able to embody this in delivery

z Understanding any change the learner(s) might be experiencing or about to experience due to their organisation’s changing plans

z Ability to use learning technology, eg PowerPoint, laptops, smartboards – seamlessly (something I am yet to see!)

z Ability to motivate learners and to response positively to their levels of confidence and styles of contributions

z Advocacy for the subject being taught (rather than just using someone else’s teaching notes).

(ENG)

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It is clear that much of this list covers attributes of all teachers – whether teaching English to 7-year-olds or engineering to adult apprentices – the key difference is of course that word ‘occupation’ – vocational teachers must have up to date occupational experience – and many of them do not. When I carried out research at VW in Germany, the company trained engineers on the assumption that their skills would last at most five years (Harkin, 1997). Recent experience of industry is, therefore, essential to an engineering teacher or trainer who works on a genuinely vocational course, such as at level 3 and beyond. What VW emphasised in their apprentice training – and that would last a lifetime of work – was problem-solving through teamwork and communication.

That teachers and trainers view themselves as dual professionals – as engineers, or chefs, or accountants, but also as teachers, who shape active learning through problem-solving, teamwork, and communication – is important.

“I came straight from industry … it meant I had the knowledge required to teach, I just had to find the best way to teach it. I believe that has been my biggest learning curve and to some extent my greatest achievement … as I do see myself as a teacher before my vocational subject role and I think it’s because I have gauged how learners learn, to a certain extent, and I find I can adapt to different learning styles and I am always willing to try new ideas.” (ENG)

For another engineer, the key qualities of an effective teacher are:

“an obvious interest in the subject, a passion to share knowledge with students and a clear intention to continually develop the craft of teaching.” (ENG)

“Learners look on their tutors for explanations and guidance. It is not a ‘We say, you do’ environment …Tutors must provide a safe environment in which each learner can question and challenge any given scenario ... There are many electricians more capable at design and interpretation. However, the delivery and the ability to answer questions are skills in their own right.” (ENG)

A chef asked his students for their views on effective teachers – and their views also match the research.

“It’s funny, I was talking to a group of students last year about this and the answers were quite astonishing. Someone who understands who we are; someone that listens; a person who cares for us, truly cares not only for our well‑being but our success; someone we can trust and know will help; someone that doesn’t judge harshly. Why is this astonishing? The top five answers didn’t include someone who knows what they’re doing (in other words) can cook.”(HOSP)

I do not find this astonishing. Learners, quite rightly, expect their teachers to be knowledgeable and up to date. A chef is assumed to know how to cook. Beyond this, however, there is a world of difference between a chef who can teach and one who can’t.

Respect for learners was also much cited as important and, again, this is an attribute much valued by learners, as shown in previous research (Harkin, 1998; 2006).

“As a lecturer, I always teach the learner not the group and treat individual learners with respect and try to cater to all their needs. I draw on my own experiences at school where I was treated as slow and unteachable.” (ENG)

“I believe the learner‑lecturer relationship to be very fundamental in the progression and lifelong learning of our learners. Treat them like adults and with respect, and I mean respect that these young adults need. Listen and learn from them, give them responsibility outside of what they would normally have and the results that you end up with are amazing, let’s not what forget what we are all trying to do – create workers for the future.(HOSP)

Having a sense of humour was mentioned by several respondents and it is an attribute much cited by students as important.

Clearly, much teaching and learning takes place in groups, so that the trick is to include everyone, and yet respect must be felt by each member of the group.

“The feeling that comes from inclusiveness and belonging, promotes learning because everyone feels that they have something to contribute. The key qualities of a good teacher and trainer recognise inclusiveness and celebrate diversity by giving each learner a role to play within the learning environment regardless of their background. Vocational teachers have to inspire, provide motivation and be inventive when it comes to delivery of their subject, because of the sometimes technical nature involved. When learning is made interesting and fun, it leads to increased participation.” (ENG)

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Students who attended a regional seminar identified the key qualities of effective teachers as the following, familiar to anyone who has researched this topic, and similar to teachers’ own views:

z Open and friendly ‘like talking to a colleague with respect’; having a teacher you can talk to and ask for help

z Teachers who engage in discussion that is related to real life

z Lecturers who make the subject interesting by relating content to real and current events – the Olympics was given as an example by business students

z Give one‑to‑one time to students and take time out to help individually

z Treating students as adults z Teachers who are positive and like their subject;

‘passionate about being a teacher’ z One who will go over anything as many times

as necessary.

Many learners in vocational education and training have needs beyond the confines of the subject, and effective teachers recognise this and have the capability to respond. Here is a view that expresses this dual professionalism, and that includes a broad conception of the qualities of an effective teacher.

“I feel that the key qualities most effective teachers in vocational subjects have are professionalism and experience in their specialist subject, ideally gained from a variety of jobs within their specialist industry so that they have a good idea of what is required from the students in the ‘real world’ of employment. Teachers must demonstrate maturity. This important quality is particularly relevant for some of our students who come from broken homes and who need emotional support as well as guidance and advice. A passion for the subject is essential as it can inspire some students. A good sense of humour also helps!”(HOSP)

Teachers in all types and phases of education sometimes work with learners who have special needs and, therefore, may need additional qualities from the teacher.

“Three hours of my schools link group. This group comprises mainly high functioning autistic students. When it comes to teaching methods I use a wide combination of multi‑sensory individualistic methods and have to be prepared to go with the flow to get the best or sometimes anything out of these students. I do question the effectiveness of this with this number of students in the class. I have learnt to teach this class well and certainly nothing in CertEd prepared me for this type of teaching. It has strengthened my teaching overall and if I had to identify the key qualities needed to teach this sort of session then they would include, patience, humour, enthusiasm and commitment.”(HOSP)

As we can see from this quotation, to maintain professionalism it is essential to go beyond initial training – which is what it says, and to engage in suitable continuous professional development (CPD).

