[IEEE 2012 IEEE Systems and Information Engineering Design Symposium (SIEDS) - Charlottesville, VA...

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Abstract�After natural disasters, communities can be

devastated from a lack of clean water. This can lead to death through dehydration, malnutrition, lack of sanitation, and disease propagation. Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Response efforts by the United States military emphasize short-term options for access to safe drinking water. Typically, in the 72 hours immediately after a disaster, long-term water supply systems are not set-up, so soldiers rely on costly imported bottled water. The United States Army is developing Pre-positioned Expeditionary Assistance Kits, which include mobile water purification units to filter local water sources at disaster sites. This Capstone project, a continuation of a 2010-2011 Capstone project, sponsored by the Systems Engineering Research Center under a grant from the Department of Defense, focuses on evaluating the water quality of a particular source before deploying a water purification system. The Rapid Adaptive Needs Assessment kit performs this task immediately after a natural disaster. The kit measures water temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, and pH and transmits the data to a command center where a decision algorithm ranks �� operational success is �� water source from multiple sources based on user preferences. This paper outlines the approach used to enhance the kit and describes the physical design, anchoring system, data communications system, decision algorithm, user interfaces, maintenance, and integration of parts into a portable, remote water monitoring system.

I. INTRODUCTION

major problem facing disaster relief efforts is the availability of clean water for residents and disaster

Manuscript received April 2, 2012. This work was supported in part by

the Systems Engineering Research Center within the U.S. Department of Defense under Grant P136569/Technical Task Order 008.

J. E. Angello is with the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

A. M. Corrigan is with the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA (phone: 703-505-9877; e-mail: [email protected]).

R. K. Garg is with the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

S. S. Hewitt is with the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

K. L. Hudgins is with the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

E. C. Lester is with the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

C. A. E. Sorensen is with Sweet Briar College, Amherst, VA 24595 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

M. R. Wilson is with Sweet Briar College, Amherst, VA 24595 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

B. M. Brinkman is with Sweet Briar College, Amherst, VA 24595 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

G. E. Louis is with the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).

relief personnel, especially during the first 72 hours of disaster response. Currently, bottled water is shipped into disaster relief areas to satisfy the minimum quantity requirements for relief aid personnel. To save time and money from shipping bottled water, the Department of Defense (DoD) wants to determine which, if any, local water sources can be purified for consumption. The goal of the Rapid Adaptive Needs Assessment (RANA) kit is to develop a decision support system that provides the DoD with a recommendation on which, if any, local water resources to purify in disaster areas. To fulfill this goal, the team will develop a transportable kit to continuously monitor water quality, communicate water quality data remotely to a military command center, and support selection of safe water sources with a decision algorithm.

II. PREVIOUS WORK

The RANA kit project was started in 2010 by a previous capstone team. After evaluating a list of alternatives including permanent water testing stations, human testing, and transportable kits, the team decided to pursue a transportable kit. After researching water quality testing, the team chose five probes to measure turbidity, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and conductivity. The team created a buoyant, waterproof kit that contained a Global Water data logger to collect and store data from the five attached probes. They also researched a communication system using cellular modems between a remote kit and the military command center, but this system was not implemented before the current team began work.

III. PROBLEM DEFINITION

The availability of clean water for drinking and sanitation purposes during the first 72 hours of disaster response for local residents and relief aid workers is a large concern for disaster relief aid. Disaster scenarios increase the likelihood of contaminants, such as polluting chemicals [6], entering �� types of water pollution are harmful to the health of �� ]. Additionally, natural disasters often damage pre-existing water treatment systems [8]. To avoid the risks of unsafe water, the US military ships bottled water into disaster zones, consuming time and money. The RANA kit aims to provide US military commanders with the information necessary to choose local water sources to purify for relief personnel. The kit will use water quality probes to monitor five water quality variables: turbidity, pH,

A Rapid Adaptive Needs Assessment Kit for Water Quality Monitoring in Humanitarian Assistance & Disaster Response Applications

Joseph E. Angello, Anna M. Corrigan, Ramit K. Garg, Samuel S. Hewitt, Kathleen L. Hudgins, Erica C. Lester, Caroline A.E. Sorensen, Madeline R. Wilson, Bethany M. Brinkman, Garrick E. Louis

A

Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Systems and InformationEngineering Design Symposium, University of Virginia,Charlottesville, VA, USA, April 27, 2012

FridayAMRisk and Environment.1

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temperature, dissolved oxygen, and conductivity [3]. The kits will be placed in local water sources and will transmit water quality data to a local military base. At the command center, a decision algorithm will determine which water source is optimal to purify. The team is working with �� !�� "��Systems and Information Engineering department and Instructor Bethany Brinkman of Sweet Briar College"��Physics and Engineering Department to develop the RANA kit.

