Idiomi, lecture 07, 12 13

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VariationVariation

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Variations in FEIsVariations in FEIs

Fixedness is a key property of FEIs, yet Fixedness is a key property of FEIs, yet around 40% of database FEIs have around 40% of database FEIs have lexical variationslexical variations or or strongly strongly institutionalized transformationsinstitutionalized transformations, and , and around 14% have around 14% have two or more variations two or more variations on their canonical formson their canonical forms..

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FEIs with variations, according to FEIs with variations, according to idiomaticity typeidiomaticity type

Proportion of Proportion of FEIs in FEIs in databasedatabase

Proportion of all Proportion of all FEIs with any FEIs with any variationsvariations

Proportion of all Proportion of all FEIs with 2 or FEIs with 2 or more variationsmore variations

anomalous anomalous collocations collocations

45.3%45.3% 47%47% 46%46%

formulaeformulae 21.3%21.3% 18%18% 19%19%

metaphorsmetaphors 33.4%33.4% 35%35% 35%35%

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Fixedness vs. variationFixedness vs. variation

Although we started from the assumption Although we started from the assumption that FEIs have fixed or canonical forms that FEIs have fixed or canonical forms and that variations are to some extent and that variations are to some extent derivative or deviant, derivative or deviant, variationvariation is fairly is fairly consistent across FEIs types.consistent across FEIs types.However, even in extreme cases of However, even in extreme cases of variation there still remains some kind of variation there still remains some kind of fixednessfixedness, symmetry, or integrity: it is just , symmetry, or integrity: it is just that it is that it is notnot always always lexicallexical fixedness. fixedness.

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VariationVariation

IMPORTANT: IMPORTANT: Variant forms of an individual Variant forms of an individual expressionexpression should be considered as should be considered as variationsvariations rather rather than as than as separate expressions with coincidentally the separate expressions with coincidentally the same meaning and with some lexis in common.same meaning and with some lexis in common. For For example:example:

hit the roofhit the roof = to become extremely angry= to become extremely angry hit the ceilinghit the ceiling champ at the bitchamp at the bit = to be eager and not willing to wait to = to be eager and not willing to wait to

do sth.do sth. chafe at the bitchafe at the bit

represent two expressions, each with an institutionalized represent two expressions, each with an institutionalized variation, not four different expressions.variation, not four different expressions.

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VariationVariation

The problem is particularly acute with American/British The problem is particularly acute with American/British pairings such as:pairings such as:

the shoe is on the other footthe shoe is on the other foot (AmE) (AmE) = the situation is = the situation is now opposite of what it was, esp. because someone who now opposite of what it was, esp. because someone who was weak now has powerwas weak now has power

the boot is on the other footthe boot is on the other foot (BrE) (BrE) blow off steamblow off steam (AmE) (AmE) = to do or say sth. that helps you = to do or say sth. that helps you

to get rid of strong feelings or energyto get rid of strong feelings or energy let off steamlet off steam (BrE) (BrE)

We We cancan consider such pairings as variations of each consider such pairings as variations of each other, but also as equivalent lexical items which are as other, but also as equivalent lexical items which are as discrete discrete (separate) (separate) as as gasoline/petrolgasoline/petrol or or apartment/flatapartment/flat..

VariationVariation

We will take the line that broadly synonymous We will take the line that broadly synonymous pairs or sets of FEIs with common or parallel pairs or sets of FEIs with common or parallel lexis represent single FEIs or FEI clusters.lexis represent single FEIs or FEI clusters.

This view allows newly encountered variant This view allows newly encountered variant forms to be renconciled with those forms already forms to be renconciled with those forms already found, providing further evidence of instability, found, providing further evidence of instability, rathe than enforcing either their categorization rathe than enforcing either their categorization as completely new items or else their dismissal as completely new items or else their dismissal as deviant.as deviant.