“In my experience of teaching over the years, I have discovered that key qualities to being an effective tutor are patience, confidence, and empathy; reinforced by a sound knowledge of your subject matter. I achieve the latter by CPD, since engineering is ever evolving. The others I have practiced over time and are ongoing, which again I relate to CPD. Continuing professional development is important for all teaching practitioners, since it prevents skill fade, which can and does occur in subjects one has not taught for some time.” (ENG)

“… it is too easy to fall behind with industry. The IMI (The Institute of the Motor Industry) has attempted to address this issue by ensuring that tutors and assessors job shadow in industry as part of the technical CPD.” (ENG)

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I will end with a quotation from someone in the military, who gives a clear statement of professionalism among vocational teachers and trainers:

“The [Overarching Professional Standards for Teachers, Tutors and Trainers, 2007] underpins the practice of teaching by setting a professional set of values that should be observed by all those teachers, tutors or trainers delivering formalised vocational education or training whether in colleges or within private institutions. Professional teachers in the vocational sector should share the common purpose and goal of serving the needs of the learners. They face the challenges of working in a vocational environment which is diverse and rapidly changing ... Professionalism requires us to maintain appropriate values, standards and fulfil the responsibilities and uphold the values to the learner, organisations and our colleagues” ( HOSP)

The sector is blessed with many talented, thoughtful and hard-working staff – who all too often feel undervalued and largely forgotten. Kenneth Baker, as secretary of state for education in 1989, referred to further education as the Cinderella service and said that he would raise its status. Successive ministers have said much the same. Yet still many people who work in the sector feel that they are still in education’s Cinderella service.


z There is a lot of agreement among teachers, trainers and learners about the key qualities of effective teachers and trainers; however, developing these qualities requires a national endeavour.

z What can be done to reinforce the view that the fundamental qualities of ‘good’ teachers are the same across ages, stages and subjects?

z What more can be done to develop the dual professionalism of vocational teachers and trainers – occupational specialists who are also teachers?

z What can be done to ensure that vocational teachers and trainers remain up to date in their occupational area, through CPD, and the active cooperation of employers?

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5. The effectiveness of initial teacher training

It is important to bear in mind that training for teachers in the learning and skills sector is relatively new. While there have been training courses for many years, it was only in 2007 that training became a requirement. This was widely welcomed by teachers and trainers as recognition of their professional status, in line with the long-standing training of schoolteachers.

There is still sometimes a view held that teaching is a relatively straightforward activity that needs little or no training. If you are a qualified and experienced engineer, you can teach engineering to others. Try teaching level 1 engineering to an energetic group of young adults on a sunny Friday afternoon and see how easy it is – even better, try leading them in a theory session, or in functional skills to develop their English or maths. It will be immediately apparent that teaching is a highly skilled and interactive process that requires not just engineering knowledge and experience, but a whole range of skills, knowledge and understanding.

I will begin with an account that gives a good overview of the elements of an initial training programme.

I have broken down firstly what I learnt on some of the subject areas of my initial teaching training (ITT) – (CertEd).

Managing the learning environment

This element of the course taught me a lot about the basics of teaching: how to set up a classroom; how to facilitate better communication; how to deal with disruptions and conflict.

I now take great care when setting up my class depending on the lesson to be taught, the learners and also how I want to lead the lesson.

Supporting and tutoring learners

This element gave me a great insight into the different problems my learners may encounter both within the learning environment, pressures they may encounter from outside influences and the basic/key skills issues that are affecting so many adult learners today. I have learnt to communicate and most importantly listen to my learners more.

Professional practice portfolio

PPP was a very informative and useful programme which follows a logical order and builds from the very basics of teaching assessments where I was able to respond to my assessor’s constructive criticism and feedback to improve my performance within the classroom environment.

Throughout this first year my largest learning curve was in sentence construction, grammar, punctuation and putting my thoughts at the right level. As I have never done any academic writing at this level I was very fortunate to have a tutor that was willing to invest so much time and effort into helping me improve this area.

Wider professional practice

I found this element to be extremely interesting as it required me to evaluate and reflect on existing policies within the PCET [post‑compulsory education and training] sector and provide arguments to and for these policies. I based my assignment on the NVQ system within the army food services system, a policy that I have worked within for many years and to be truthful have never given much thought to. I now have a much better understanding of this policy and feel that I will be able to implement my small role within it to the benefit of my learners to a far greater extent.

Subject specialism studies

This element of the course required me to look at my own development and areas within which I could improve myself within the PCET sector. I based my assignment on language acquisition and ESOL learners as this is an area that is becoming increasingly prevalent within the Army Food Service Wing (FSW). It was extremely interesting and thought‑provoking as to the problems many of my learners face in their learning experience and some of the methods and development I can pursue to aid their learning.

But four years on: In order that I stay current, professional and put into practice the effectiveness of what I have learnt within my initial teacher training, I get continuous feedback … on my performance and any quality assurance issues are dealt with promptly. I have to ensure that I have fulfilled a comprehensive CPD role to fulfil my roles to assist the learner.”(HOSP)

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From an example of a vocational teacher who valued ITT highly, here is one who had a less fruitful experience:

“My training was piecemeal (ie evening classes over two years) and TP [teaching practice] came at the very end. As it was a bolt‑on to my day job, I did not take it too seriously. I learned it more as an academic exercise than experientially.”(HOSP)

As may be seen from this juxtaposition of quotations, the experience of ITT varies widely and depends, in large part, on the quality of the ITT tutors and the mode of delivery. This is in keeping with previous research (Harkin, 2005) that showed that most teachers valued ITT but that courses – as teaching courses always do – vary in quality. Ofsted criticisms of initial training relate mainly to the lack of workplace support for teachers in training, as shown by another research report (Harkin, 2010a).