IV. OBJECTIVES

The high level objectives and associated metrics for the RANA project are detailed below.

Increase access to safe drinking water for US military personnel during disaster aid missions: � Remotely monitor water quality quickly and accurately

[accuracy of measurements, deployment time] � Quickly and accurately communicate collected water

quality data to command center [number of transmission failures, transmission time]

� Quickly determine optimal water source based on expected fouling rate of the filter [number of errors, computation time]

V. REQUIREMENTS

The following requirements ensure that the team builds a useful prototype to help the military determine the optimal way to obtain clean water during aid missions. Requirements are broken up into two major groups: high-level business requirements and more specific subsystem requirements.

The DoD requires a system that meets the following high-level requirements: � A field kit will protect measuring instruments against

��"�� # � The kit will securely backup the collected data. � An anchoring system will ensure that the kit does not

move away from the intended testing area. � The communications system will transmit data from

the kit to a server at the command center. � A central repository will securely store information. � A decision algorithm will use water quality metrics to

determine and rank feasible local water sources. � A user interface will display the cleanliness of local

water sources and a ranking of these sources to enable quick and effective decisions by management.

The following represents a summary of subsystem

requirements developed by the DoD and SERC.

A. Kit Design Requirements

1) The kit shall operate continuously for 72 hours [4]. 2) The kit shall test for water quality using parameters that

directly relate to the flow rate of the Aspen filter.

3) The kit shall operate autonomously after deployment. 4) The kit shall function within certain conditions (DoD

specifications): 35k TDS, 50 NTU turbidity, 35-95 °F water temperature [4].

5) The kit shall operate in temperature from 0F to 120F[4]. 6) The kit shall function properly after being stored long

term between 0F and 160F [4].

B. Anchoring System Requirements

1) The retrieval process shall require one person to extract the kit within 10 minutes.

2) The kit shall move no more than 5 meters. 3) The anchor shall function at variable flow rates 4) The anchoring system shall work in various ground

surfaces such as sediment, sand, soil, stones, rocks, etc.

C. Communication System Requirements

1) The kit shall transmit data via the PEAK telecommunication network at 900 MHz frequency.

2) The kit shall transmit data via the local telecommunication network if one is available and compatible with the kit.

3) The kit shall store and transmit collected water quality data at regular intervals.

4) If the data-logger memory capacity fills, it shall overwrite the oldest data as necessary.

5) The system shall establish a minimum 2 NM radius [4] of operations, capable of supporting at least 20 kits.

6) The system shall integrate with existing communications networks [4].

D. Decision Algorithm and User Interface Requirements

1) The decision algorithm shall run on all hardware capable of running Windows OS.

2) The decision algorithm shall correctly rank the cleanliness of water sources 95% of the time.

3) The interface shall include a GIS-based display (i.e., Google Maps) that accepts and links to free text, templates, imagery, audio, etc. (i.e., push-pins, KML file) from humans and remote sensing sources.

VI. RANA KIT DESIGN AND CAPABILITIES

The RANA kit has four physical component systems that work together to provide an accurate recommendation for selecting a water source. The systems are described in this section.

A. Base Shell and Probe Protection

The base shell of the kit is a Pelican© case, a waterproof military grade container. It is dustproof, chemical resistant and corrosion proof. The high impact structural copolymer makes this case virtually unbreakable and perfect for the field where this kit may require higher durability standards. The model obtained by the previous capstone team is capable of keeping up to 70 pounds of equipment buoyant. Foam inside the kit minimizes the impact of vibrations and shocks.

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The probes, which must rest below the kit in the water, are protected by a garolite rectangular frame wrapped in aluminum mesh. The probes are placed at an angle inside of the cage to minimize the size of the cage and to ensure that the probes are able to detect the water source and send readings properly. The probes are attached via holes cut along a PVC pipe to keep the probes separated and at an angle. The PVC pipe is attached to the metal cage on both ends to stabilize the probes. A hinge system is used to attach the cage to the case and will allow easy access to the probes when necessary. Chains are attached from both sides of the cage to the case to increase stability. The probes transmit data through waterproof cords that lead back into the kit. Figure 1 shows the final design attached to the case.