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VariationVariation

Also important: the matter of identifying the ‘canonical’ form of an Also important: the matter of identifying the ‘canonical’ form of an FEI. There are two ways of considering a case such as:FEI. There are two ways of considering a case such as:

have an axe to grind = have private interests to servehave an axe to grind = have private interests to serve

have no axe to grindhave no axe to grind

with an axe to grindwith an axe to grind

with no axe to grindwith no axe to grind

(1)(1) Either this represent sa variable FEI cluster, where there are Either this represent sa variable FEI cluster, where there are several possible related formsseveral possible related forms

(2)(2) Or, this represents a frozen, unvarying FEI nucleus Or, this represents a frozen, unvarying FEI nucleus axe to grind axe to grind which collocates with preceding which collocates with preceding have/with/withouthave/with/without and and a/noa/no..

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VariationVariation

The crucial point - The crucial point - very large numbers of very large numbers of FEIs FEIs do not have fixed formsdo not have fixed forms. For . For example, example, kick the bucketkick the bucket is often cited as is often cited as a prime example of an FEI where the lexis a prime example of an FEI where the lexis is completely frozen. However, there are is completely frozen. However, there are instances of instances of kick the pailkick the pail and and kick the kick the cancan meaning ‘die’, both in AmE. The main meaning ‘die’, both in AmE. The main point is that frozenness and stability can point is that frozenness and stability can never be assumed, and change over time.never be assumed, and change over time.

VariationVariation

To be truly systematic – categories of To be truly systematic – categories of variation need to have some variation need to have some predictive predictive powerpower, and this is not always the case., and this is not always the case.

What can be predicted – FEIs, especially What can be predicted – FEIs, especially metaphoricalmetaphorical ones, are ones, are likely to varylikely to vary..

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Types of lexical variationTypes of lexical variation

Verb variationVerb variation

Noun variationNoun variation

Adjective and modifier variationAdjective and modifier variation

Particle variationParticle variation

Conjunction variationConjunction variation

Specificity and amplificationSpecificity and amplification

TruncationTruncation

Variations between British and American EnglishVariations between British and American English

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Verb VariationVerb Variation

Verb variation is the commonest type. While in many Verb variation is the commonest type. While in many cases the meaning of the whole is barely affected by cases the meaning of the whole is barely affected by variation, other variations reflect important syntacto-variation, other variations reflect important syntacto-semantic distinction. semantic distinction. In the following, the verb varies, In the following, the verb varies, but there is no real change of meaning of the FEI, but there is no real change of meaning of the FEI, although there may be register distinctions. although there may be register distinctions. For For example:example:

1.1. stick/standstick/stand out like a sore thumb out like a sore thumb2.2. throw/tossthrow/toss in the towel in the towel3.3. look/shootlook/shoot daggers at someone daggers at someone4.4. say/kisssay/kiss goodbye to sth. goodbye to sth.5.5. twist/wraptwist/wrap someone around one’s little finger someone around one’s little finger

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Noun VariationNoun Variation

Variation of nouns is only slightly less common than Variation of nouns is only slightly less common than variation of verbs. In the simplest cases, the varying variation of verbs. In the simplest cases, the varying nouns are broadly synonymous:nouns are broadly synonymous:

1.1. a skeleton in the a skeleton in the closet/cupboardcloset/cupboard2.2. hold a hold a gun/pistolgun/pistol to someone’s head to someone’s head3.3. a cat on a a cat on a hot tin roofhot tin roof/a cat on /a cat on hot brickshot bricks

In metaphorical FEIs, the nouns are often the focus of In metaphorical FEIs, the nouns are often the focus of the metaphor. Variations do not have changed the metaphor. Variations do not have changed meanings, but mental images of the metaphor may meanings, but mental images of the metaphor may differ considerably, for example, the images generated differ considerably, for example, the images generated by by burn one’s boatsburn one’s boats and and burn one’s bridgesburn one’s bridges. The . The distinctions are therefore greater than those between distinctions are therefore greater than those between many verb variations.many verb variations.