Most teachers and trainers in this consultation valued their initial training as an aid – often beyond their expectations – to teaching effectively.

“These creative ideas have come from my CertEd course, which I completed last summer. I took many ideas from my animated lecturer on the course and shared some excellent knowledge with peers in different curriculum areas.” (BUS)

“I loved my initial training. I had a brief ‘toolkit for teaching’ course that lasted two days when I started as a workshop technician; but as I progressed and became a lecturer, I was enrolled on the PTLLS course and then the DTLLS course, which I have just completed. Without these courses and an interest to attend various courses at the college, I would have been really lost – my instinct was to teach the way I was taught, and as a 47 year‑old person, that was just to talk at the learners.” (ENG)

“I have completed PTLLS, CTLLS and CertEd, plus professional formation over the last three years. Before I started PTLLS, I had no idea of the importance of the methods that a teacher can use to get their message across to learners. I learned an enormous amount from all the training that I completed. It was incredibly interesting to then put it into practice, to see how individual learners adapted to different styles and approaches, and how the most effective teaching methods can consist of empowering people to take responsibility and charge of their own learning; and the incredibly far‑reaching benefits that this can have for the individual and the wider community as a whole. I benefited most from learning all the theory behind teaching.” (BUS)

“I have recently completed my professional diploma in education and over the last couple of years I feel this training has helped me both design and develop new resources, look at problems and ways to move forward ... and also improve my communication, interpersonal skills and confidence in delivery.” (BUS)

“DTLLS has opened my eyes to the different methods and styles that I am able to use with my learners to educate and motivate them ... It’s a welcome change being on the receiving end of learning new tools and techniques; it’s a great course and I find the subject matter varied, interesting and informative and would recommend it.” (ENG)

“When I first started my teacher training I was nervous … I found my tutors understanding and extremely helpful, with great patience and plenty of experience; and willing to explain every new term and expression. By the end of my two years I was really enjoying what I was doing and learning a great deal and I found that I was incorporating what I was learning into my teaching style and classes without realising that I was actually doing it. Teacher training is a must for all new trainers and tutors. It helps you so much: it builds your confidence levels, and provides a good understanding of teaching terminology – and there is much of that to understand. Reflecting on teaching and the skills that you learn is also a very efficient way to help you improve your teaching and your methods.”(HOSP)

The opportunity to meet teachers from different academic and vocational areas was commented on favourably.

“I studied for a certificate of education ... It was a positive experience and I enjoyed the variety of fellow teachers who came from a range of backgrounds.” (BUS)

While many more respondents reported positively about ITT, a few did not. One area of criticism – familiar to previous research – was about lack of the development of subject-specific skills.

“There was no support or direction given for the teaching of vocational subjects during my PGCE course, despite the fact that it was concerned primarily with post‑16 FE education.” (BUS)

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“My initial training was excellent for understanding and utilising pedagogical approaches, but did little for subject knowledge. In my experience, teachers do want to improve their subject knowledge, but courses are often expensive and colleges are reluctant to provide the funding. It is also difficult to release tutors for training courses during term time. I think this makes subject mentoring particularly important.”(HOSP)

“The initial teaching training (PGCE obtained in 2006) should give more emphasis on challenging and stretching students, Ofsted inspections and SARS report. The mentoring should continue on a formal basis once qualified to encourage personal growth and tackle issues.” (BUS)

This points to the importance of the role of subject mentors (Harkin, 2010a, b) as a necessary supplement to generic initial training – a topic that will be returned to in the next section of the report.

Another area of criticism, expressed by a few, again familiar to previous research (Harkin, 2005), was about the place in ITT of educational theory – some find it irrelevant, others useful.

“During my teacher training there was a lot of theory‑based work and assessment but I felt that the training could have shown more practical examples of how to teach.” (ENG)

“I had a block on the theory [in ITT] but later when I tried to apply the theory, it was so powerful for me – really made a difference.” South‑west seminar (work‑based trainer)

“The in‑service PGCE or Certificate of Education is pretty much a waste of time in respect of my vocational area. The theory is a necessary evil, and the qualification is a requirement, but I was very much left to my own devices in learning how to develop my teaching practice.” (ENG)

For some vocational staff, particularly for some who teach predominantly on levels 1 and 2 craft courses, the academic aspect to initial training is quite a challenge, but one worth struggling with. Both from a sense of personal and professional development; and as a preparation for vocational teachers to help learners develop functional skills, this is an important dimension of ITT.

“As a student on initial training and then on to a Certificate of Education training course, I found it very difficult and at first could not see what the benefit would be. I left school with no qualifications 35 years ago. Teaching students I find easy but completing my initial training I found academically very difficult. As time and the training went by I found that I was being educated. My written English was improving as was my spoken English. This resulted in a large improvement in my teaching and skills as a teacher.” (ENG)

“As part of the job, I had to attend college and obtain a teaching qualification. I enrolled on the CertEd course, which I commenced in September 2010. I found this quite difficult at first, for two reasons: the first was that I had not carried out any academic study for some considerable time; and the second was that I seemed to be at quite a difference of opinion with the course tutor. This was because the context of the course seemed to be based around teaching in a college environment and there appeared to be very little appreciation of the vast area that teaching in the lifelong learning sector covers. However, attending the CertEd course has been invaluable in helping me with my transition from industry specialist to tutor. I am nearing the end of the college course and now find that not only do I understand education more, but I am now able to offer advice to new members of staff and suggest varied and often quite different methods of teaching.” (ENG)

This trainer went on to write that:

“A suggestion of how to improve initial teacher training would be for colleges to run the course specifically for tutors outside the college environment.” (ENG)

Which is a suggestion fraught with logistical difficulties – nevertheless, some courses of initial training are trying to be more flexible and to base ITT around more specific employment-based needs – for example:

“We worked with Warwick University to develop a bespoke PTTLS programme specifically for work‑based learning and this has proved to be successful and also a stepping stone for those who wish to progress further.” (BUS)

The Lingfield report (Professionalism in Further Education: Interim Report, 2012) was published towards the end of the consultation period for this report, and it gave rise to much disquiet among respondents. Many respondents had welcomed the invitation to take part in a national consultation on developing vocational learning, partly seeing this as a sign of their own growing professional status.