B. Anchoring System and Supplementary Tools

The Department of Defense highly values kit retrieval, thus the team set out to redesign the previous anchor system, which consisted of a bag of rocks attached to the bottom of the kit with an adjustable length cord [2]. The kit attached to the shore with a plastic stake and nylon cord [2].

Figure 1: RANA kit

The redesigned anchoring system upgrades the parts in the current system and modifies the process of deploying the anchor. The new system uses a folding grapnel anchor, which holds in virtually all bottom conditions including mud, sand, gravel, and rock [10]. The folding grapnel anchor is lightweight and collapsible, enabling it to be stowed in a small space [12]. The first iteration of testing revealed some concerns with sending the kit far enough into the water source to obtain accurate readings. Additionally, kit retrieval was difficult.

Figure 2: RANA Kit's Anchoring System in a Moving Water Source

Through feedback from technical consultants at Sperry Marine, the team revamped the original rope solution to include a pulley system in order to assist in the deployment and retrieval of the kit. Adding a pulley allows for the user to tie the kit to a rope and then pull the kit out to the anchor or back to the shore. A stake � �� "�� are included for additional anchoring support to stabilize the kit in the water current. Figure 2 shows the current anchoring system in a moving water source.

C. Probes and Supplementary Tools

The RANA kit has multiple data inputs that are collected by a series of probes and sensors. The probes monitor the five water quality parameters of a selected water source (conductivity, pH level, temperature, turbidity, and dissolved �$�� %#� &� �� "�� '�� temperature and humidity to detect leaks in the kit. The probes are wired to the data logger through water proof wire and waterproof seals on the Pelican case. A battery pack '�� "�� allowing the Ibexis communication system to send this data to a cloud server.

D. Communication system

The Ibexis MSP data logger works with GPRS and GSM networks and will be compatible with the PEAK network. The team will test the system using a SIM card from AT&T with a basic data plan. At the user-specified time intervals, the remote data logger transmits the collected information to an online database. Ibexis provides the data storage and online data analysis software. Additionally, it allows users to see the information in graphical and tabular layouts and export the data to a comma-delimited (.csv), Excel, or .xml file. Graphs make it easy to visualize trends in the data over time. The steps in the communication system are outlined below:

1) User schedules data collection or requests data on-the-spot using Ibexis online software. 2) Data logger transmits the collected information over the cellular (PEAK) network to an online database. 3) Data is stored on the Ibexis online database. 4) User and/or decision algorithm views or downloads the data from the software website.

VII. ALTERNATIVES AND EVALUATION

In updating the components and capabilities of each subsystem of the RANA kit, the team developed and evaluated alternatives. For each of the major subsystems, communications and probe protection, the alternatives are described and evaluated. The chosen alternative appears last.

A. Communications System Alternatives

The major constraints of developing a communication subsystem are: cost, accuracy, compatibility with the PEAK network, battery life, and ease of use. Each of the attempted alternatives is described below, with its associated strengths, weaknesses, implementation challenges, and potential future

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research. As the PEAK network is similar to the AT&T, the team used the AT&T network for evaluation. 1) Cellular modems ( This alternative includes a GPS-

enabled cellular modem attached to the GlobalWater data-logger in the kit, which transmits data to another cellular modem at the command center.

� Strengths: Will integrate with the GlobalWater logger and software; long expected battery life.

� Weaknesses: Modems need circuit-switched data (CSD) capabilities; implementation requires knowledge of AT commands.

� Implementation Challenges: The sub-team was never successful in purchasing a SIM card and data plan with the correct capabilities to run the modems, resulting in lost time and money. It was eventually determined that, in order to perform the necessary functions, the modems need Circuit Switched Data (CSD) capabilities, a technology that is both outdated and expensive.

2) Android Smartphone ( This alternative uses an Android smart phone connected to the data-logger in the kit, which uploads data using the GetBlue application (from the Android Market).

� Strengths: GetBlue is an existing application that uploads data to various formats (including Google Document).

� Weaknesses: Data is public if uploaded online; smart phone requires more power, reducing battery life.

� Implementation Challenges: The phone must run GlobalWater software in order to interface with the probes and data-logger. Global water software is currently incompatible with the Android OS.