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Adjective and Modifier VariationAdjective and Modifier Variation

Variation of adjectives in FEIs is Variation of adjectives in FEIs is considerably less common that that of considerably less common that that of verbs or nouns, probably because there verbs or nouns, probably because there are fewer component adjectives than are fewer component adjectives than nouns in FEIs. For example:nouns in FEIs. For example:

1.1. a a bad/rottenbad/rotten apple apple2.2. the the best/greatestbest/greatest thing since sliced thing since sliced

breadbread3.3. a a different/anotherdifferent/another kettle of fish kettle of fish

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Particle VariationParticle Variation

Variation of a prepositional or adverbial Variation of a prepositional or adverbial particle, for example:particle, for example:

1.1. on/alongon/along the right lines the right lines

2.2. go go round/aroundround/around in circles in circles

3.3. inin touch/i touch/intonto touch/ touch/out of out of touchtouch

4.4. inin keeping with sbd./sth./ keeping with sbd./sth./out of out of keeping keeping with sbd./sth.with sbd./sth.

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Conjunction VariationConjunction Variation

For example:For example:

1.1. when/ifwhen/if push comes to shove push comes to shove

2.2. when/whilewhen/while the cat’s away, the mice will the cat’s away, the mice will playplay

3.3. hit hit and/orand/or miss miss

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Specificity and AmplificationSpecificity and Amplification

There are many cases of FEIs where the variation consists broadly of There are many cases of FEIs where the variation consists broadly of some inserted or suppressed material.some inserted or suppressed material.AmplificationAmplification is inserting additional material into a FEI. is inserting additional material into a FEI. One version is simply a fuller version of the other, adding emphasis or One version is simply a fuller version of the other, adding emphasis or precision.precision. The extra data is often adjectival (1, 2), adverbial (3); there The extra data is often adjectival (1, 2), adverbial (3); there may be an optional PP (4, 5, 6), or expanded nominal group (7, 8):may be an optional PP (4, 5, 6), or expanded nominal group (7, 8):

1.1. have a (have a (goodgood) laugh) laugh2.2. in (in (fulfull) blooml) bloom3.3. turn (turn (overover) in one’s grave) in one’s grave4.4. go to hell (go to hell (in a handbasketin a handbasket))5.5. twist the knife (twist the knife (in the woundin the wound))6.6. up the creek (up the creek (without a paddlewithout a paddle))7.7. at all hours (at all hours (of the day and nightof the day and night))8.8. put flesh (put flesh (and boneand bone) on something) on something

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TruncationTruncation is cutting off material from a FEI. is cutting off material from a FEI.Amplification and truncation are two sides of the same coin, but in Amplification and truncation are two sides of the same coin, but in the majority of cases listed below, the fuller versions are attested the majority of cases listed below, the fuller versions are attested as the original forms. Many are traditional proverbs and sayings, as the original forms. Many are traditional proverbs and sayings, downgraded from their canonical or earliest forms to lower-level downgraded from their canonical or earliest forms to lower-level grammatical units: a compound clause to a single clause, or a grammatical units: a compound clause to a single clause, or a clause to a group. For example:clause to a group. For example:

1.1. a bird in the hand a bird in the hand (is worth two in the bush)(is worth two in the bush)2.2. birds of a feather birds of a feather (flock together)(flock together)3.3. don’t count one’s chickens don’t count one’s chickens (before they’re hatched)(before they’re hatched)4.4. make hay make hay (while the sun shines)(while the sun shines)

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The reduced forms can be seen in terms of The reduced forms can be seen in terms of ellipsis, since in many cases an allusion to the ellipsis, since in many cases an allusion to the original and fuller form remains. However, they original and fuller form remains. However, they are institutionalized, and many can be regarded are institutionalized, and many can be regarded as lexical items in their own right.as lexical items in their own right.