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Another sign was the welcomed parity between QTLS and QTS qualifications. Then the Lingfield interim report was published and the wind fell from respondents’ sails – not only would they as a professional group not be advanced, but they might drift back to ad hoc professional development, at the whim of cash-strapped employers.

The following express some of the concerns of teachers and trainers:

“I think we are in an extremely worrying and dangerous time, with removing governing bodies for vocational trainers, we are going back to the ‘old days’, where anyone can go to the library, read a book, hire a hall and deliver the subject.” Policy Review TV symposium (LH)

“I’m still waiting for my induction too (three years)! Re the ‘old days’ comment, I agree that we appear to be regressing with revocation of 2007 regulations in terms of deprofessionalisation. Funding and casualised contracts, also deprofessionalising and de‑skilling.” Policy Review TV symposium (MS)

There is understandable disquiet that weak arrangements might become the norm following the Lingfield review.

“My experiences of initial training are poor. The college offered no assistance; my first week consisted of lone teaching on my third day. From week two, I was expected to teach 30 hours a week. This was a mix of HE and FE. There were no prepared schemes of work or lesson plans so I was preparing everything ... There was some college training at the end of the year, but quite frankly none of it was designed for a new teacher, so much of it made very little sense. It took two terms to get any form of a mentor, the person allocated whilst an experienced teacher, was also teaching himself. No time was allocated for mentoring.” (ENG)

“Throughout my teaching career, I came across a number of lecturers who joined and left the college. I have to say that many lacked or did not have the adequate teacher training arrangements in place for new entrants to vocational teaching. There was a lack of opportunities provided for new teachers to learn to teach their specialism and the lack of systematic mentoring and support in the workplace. (ENG)

ITT is, of course, exactly what it says, initial training. Further professional development is needed because professionals do not just stagnate without development, their practice regresses (see Eraut, 1994). Hence the importance of CPD and particularly of subject-specific support – the focus of the next section of this report.

“Initial training is a good start to the journey, but needs more through CPD. ITT should focus on the pressures that teachers face – assessment, special needs, dealing with aggressive behaviour. More practice and practice supervision; and in‑class mentoring needed.” Birmingham seminar

CPD provision may be difficult to access for some teachers and trainers. An IfL report on CPD (2011) showed its benefits, and clearly vocational staff must keep up to date in both senses of professional – as vocational specialists, and as teachers. However, it was widely thought that:

“Organisations do not give time [for CPD], although they give lots of time for bureaucratic meetings.”Portsmouth seminar

Resources to support CPD are available online, from IfL, the TES and others; however, there was concern that staff do not know about these resources; and that, if they do, they may not have the time to access them.

Staff feel overwhelmed by teaching loads, paperwork burden – a treadmill of work.” Portsmouth seminar

So, all is not rosy in the professional development of vocational teachers and trainers. This is an issue inevitably and inextricably linked to improving teaching and learning. Teaching and learning are reciprocal activities – if we want to have more active forms of learning, with more autonomous learners who develop the attributes wanted by employers, then both teachers and learners have to work appropriately; and this often requires training – and organisations must put in place mechanisms for this to happen, or it won’t happen except in isolated pockets.


Initial training to teach has been compulsory for teachers and trainers in the learning and skills sector only since 2001, with improved initial teacher qualifications from 2007. The majority of respondents valued their initial teacher training and its positive effects on teaching and learning; and also because, especially if QTLS and QTS are both universally recognised, it creates a more level professional playing field.

z What may be done to protect and promote initial training at a time of austerity?

Initial training is intended to begin a continuing process of professional development.

z What may be done to help teachers and trainers access high-quality CPD opportunities?

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6. The role of vocational subject mentors

As there are concerns about Ofsted inspections of vocational learning giving far too few outstanding grades for teaching, then one important method of improvement is by making vocational subject mentors much more available to teachers and trainers.

Much teaching is carried out in isolation, but to improve teaching, teachers and trainers need feedback from people who know the subject and context. Feedback from learners is important, but only knowledgeable colleagues can give you the detailed help you need to develop practice. However, what observation of teaching there is was thought by some to be too judgemental to help.

“What will help is feedback from a subject‑specialist mentor – frank, open and honest feedback, without you feeling that your job’s on the line.”South‑west seminar

Subject mentors play an important role in professional development, as an adjunct to initial training to teach, and as means of continuing professional development. A research report (Harkin, 2010a) showed that Ofsted criticisms of initial training related mainly to a lack of workplace support to develop subject pedagogy.

“The evidence shows that the most significant, widespread problem, and the one worth addressing, is gaining subject‑specialist knowledge through workplace mentoring.”