3) Windows Smartphone ( This alternative includes a smart phone running Windows Mobile 6.5, connected to the data-logger in the kit. Because the Global Water software cannot run autonomously, the phone is controlled remotely by a user at a computer, to interface with the logger and transmit this data over the cell network.

� Strengths: Existing GlobalWater software for the Windows mobile OS can be downloaded to the phone.

� Weaknesses: Process requires excessive human input; smart phone requires more power; Microsoft no longer supports Windows Mobile 6.5.

� Implementation Challenges: This alternative is not practical since the user is expected to perform a long and time-consuming series of actions in the correct order each time data is requested.

4) Ibexis Data Logger ( (Chosen Alternative) ( The Ibexis MSP is a data logger that has a built-in GSM cellular modem. Using a SIM card from a GSM cellular provider, the logger transmits collected data to an online database. The data logger has a GPS attachment to locate the kit.

� Strengths: GPS connection; device can operate on battery power for 72 hours; Ibexis provides technical

support; priced within budget; small form factor; can interact with all probes.

� Weaknesses: Required subscription to the Ibexis data hosting service; Ibexis owns the data collected by the unit; Ibexis is located in the United Kingdom, a possible concern for the DoD; technical complexity of the unit. Implementation Challenges: The probes used by the RANA kit must use a data logger to draw power. The MSP unit is capable of providing enough power to all of the probes but a larger battery was installed to ensure that it could operate autonomously for 72 hours.

Both the Android and Windows phones were eliminated

as alternatives because they did not meet the requirements for the kit. The Android phone does not integrate with the probes and data logger. The Windows phone requires a lengthy user process to collect data and consumed the battery quickly. Using cellular modems was hindered by the requirement of CSD and was abandoned in favor of the Ibexis MSP. Scores of alternatives in key categories are shown below in Table 1. A score of 1 indicates failure to meet requirements, 2 or 3 indicate that the alternative performs poorly and 4 or 5 indicate high performance.

TABLE 1 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM ALTERNATIVE ANALYSIS

Cellular Modems

Android Phone

Windows Phone

Ibexis MSP

Kit Integration

4 1 5 5

PEAK Compatibility

2 5 5 5

Automation 3 N/A 1 5

Cost 3 5 5 2

Energy Use

5 N/A 2 4

B. Probe Protection System Alternatives

The original kit design did not protect the probes. Probes hung freely under the kit and could be struck by debris. The team designed a protection system for the probes to increase kit functionality.

The final design, shown in Figure 3 is a rectangular reinforcement structure made of a strong, impact resistant material, garolite. Table 2 shows the analysis supporting the use of garolite [9]. Steel mesh covers it to allow water to flow freely while not allowing debris to harm the probes. The probes are suspended in the cage by a PVC pipe so they cannot be damaged by hitting the sides of the cage.

Figure 3: Square mesh cage

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� Strengths: The cage is impact resistant; kit is easy to transport and requires less space in a vehicle.

� Weaknesses: Design is more complicated to build. � Implementation Challenges: The cage withstands

excessive abuse and has suffered damaged. Team had to waterproof new holes cut into Pelican case.

TABLE 2: PROBE PROTECTION MATERIALS ANALYSIS

Solution Cost Weight Sun Degrade

Stress Level

Build Ease

Final Score

Polycarbonate 8 6 Y 4 6 1152 Garolite 5 9 Y 10 6 2700 Carbon Fiber 2 9 Y 10 6 1080 Steel 7 2 N 8 3 336 Stainless Steel 6 3 N 6 3 432 Aluminum 5 4 N 6 3 360

VIII. DECISION ALGORITHM

In order to determine which water source is the cleanest, the team developed a conceptual decision algorithm. The algorithm will use the collected data to determine which water source is optimal to purify.

The DOD plans to purify a local water source using the Aspen 2000DM water purification unit, which uses reverse osmosis and UV radiation to purify water [1]. However, dirtier input water will foul the filter more quickly and the DOD wants to minimize the fouling rate of the filter. The decision algorithm ranks local water sources, with the best source having the lowest predicted fouling rate of the filter.

Membrane fouling occurs due to the buildup of colloids and biofilms [10]. The decision algorithm scores the potential for colloidal and biofouling of each water source and weights each score to obtain an overall score. Currently, the algorithm weights colloidal and biofouling rates equally but the weights can be changed if the client indicates that a certain type of fouling is more likely to be a problem.