A rolling stone gathers no mossA rolling stone gathers no moss is is complicated in that both the nominal complicated in that both the nominal the rolling the rolling stonestone and the VP and the VP gather mossgather moss are are institutionalized as individual items.institutionalized as individual items.

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In the following examples:In the following examples:

1.1. a drowning man will clutch at a strawa drowning man will clutch at a straw

2.2. clutch/grasp at strawsclutch/grasp at straws (truncated form)(truncated form)

1.1. it’s the (last) straw that breaks the camel’s it’s the (last) straw that breaks the camel’s backback

2.2. the last straw/final strawthe last straw/final straw (truncated form)(truncated form)

the truncated forms themselves have the truncated forms themselves have variations.variations.

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In a few cases, the original fuller form has In a few cases, the original fuller form has almost disappeared from the lexicon. Here, the almost disappeared from the lexicon. Here, the reduced forms have become fossilized as the reduced forms have become fossilized as the canonical forms. For example:canonical forms. For example:

1.1. finders keepers finders keepers (loser weepers)(loser weepers)2.2. happy the bride that the sun shines on happy the bride that the sun shines on (and (and

blessed are the dead that the rain falls on)blessed are the dead that the rain falls on)3.3. (speech is silver but) (speech is silver but) silence is goldensilence is golden4.4. butter wouldn’t melt in her mouth butter wouldn’t melt in her mouth (but (but

cheese wouldn’t choke her)cheese wouldn’t choke her)

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TruncationTruncationTruncation can also occur on an ad hoc basis. For example:Truncation can also occur on an ad hoc basis. For example:

1.1. My mother was hysterical and my father called me a lot of unpleasant My mother was hysterical and my father called me a lot of unpleasant names. I stood it for a bit and then I’m afraid I said to him that names. I stood it for a bit and then I’m afraid I said to him that what was what was sauce for the goosesauce for the goose and at least I wasn’t married. and at least I wasn’t married.

What's sauce for the goose (is sauce for the gander)What's sauce for the goose (is sauce for the gander) = = something that you something that you say to suggest that if a particular type of behaviour is acceptable for one say to suggest that if a particular type of behaviour is acceptable for one person, it should also be acceptable for another person person, it should also be acceptable for another person

2.2. In one audacious move, D & B sent a questionnaire to Geoff Croughton, In one audacious move, D & B sent a questionnaire to Geoff Croughton, secretary of the Bank of England. After all, secretary of the Bank of England. After all, nothing venturednothing ventured and all and all that.that.

Nothing ventured, nothing gainedNothing ventured, nothing gained = = something that you say which means something that you say which means that it is necessary to take risks in order to achieve something that it is necessary to take risks in order to achieve something

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Variations between British and Variations between British and American EnglishAmerican English

There are comparatively few cases where the There are comparatively few cases where the verb varies. For example:verb varies. For example:

1.1. cutcut a long story short a long story short (BrE), (BrE), makemake a long story a long story shortshort (AmE) (AmE)

2.2. flogflog a dead horse a dead horse (BrE), (BrE), beatbeat a dead horse a dead horse (AmE)(AmE)

3.3. kickkick one’s heels one’s heels (mainly BrE), (mainly BrE), coolcool one’s one’s heelsheels (mainly AmE) (mainly AmE)

4.4. touchtouch wood wood (BrE), (BrE), knockknock wood, wood, knock onknock on woodwood (AmE) (AmE)

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Far more common is variation of a noun or Far more common is variation of a noun or noun modifier. These sometimes reflect noun modifier. These sometimes reflect standard distinctions between British and standard distinctions between British and American English. For example:American English. For example:

1.1. in the in the drivingdriving seat seat (BrE), (BrE), in the in the driver’sdriver’s seat seat (AmE)(AmE)

2.2. red as a red as a beetrootbeetroot (BrE), (BrE), red as a red as a beetbeet (AmE) (AmE)

3.3. wear the wear the trouserstrousers (BrE), (BrE), wear the wear the pantspants (AmE)(AmE)

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While While catch someone with their trousers catch someone with their trousers downdown is is only Britishonly British, , catch someone with catch someone with their pants downtheir pants down is found in is found in both varietiesboth varieties: : arguably, a British speaker’s mental image arguably, a British speaker’s mental image might involve underwear, not outerwear.might involve underwear, not outerwear.