A second, follow-up report, (Harkin, 2010b) showed that many employers, across the range from large colleges to small training providers, find it very difficult to provide workplace support to develop subject pedagogy. Part-time teachers may find it even more difficult to get feedback on how well they teach, and how to develop their teaching. The report made several recommendations, including:

z The role of the mentor in giving support to trainees to develop subject-specific pedagogy should be made clearer in all national and awarding organisation guidelines.

z All mentors should receive training for the role, usually by the provider of the generic element of ITE, to ensure that there is a unified team approach to the role, including teaching observations and feedback.

z Steps should be taken to ensure that part of the funding for ITE (CTLLS and DTLLS) is allocated specifically to workplace mentoring of teachers, consistently across providers of ITE.

As far as I am aware, nothing has been able to be done to increase the provision of workplace, subject mentoring which, at best, is very patchy, and sometimes carried out by managers who lack the time to mentor.

“Yes, mentors are provided and can be very helpful. But managers are often so busy reviewing statistics that little time is left to discuss a programme or explore other options.”(HOSP)

“Our manager does not have an understanding of our trade – she understands the general principles but cannot be very helpful to feedback on my subject specialist teaching.”South‑west seminar

To be effective, mentoring is best carried out by someone from the same or very similar subject area, who has received a little training in how to carry out the role. Neither the time to train the mentor nor the time for mentoring need be much – a few hours’ attention from a more experienced colleague can really help new and newly qualified teachers and trainers to settle into their role, to the benefit of learners.

Here are some examples of teachers or trainers who have received mentor support:

“My vocational mentor was a major influence on me becoming an effective teacher ... I immediately identified with him through a shared background, as he …understood the journey I was about to take.” (ENG)

“Vocational mentors have a great place in helping people to become great teachers. I have a great mentor who is younger than me but has more experience and I will often go to her for advice and just swop ideas or problems; you can never get enough.”(HOSP)

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“The FSW has recently developed its own programme of subject mentors for its teachers and rightly believes in the importance of using subject specialism mentors to deliver a mentoring programming to new teachers ... The mentor is assigned to develop, nurture, listen and guide the teaching journey at the school for new teachers, this helps to accelerate the new teachers to be able to develop and undertake the differing roles of a teacher. Mentoring is delivered in a semi structured manner and reflects in many ways Bandura’s (1977) theory, where he states: ‘Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do’.”(HOSP)

“My mentor was a key figure in building my confidence to teach a group with very diverse needs…. I was not at first prepared to deal with the level of behaviour management that further education required. The diverse range of additional support needs such as emotional needs, self‑confidence issues, financial pressures, requires time, knowledge and support from other staff ... The mentoring should continue on a formal basis once qualified to encourage personal growth and tackle issues.” (BUS)

“… from several experiences spanning many years, I would always recommend some form of mentoring in helping people to become effective teachers of vocational subjects. Teaching/training can be an isolating experience at times…I have often found that joint teaching on occasions can provide some valuable stimulus and further feedback from a trusted colleague or mentor.” (ENG)

And here is the view of a mentor.

“The instructor … is new to the college – part of my role is to introduce him to the groups and help him settle. I will also observe him teaching and help with his development. I feel that through peer observation we can all learn from each other and it is an area that needs more time and effort put in to it. We too often start new teachers that are then left to cope and do the job with maybe only the yearly observation being the measure of how we are doing.” (ENG)

Unfortunately, many teachers and trainers receive little or no subject mentor support. One teacher’s comment in response to the question about the role of the vocational subject mentor was brief but telling,

“Who are these people?” (BUS)

Although most respondents had not been mentored, many had clear ideas about the mentor role and a strong wish to receive mentor support.

“Mentors are essential to new training instructors especially in a dangerous environment such as engineering. I would like to see new trainers shadowing a professional … Sadly this is not the case. Too many organisations will not dedicate the resources for this and mistakes can be costly in terms of bad experiences for learners”. (ENG)

“I personally found that because the initial teacher training was very academic in nature … many of the hands‑on, practical skills needed to effectively teach vocational subjects were simply overlooked. I enjoyed the academic approach to the course but feel it would be beneficial to many new vocational subject teachers to have access to a subject specialist for support.” (ENG)

“My initial training was excellent for understanding and utilising pedagogical approaches, but did little for subject knowledge. In my experience, teachers do want to improve their subject knowledge, but courses are often expensive and colleges are reluctant to provide the funding. It is also difficult to release tutors for training courses during term time. I think this makes subject mentoring particularly important. A good subject mentor is someone who is inspirational, works at the top of their vocation and is able to dedicate time to helping others. Another essential attribute for a subject mentor is the willingness to accept a nominal remuneration for their efforts!”(HOSP)

“Mentoring is one of those work‑related roles that require experience wrapped up with the ability to see the training or assessing role in all its aspects. In my opinion, you are never too old (or good) to be mentored. It helps you see and understand (sometimes) the continual changing face of learner interaction and prevents that all‑too‑easy, jaded, approach to the vocational training or assessing role.” (BUS)

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So there is very strong support for the provision of subject mentors – both in response to Ofsted criticisms of teaching quality, but also – and importantly – in response to the expressed needs of teachers and trainers and, through them, to the needs of learners. Here is one engineer’s view of the potential of vocational subject mentors.

z To inform and educate instructors in the workplace, classroom and workshops

z To help with new and creative resources z To get links to companies and work‑based

learning teams z To help with CPD activities z To undertake appraisals with teachers z To be a critical friend z To be supportive of teachers within the

vocational subjects.(ENG)


Most respondents had not received subject mentoring but would have welcomed it. Respondents who had received mentoring support valued it greatly. In order to raise the standard of teaching and learning in vocational education, it is important to develop the provision of subject mentors.

z What can be done to increase the provision of vocational subject mentors, to raise the quality of vocational learning?

www.ifl.ac.uk


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7. How may the status of vocational subjects be raised?