Most reverse osmosis filters will experience a high fouling rate as turbidity rises [10]. The DOD requires that the filter be able to filter water of 50 NTU [4].Therefore, the algorithm first checks if turbidity exceeds 50 NTU. If so, this source is not recommended because the fouling rate of the filter will likely be high. Since research by Yiantsios, Sioutopoulos, and Karabelas suggests a linear relationship between contaminant concentration and the fouling rate of the filter, the algorithm assumes the fouling rate is proportional to the turbidity [15]. The score (SC) is determined as the amount that the measured turbidity is less than the limit, normalized by of the range of acceptable values, as shown in (1).

��

�� (1)

A combination of dissolved oxygen (DO) and

temperature are used to assess the potential for biofouling, or the accumulation of biofilms on the filter [11]. The rate of biofouling is related to the concentration of culturable microbes in the water [11]. This algorithm uses the level of

DO in the water to approximate the concentration of culturable microbes in the source. Dissolved oxygen concentration is a function of water temperature [5]. The algorithm uses a table to determine the maximum DO possible at the measured water temperature. The biofouling score (SB) is the proportion that the measured DO is less than the maximum DO in the water for the measured temperature, as shown in (2). This assumes that bacteria have consumed the differential amount of oxygen. Although this assumption is improbable, it is commonly found in other environmental microbial analysis methods. However, testing should be done to confirm the validity of this equation.

��

�� (2)

Since both scores range between 0 and 1, they are

already normalized. Each score is multiplied by 0.5 and added together. The sum of the weighted scores is the overall score and it ranges from 0 to 1 for each source. The logic used to create the decision algorithm is outlined below: 1) Retrieve collected data 2) Perform threshold test to eliminate water sources with a

turbidity greater than 5 NTU 3) Determine colloidal fouling score based on turbidity 4) Determine biological fouling score source based on

temperature and dissolved oxygen 5) Determine overall score 6) Analyze and note trends in data for each source 7) Present rankings and trends to user

The algorithm will output a ranking of water sources and display these rankings graphically on a map. Graphs will indicate trends in the data and overall scores, so the user can see if water quality is changing over the course of a natural disaster. The coding will be completed over the summer.

IX. CHALLENGES AND RISK

There is limited risk associated with the RANA kit. As the general public or disaster victims may have no interaction with the kit, it was designed for ease of use for military personnel who are trained on the PEAK system. The RANA kit must remain easy to deploy, retrieve, and use. Managing the size and battery life of the kit are challenges that will be faced by future teams. Risk of theft must also be considered, though the client has maintained this is not a major concern.

X. TESTING

Testing on the durability of the kit design and functionality of the anchoring system has been completed. The new anchor design was tested at Darden Towe Park in Charlottesville, Virginia. The anchor was tossed 30 feet into the Rivanna River and was easily secured to the river bottom at a depth of 3 feet. The kit was then hauled out to the anchor using the attached rope and pulley. The kit remained stationary in the flowing water. During testing, the flow rate

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of the Rivanna River was 805 cubic feet per second [14]. The anchoring system also functioned well in still water.

Future testing will be conducted to ensure that data collection, the communication system, and the decision algorithm function properly. Placing the kit in samples of water with known values of the parameters will allow the team to test these systems. Data collection can be tested by ensuring that the measured values are within an acceptable range of the known values. The kit should send these values over a GSM network to ensure the data is transferred correctly. If the values retrieved from the Ibexis website match the numbers stored locally on the data logger, then the communication system works. There may be some variance due to rounding. Next, the decision algorithm will be run. The team will know which sample should result in the lowest fouling rate of the filter. If the decision algorithm consistently picks this source, it will pass this test. Different groupings of samples should be tested for completeness.

XI. FUTURE WORK

This year, the team outlined the logic for a decision algorithm that analyzes data and recommends the optimal water source to purify. A future team should integrate cost per unit ratios and the flow rate of the reverse osmosis purifying machine given certain water quality values, into the algorithm. Using precise measurements in the algorithm will enable the RANA system to rank available water sources after a natural disaster and determine if they can provide enough water at an acceptable rate.

Future improvements should also reduce kit size, increase battery life, and increase ease of use. The team will update the manuals on how to operate and maintain the kit, as well as the quick start guide for field deployment. A multi-parameter sonode could be purchased to replace the five probes, to significantly reduce kit size and provide similar functionality with reduced weight and volume.