A few cases reflect other cultural distinctions:A few cases reflect other cultural distinctions:

1.1. like turkeys voting for like turkeys voting for ChristmasChristmas ( (mainly BrEmainly BrE), ), like turkeys voting for like turkeys voting for ThanksgivingThanksgiving ( (AmEAmE))

2.2. turn on turn on sixpencesixpence ( (BrEBrE), ), turn on turn on a dimea dime ((AmEAmE))

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In the majority of cases, the distinctions may In the majority of cases, the distinctions may now seem idiosyncratic, although there may be now seem idiosyncratic, although there may be historical explanations:historical explanations:

1.1. have green have green fingersfingers ( (BrEBrE), ), have a green have a green thumbthumb ((AmEAmE))

2.2. keep one’s keep one’s hairhair on on ( (BrEBrE), ), keep one’s keep one’s shirtshirt on on ((AmEAmE))

3.3. not see the not see the woodwood for the trees for the trees ( (BrEBrE), ), not see not see the the forestforest for the trees for the trees ( (AmEAmE))

4.4. rub rub shouldersshoulders with with ( (BrEBrE), ), rub rub elbowselbows with with ((AmEAmE))

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AboutAbout with spatial meaning or reference is with spatial meaning or reference is largely a Briticism: Americans prefer largely a Briticism: Americans prefer aroundaround. It . It is therefore predictable that is therefore predictable that (not) beat about (not) beat about the bushthe bush is mainly British, is mainly British, (not) beat around (not) beat around the bushthe bush mainly American, although both mainly American, although both forms are found in both varieties.forms are found in both varieties.Other cases of prepositional variation are more Other cases of prepositional variation are more idiosyncratic:idiosyncratic:

1.1. atat a pinch a pinch ( (BrEBrE), ), inin a pinch a pinch ( (AmEAmE))2.2. lead someone lead someone upup the garden path the garden path ( (BrEBrE), ), lead lead

someone someone downdown the garden path the garden path ( (AmEAmE))

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There are a few cases where British and There are a few cases where British and American English have parallel idioms, with American English have parallel idioms, with similar meanings, usages, and even source similar meanings, usages, and even source domains for the metaphors, but different lexis domains for the metaphors, but different lexis altogether:altogether:

1.1. a storm in a teacupa storm in a teacup ((BrEBrE), ), a tempest in a a tempest in a teapotteapot ( (AmEAmE))

2.2. have one’s hand/fingers in the tillhave one’s hand/fingers in the till ((BrEBrE), ), have one’s hand in the cookie jarhave one’s hand in the cookie jar ((AmEAmE))

3.3. in inverted commasin inverted commas ((BrEBrE), ), quote unquotequote unquote ((BrE and AmEBrE and AmE), ), quote end quotequote end quote ((AmEAmE))

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While many of these distinctions are well While many of these distinctions are well established, the situation in general is complex. established, the situation in general is complex. The influence of American culture and media in The influence of American culture and media in Britain means that Americanisms and American Britain means that Americanisms and American variations become established in BrE, or at least variations become established in BrE, or at least in certain registers or genres of BrE. For in certain registers or genres of BrE. For example, the mainly American example, the mainly American FEI FEI beat the beat the bushesbushes ‘try hard to obtain or achieve sth.’ ‘try hard to obtain or achieve sth.’ occurs in British journalism, nevertheless with occurs in British journalism, nevertheless with respect to American or international topics.respect to American or international topics.

Idiomi, lecture 07, 12 13

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