“Manual trades have always been associated with the lower and working classes and therefore, as the overall wealth and aspirations of the nation have increased, the values placed upon traditional manual skills and practical abilities have fallen into decline. This is nothing new.” (ENG)

The status of vocational areas varies: engineering is relatively highly regarded, while some other vocational areas may be less so. This is in line with status differentials within academic subjects.

“Engineering as a vocational subject is already regarded highly by employers. However, in terms of the general public, its importance is not appreciated. Vocational is invariably regarded as inferior to academic, rather than ‘horses for courses’. To promote vocational education, the benefits to employers and learners need to be marketed more effectively. The involvement of employers within this needs to be publicised and they need to be able to demonstrate that they are equally, if not more, effective in some subject areas such as engineering, than general A levels.” (ENG)

Of course, even within vocational areas there are status differentials.

“A mechanic is to an engineer as a vacuum‑cleaner repairer is to James Dyson. Engineering is the art of analysing and solving problems for the greater societal good. Regrettably, since the title is not protected in the way other professions do, anyone can call themselves an engineer. This has led to misunderstandings regarding the complexity of an engineering programme on the part of college management, other staff in the college and prospective full‑time students. (ENG)

Respondents thought that there is a widespread, public view that vocational qualifications are lower status than academic – which is irksome to vocational teachers and trainers, and damaging to the recruitment of suitable learners to vocational programmes. It is commonly believed by vocational teachers and trainers that, in consequence of this, they are paid less than academic staff and schoolteachers.

“It is generally agreed that learning in the 21st century is going to be a lifelong process, with teachers in school laying the foundation. It then follows that trainers require even greater skills to continue the building of knowledge and skills within the work environment. To do this they must themselves have the resources, motivation and recognition.” (BUS)

“… vocational teachers are routinely called trainers or technicians, instead of teachers or lecturers, given no non‑contact time and paid as little as 60 per cent of the wage given to other teaching staff.”(HOSP)

“Training instructors should be recognised as professionals and treated as such. As well as parity of QTS and QTLS, there should be parity of terms and conditions. The training sector and IfL have invested time and money preparing dual professionals, but have they prepared the training sector for a new generation of dual professionals?” (ENG)

One perceived cause of the lower status of vocational qualifications is in the view of them held by schoolteachers – most of who have come through academic routes and know little of vocational education.

“I have been in many secondary schools and, to be honest, the belief there is sometimes ‘BTecs aren’t as good as A levels’. If vocational education is to be promoted further, then schools themselves may benefit from a training day(s) to help them to advise their students more effectively. If the teachers in schools don’t know, then really the students don’t stand a chance and neither does vocational education.” (BUS)

“I get the feeling that sometimes schools view vocational pathways as easier options for students who might not flourish academically (I’m fairly sure of this, being a governor of a secondary school). This particular vocational pathway is definitely not the case! Some of the students on the course are not suitable for the qualification. About one‑third are academically suited, typically aiming for A–C in maths and three sciences. The others would really suit a more practically based qualification.” (ENG)

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It was thought that many vocational subjects, perhaps especially in engineering, require higher levels of academic knowledge than commonly assumed; and that vocational subjects, taught well, develop a wide range of knowledge and skills – that may be unacknowledged in common views about vocational learning.

“With all the legislation and government changes seeming to reduce the ‘weight’ of vocational subjects in respects to GCSE grades, I believe it is vital that the status of the vocational qualification is held in high regard. Vocational provision enables the exploration of analysis, planning, teamwork, communication and imagination all within the learning environment and it’s these skills that are widely sought‑after by today’s employers.” (ENG)

“The technical world itself is changing rapidly, gone are the days when mechanics, engineers and technicians could be the less academic types with oily hands. The technology in use on modern machines demands a high level of skill to diagnose, repair and maintain effectively and the outdated images and attitudes associated with vocational training need to evolve likewise. Sadly [school links programme] the experience did not match the expectations. I felt that the schools saw this as an opportunity to offload poorly behaved, underachieving and possibly even Ofsted grade affecting pupils ... This helps to illustrate the general attitude towards vocational training discussed throughout; schools need to place a higher value on vocational subjects and not presume they are reserved solely for the less academically able.” (ENG)

It was thought that better marketing and promotion of vocational education, by government, employers and awarding bodies would help to raise their status.

“A positive political message from the government about vocational education and training helps to promote links with employers as well as help build an understanding amongst everyday people, who are not fully aware of the positive work being done in colleges with students, who in some cases, have been let down, or their true potential has not been seen. This true potential of some students is not realised by the more academic courses, such as A levels, which allow only a certain type of learner to have the opportunity to experience success.” (BUS)

“From a marketing point of view, I would really take a look at public perception of the BTec qualifications and engage in a PR campaign that may see the press and public change some of their traditional views that ‘BTecs aren’t as good as A levels’.” (BUS)

“I’m minded of advertising campaigns emphasising certain products as a ‘lifestyle’ choice. Perhaps there could be a similar campaign showing vocational qualifications being the ‘aspiration’ qualification. Some well‑constructed, diverse case studies showing where vocational qualifications can lead might be useful.” (BUS)

“Ambassadors from … industry related professional/awarding bodies should have annual targets and benchmarks of how they have raised awareness of vocational subjects of which they are accountable. Schools could offer more ‘a day in the life of’ and have guest speakers within the industry to talk about career and opportunities available.”(HOSP)

More joined-up thinking between government departments and agencies was also seen as a means of raising the status of vocational qualifications.