In addition to improving the overall PEAK system, the team recommends connecting an interceptor tank to the reverse osmosis purification machine once a water source is selected. This will cause particles to settle to the bottom of the tank before the water enters the purification unit, reducing the turbidity and, therefore, ��"�� #

XII. SIGNIFICANCE AND CONCLUSION

In the short term, RANA kits will be used by the U.S. Military during disaster aid missions to facilitate use of local water sources; however, this technical project has implications outside the U.S. Military and foreign disaster assistance missions. A report by UNICEF and the World Health Organization stated that 884 million people globally lack access to safe drinking water [13]. These populations could benefit from real-time information about local water quality as it may allow them to make safer decisions about which water sources to use. Currently, there are few portable devices capable of conducting dynamic, multi-parameter water quality monitoring in remote areas and developing

communities without a water quality lab (Garrick Louis, personal communications November 22, 2011). The kits could be shipped to water sources worldwide, constantly relaying information to nearby populations. To be most effective, educational materials about implementation of safer sanitation methods could be included with the kit to support access to safe water from local water sources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

&� �'�� '�)��"�� *�� Nancy Grandy and Mr. Phil Stockdale, for their guidance and contributions. Many thanks to Dr. Thomas +"�� of Sweet Briar *��"�� ,'�� - �� Studies for his assistance with the decision algorithm. Much deserved gratitude to the preceding capstone team, graduate student Patrick Harrison and undergraduate student Xavier Lee for their work. Thank you to Northrop Grumman Sperry Marine for their design review.

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Case. Retrieved from http://www. aspenwater.com/id5.html [2] Barham, S., Kazlauskas, S., Reynolds, R., Tabacca, J., Verrilli, E.,

Zhang, K.. (2011). Rapid adaptive needs assessment (RANA) water quality kit. Systems and Information Engineering Design Symposium

(SIEDS), 2011 IEEE, 46-46. [3] Bristow, E., & Brumbelow, K. (2005). Delay between sensing and

response in water contamination events. American Society of Civil Engineers - Proceedings of the 2005 World Water and Environmental Resources Congress 2005. 305-305.

[4] Department of Defense. (2010). Pre-positioned expeditionary assistance kits (PEAK) Joint Capability Technology Demonstration (JCTC) Technical Specifications.

[5] Exploring the Environment. (2004). Water Quality Assessment: Chemical: Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand. Exploring the Environment. Retrieved March 18, 2012 from http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/waterq3/WQassess3f.html

[6] Hartman, J., Levy, J.K. & Okada, N. (2006). Managing surface water contamination in Nagoya, Japan: An integrated water basin management decision framework. Water Resources Management, 20 (3), 411-430. doi:10.1007/s11269-006-0323-6

[7] Hu B., Hu B., Wan J., Nie H., & Zhai C. (2009). Safe river water: A ubiquitous and collaborative water quality monitoring solution. Pervasive and Mobile Computing, 5 (5), 419-431.

[8] Mahmood, Q., Baig, S. A., Nawab, B., Shafqat, M.N., Pervez, A., & Zeb, B.S. (2011). Development of low cost household drinking water treatment system for the earthquake affected communities in Northern Pakistan. Desalination, 273 (2-3), 316-320. doi:10:1016/j.desal.2011.01.052

[9] McMaster-Carr. (n.d.). Products � All Categories. Retrieved March 27, 2012, from http://www.mcmaster.com

[10] +�� "�#�./011%#�*��' ��2*�� r system. ��Watersports. Retrieved October 30, 2011, from http://www.overtons.com/ modperl/product.

[11] Paul, D. & Abanmy, A.R.M. (1990). Membrane fouling ( The final frontier. Ultra Pure Water, 7 (3), 25-36.

[12] Tamm, B. (1948). U.S. Patent No. 25,167. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.

[13] UNICEF and World Health Organization. (2008). Progress on drinking water and sanitation: Special focus on sanitation.

[14] U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.) Retrieved March 27, 2012, from www.usgs.gov

[15] Yiantsios, S.G., Sioutopoulos, D., and Karabelas, A.J. (2005). Colloidal fouling of RO membranes: an overview of key issues and efforts to develop improved prediction techniques. Desalination 183 (1-3) 257-272.

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