“To further raise the status of vocational subjects, there is a need for more collaboration and partnership working across schools, colleges and universities.” (BUS)

“Currently the overall approach to vocational education is fragmented. Raising the status of vocational subjects could be achieved through a partnership approach. Partnership working is essential between schools, colleges, employers, and other education and skills providers; and is key to bringing ‘life’ to vocational learning through contextualised situated learning to make it more relevant. Lack of funding is the biggest barrier with vocational qualifications, which are recognised and valued but denied accreditation and funding by government agencies; combined with an inflexible regulatory system and perverse incentives created by current funding and accountability mechanisms that are fragmented as well.” (BUS)

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There was a belief that market forces will anyway tip the scales of status more towards vocational education and training, as so many graduates in the much expanded higher education system have no jobs, or jobs that do not need graduate levels of knowledge. However, this may do nothing to raise the status of vocational qualifications.

“The renewed emphasis on apprenticeships is not wrong. If we concentrate on the power of SKILLS, we may be able to gain respect for this sector. I suspect 21st century market forces will do this anyhow. Young people are already looking at learning skills that will get a job first and foremost.”(HOSP)

“Maybe the long‑term solution could be to go back to the old style technical colleges? After all, surely the essence of equality and diversity is that everybody is different, and not everybody needs or wants a university education. This is nothing to do with intelligence, cleverness or qualifications; it’s simply that people are different.”(HOSP)


Respondents expressed frustration with the widespread belief that vocational education is of lower status than ‘academic’ education, even if that does not always lead to jobs. They believed that more can and should be done to raise the status of vocational learning.

z What can be done to ensure that schools and schoolteachers have a better understanding and appreciation of the range of vocational qualifications? Only with this knowledge can appropriate advice and guidance be given to learners.

z What can be done to improve the marketing and image of vocational qualifications so that schools, employers and the general public have a more positive awareness of the importance of vocational learning for individuals, employers and the nation?

z At present, it is perceived that fragmentation of responsibility, and artificial divisions within education provision, impede progress towards an education and training system that matches the needs of individuals, employers and the country.

z What can be done to bring about more joined-up, partnership working between government departments, awarding bodies, education providers, and employers?

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8. Other issues in developing vocational learning

The concerns of vocational teachers and trainers cannot be neatly confined to issues of pedagogy – the capacity for even dedicated, well-qualified and experienced staff to teach well is heavily dependent on the policies of governments, and the funding streams, organisational cultures and partnerships that these give rise to. The vocational learning sector has very many dedicated and talented staff – as shown by the 120 people who spent time to write accounts, some of them up to 15 pages long, of their professional lives and concerns.

The commission was set up, in part, because of concern that Ofsted grades very few colleges outstanding for teaching. Setting aside the issue of whether Ofsted inspections are a help or hindrance in raising teaching standards, it is obvious that the circumstances in which vocational teachers and trainers work must affect grades.

Vocational teachers and trainers expressed feelings of disappointment at the role that successive governments have played in failing to promote and develop vocational education and training. Much government intervention is regarded as meddling or political opportunism, rather than carefully thought-out policy, leading to long-term strategies. The criticism is not new. An acute commentator on British vocational education, Norton Grubb, David Pierpont Gardner, Professor at Berkeley, California, called it ‘vulgar pragmatism’ – British governments tinker with provision, rather than engaging with more fundamental reform, while keeping an eye on where the votes are.

There is disquiet about recent changes to vocational qualifications and a sense that decisions have been taken for political reasons, with scant regard for consultation about the potential effects of change.

“Only this week, we had a team meeting with an agenda item being ‘employer involvement’. With yet another change to the framework for apprenticeships (government interference for most of us, rather than considered industrial needs).” (ENG)

“… vocational qualifications aren’t ‘cowboy’ qualifications, snuck in by the backdoor to boost school league‑table results; they were scrupulously monitored by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority so that rigorous standards imbued every course. Regrettably, with the shift in importance, we will see a rapid decline in the 4,827 vocational qualifications on offer and many vocational qualifications scrapped as the vast majority of schools and colleges opt to replace them with more ‘respectable’ but much less engaging academic courses. This is a tragedy for all our young people because many teachers increasingly feel that a lot of our ‘academic’ GCSEs and A levels, whose

content and style were developed in the last century, are just not suitable for our pupils anymore. Even our most ‘academic’ students find them off‑putting. Alison Wolf, the government’s expert on the issue, said in her review of vocational education: ‘Good vocational programmes are, therefore, respected, valuable and an important part of our, and any other country’s, educational provision.’” (BUS)

“For vocational subjects to be held in higher status there must be more input from employers into curriculum design so that when learners achieve, their awards are more than just meaningless pieces of paper. There should be less government interference on what vocational teachers can teach and how they deliver it and more emphasis given to what employers need.” (ENG)

Lack of long-term strategy, frequent policy swings and changes, and uncertainty about funding are not helpful when building and maintaining complex vocational education structures.

“My main concern at this moment in time is that the courses are being watered down for the benefit of making money or college survival and this has been brought on by the lack of investment by the government. I have been working for a college for six‑and‑a‑half years and I have seen a reduction in staff, courses, support staff and budgets. Over the last three years, I have worked with an organisation that has merged once and reorganised three times. This has led to the college losing a lot of good staff and leaving staff unsettled, which I feel has driven standards down with a lot of staff thinking, ‘Why bother: we could be made redundant next term?’” (ENG)

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“I would argue that many schemes initiated by various governments are both irrelevant to the needs our students and industry and are in some cases valueless and totally undermine vocational learning. An example being the now defunct YTS scheme and the more recent scheme the Modern Apprentice Scheme appears to be taking on the same mantra. They were designed simply to keep our young adult learners off the streets and very little else.” (ENG)

The commission no doubt has a narrower remit than the ground covered by the evidence presented in this report, but no part of the education fabric can be unstitched without affecting the rest.

Vocational teachers and trainers are not asking for special treatment – just the same access to initial training and continuous professional development as schoolteachers, the same recognition of professional status shown in pay and conditions of service, and a level playing field when it comes to learners being given accurate, realistic guidance about which educational path to follow. In this way, they believe, vocational learning can stand alongside academic learning – and of course much vocational learning includes an academic element – on an equal footing. Government policy is at the root of whether or not this happens. Beyond that, of course, there is much that good leadership of colleges and private training providers can accomplish.

It is worth recording that while this consultation took place, in March 2012, Exeter College was graded ‘outstanding’ for teaching and learning, after the first snap inspection of the new Ofsted regime. The Ofsted report shows that many of the features of effective vocational education highlighted by teachers and trainers in this consultation are in place at Exeter. The college has outstanding leadership, good partnership links with employers and the community; adjusts its provision to the needs of local and regional employability; and pays close attention to areas like functional skills and pastoral support, as well as to development of subject-specific skills. It also has a well-qualified and experienced teaching staff. Areas of relative weakness included the provision of realistic work environments – a familiar issue from this report.

Some other colleges too are engaged in innovative and enterprising ways of working with employers – Walsall College and North Hertfordshire College come to mind, but I am sure there are many others. What may be learned from the examples of the most successful colleges?

And let us celebrate success, while trying to ensure that the conditions for success – through policy, funding, assessment and inspection regimes – are in place. I will leave the last word to a celebration at Exeter:

“Work‑based learners of all ages were honoured for their determination and ambition at Exeter College’s annual skills awards this week and heard that whilst commerce and industry is constantly changing, the need for highly motivated and trained staff continues to be central to business success. Around 80 guests, including the award winners, their families, friends, college skills officers, the winners’ employers, as well as a number of leading figures from the Devon business community, celebrated 16 awards.”


The concerns of vocational teachers and trainers cannot be neatly confined to issues of pedagogy – the capacity for even dedicated, well-qualified and experienced staff to teach well is heavily dependent on the policies of governments, and the funding streams, organisational cultures and partnerships that these give rise to.

The policies of successive governments towards vocational education and training were criticised by teachers and trainers. The commission no doubt has a narrower remit than the ground covered by the evidence presented in this report, but no part of the education fabric can be unstitched without affecting the rest. The commission was set up, in part, because of concern that Ofsted grades very few colleges outstanding for teaching. Setting aside the issue of whether Ofsted inspections are a help or hindrance in raising teaching standards, it is obvious that the circumstances in which vocational teachers and trainers work must affect grades.

z Can the commission embed concern to raise the standard of teaching and learning in vocational education in a proper context of government policy and longer-term strategic thinking?

Some parts of the vocational education and training system perform better than others:

z What can be learned from existing good practice that may benefit practice elsewhere?

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References

Casey, H, Cara, O, Eldred, J, Grief, S, Hodge, R, Ivanicv, R, Jupp, T, Lopez, D, and McNeil, B, 2006. “You wouldn’t expect a maths teacher to teach plastering…” Embedding literacy, language and numeracy in post-16 vocational programmes – the impact on learning and achievement. London: NRDC.

Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS), 2011. New challenges, new chances: next steps in implementing the further education reform programme. London: BIS.

Coffield, F, Moseley, D, Hall, E, Ecclestone, K , 2004. Learning Styles and Pedagogy in post-16 learning. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.

Eraut, M, 1994. Evaluating Professional Knowledge and Competence, London: Falmer.

Fryer, RH, 2007. Learning for the 21st Century, The Fryer Report. London: DfEE.

Gardner, H, 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Grubb, WN and Associates, 1999. Honored but invisible: An inside look at teaching in community colleges. New York and London: Routledge.

Harkin, J, 1997. Technological Change, Employment and the Responsiveness of Education and Training Providers, Compare, 27, 1, pp 113–121.

Harkin, J, 1998. Constructs Used by Students in England and Wales to Evaluate their Teachers, Journal of Vocational Education and Training 50, 3, pp339–353.

Harkin, J, 2005. Fragments Stored Against My Ruin: the place of educational theory in the professional development of teachers, The Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 57, 2, pp65–179. ISSN 1363-6820.

Harkin, J, 2006. Treated Like Adults: 14–16 year olds in Further Education, Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 11, 3. pp319–339. ISSN 1359-6748.

Harkin, J, 2007. Excellence in Supporting Applied Learning. London: LLUK and TDA.

Harkin, J, 2010a. Breadth of teaching practice in the Learning and Skills sector: a report to the BIS Workforce Development group, Commissioned by IfL. London: LLUK.

Harkin, J, 2010b. Barriers that Small Providers of Education and Training Face in Providing Mentor Support for in-service ITE in the Learning and Skills sector: a report to the BIS Workforce Development group, commissioned by LLUK. London: LLUK.

HM Treasury, 2006. Leitch Review of Skills: Prosperity for all in the global economy – world class skills. Norwich: TSO.

Johannessen, TA, Harkin, J and Mikalsen, O, 2002. Constructs Used by 17–19 Year Old Students in Northern Europe When Informally Evaluating their Teachers, European Educational Research Journal, 1, 3, pp538–548.

Lingfield, R, 2012. Professionalism in Further Education: Interim Report of the Independent Review Panel. London: BIS,

LLUK, 2007. New Overarching Professional Standards for Teachers, Tutors and Trainers in the Lifelong Learning Sector. London: LLUK.

Newbolt, Sir H, 1921. The Teaching of English in England. London: HMSO.

Thompson, DG, 1949. Training Worker Citizens - an Exposition by Experts of Some Modern Educational Methods Designed to Equip Youth for the Service of Industry and State. London: MacDonald and Evans.

Wolf, Prof A, 2011. Review of Vocational Education: The Wolf Report. London: BIS

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