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![Page 1: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments:
Measurement IssuesMabel L. Rice
Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech-Language Pathologists in Schools
Nashville, TennesseeSaturday, July 13, 2002
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The Problem of Identification Kindergarten children with Specific Language
Impairments (SLI) can be difficult to identify (cf. Only 29% of kindergarten children known to have SLI were enrolled in intervention; Tomblin et al., 1997)
Variation in rates of language acquisition among young unaffected children adds to the complexity of identification of affected children
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Conventional Measures, and the Normal Curve Assumption for Language Assessment
Assumption of an age-referenced normal distribution of children on a general language dimension
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Num
ber
of
Child
ren
Performance Level
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Related properties About 16% score 1 SD or more below the
mean About 2% score 2 or more SD below the
mean About 66% score within 1 SD of the mean
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Positive applications Determine the prevalence of SLI (about 7%
in 5-year-olds; Tomblin et al., 1997) Determine the likelihood of speech
impairments with language impairment (less than 2% in the general population of 5-year-olds; Tomblin et al., 1997)
Determine long-term prognosis (individuals are likely to remain in the low levels of performance; Johnson et al., 1999)
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Limitations No intrinsic cut-off score for “affected” No obvious way to interpret the test score in
terms of particular linguistic content No way to interpret a child’s progress toward
the adult grammar
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A Grammatical Marker Approach Obligatory properties of clausal
structure These balls/*these ball She is walking/*she walking She walks outside/*she walk outside Yesterday she walked
outside/*yesterday she walk outside Does she like to walk?/*she like to walk?
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Distributional Properties of a Grammatical Marker
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Sensitivity and Specificity Sensitivity: rate of identifying true cases of
affectedness Specificity: rate of identifying true cases of
unaffectedness
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Clinical Characteristics of a Grammatical Marker
By a certain age, grammatical markers would show little variation across unaffected children
Affected children would perform below the unaffected children
High levels of sensitivity and specificity Content would be meaningful for interpretation
of a child’s language deficits Child’s performance would be interpretable in
terms of the adult grammar Markers could persist over time
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A Finiteness Grammatical Marker Theoretical Linguistics
Morphology and syntax are related in the area of morphosyntax
Finiteness is a property of clause structure that shows up as verbal forms inflected for tense and/or subject/verb agreement
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Examples of finiteness markers Patsy walks home (third person singular subject, present
tense) Patsy walked home yesterday (no subject agreement,
regular past tense) Patsy ran home yesterday (no subject agreement, regular
past tense) Patsy is walking (third person singular subject, auxiliary
present tense) Patsy is happy (third person singular subject, copular
present tense) Does Patsy walk home? (third person singular, auxiliary
present tense)
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In English, young children grow into consistent use of finiteness markers, during a period of Optional Infinitives (Wexler, 1994), evident in dropped finiteness markers, thought to be related to the need to mark grammatical tense (TNS).
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Research with Young Children with SLI
Criteria for SLI in Rice Longitudinal Study Inclusionary
Expressive language: Low MLU Receptive language: Low comprehension
vocabulary (PPVT) Low performance on standardized omnibus
language test
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Exclusionary No hearing loss Nonverbal IQ in normal range or above No known neurological or psychosocial problems Passed a phonological screening
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Outcomes of Research
SLI children start later, and show slower acquisition timing although similar growth curves
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Composite Tense
Age in Years
87;676;665;654;643;63
Me
an
Pe
rce
nt C
orr
ect
100
80
60
40
20
5N
3N
SLI
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Grammatical marker is apparent in judgments as well as productions
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A' Adult Versus OI Grammar
Age in Years
87;676;665;654;64
Mea
n A
' S
core
s
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
5N
3N
SLI
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Young children show variation that disappears by age 5 years, at adult grammar
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Composite TNS Scores Over Time
Age in Years
87;676;665;654;643;63
Sco
re
100
80
60
40
20
0
3N
SLI
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OI A': Growth Curve
Age in Years
87;676;665;654;64
A' S
co
res
1.0
.8
.6
.4
.2
0.0
3N
SLI
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SLI children show variation in a range far below age expectations
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At the same time of variation as TNS-marking, other elements of morphosyntax are unaffected
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Regular -s Plurals
Age in Years
87;676;665;654;643;63
Mean P
erc
ent C
orr
ect
100
80
60
40
20
5N
3N
SLI
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Lexical indices show consistent variation across the growth curve, and do not differentiate SLI from younger language-equivalent children
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PPVT Raw Scores
Age
8.07.06.05.04.03.0
Score
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
5N
3N
SLI
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Timing of acquisition differs for morphosyntactic and morphophonological components of TNS-marking Past tense variables
Regular (e.g., walked) Finite (e.g., fell/falled) Irregular (e.g., fell)
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Past TNS probe: SLI Group
Round
7654321
Mean P
erc
enta
ge
100
80
60
40
20
0
Regular past probe
% correct
Irregular past probe
% finite
Irregular past probe
% correct
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Past TNS probe: 3N Group
Round
7654321
Mean P
erc
enta
ge
100
80
60
40
20
0
Regular past probe
% correct
Irregular past probe
% finite
Irregular past probe
% correct
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Past TNS probe: 5N Group
Round
7654321
Mean P
erc
enta
ge
100
80
60
40
20
0
Regular past probe
% correct
Irregular past probe
% finite
Irregular past probe
% correct
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Growth curve components and predictors of growth are similar for TNS/finiteness indices, but differ from morphophonological index TNS productions
Linear and quadratic components for SLI and MLU groups; same curves for both groups
Non-predictors: Intelligence, vocabulary (PPVT-R), mother’s education
Predictor: MLU
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Grammaticality Judgments: OI Grammar/Bad Agreement Grammar Linear and quadratic components for SLI and
MLU groups; same curves for both groups Non-predictors: Intelligence, vocabulary (PPVT-
R), mother's education Predictor: MLU
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Irregular past tense Linear growth only, for both groups Non-predictors: Mother's education Predictors: MLU, vocabulary, intelligence
Finite Past Tense Linear and quadratic components for SLI and
MLU groups; same curves for both groups Non-predictors: Intelligence, vocabulary,
mother's education Predictor: MLU
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Conclusions: TNS/AGR marking (finiteness) follows growth curves that are linear + quadratic in shape and growth is not predicted by intelligence, vocabulary or mother's education, and is positively predicted by MLU, although not strongly. When morphophonological accuracy is included in the measurement, the growth curve becomes linear only and the predictors shift to include a child's vocabulary and non-verbal intelligence.
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Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment
Advantages compared to other language measures Focus on finiteness is conceptually sound in
terms of the linguistic properties of adult grammar
Performance can be directly interpreted as describing fundamental properties of what a child knows about grammar
Performance can be interpreted in terms of a child's progress toward the adult grammar
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Content focuses on a property of English grammar that is known to be well mastered by children before they enter school
Focuses on a property of grammar known to be difficult for children with language impairments
Can identify affected children whose sole developmental deficit is language impairment (i.e., SLI)
![Page 43: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Well suited to identify children of school-entry age who need early intervention
High levels of sensitivity and specificity, leading to accurate identification of affected children, without a high rate of false identification of unaffected children
Includes a screening version
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General Overview Consists of five probe tasks and screener:
Phonological Third person singular Past tense BE/DO Grammaticality judgment Screener portion is average of third person
singular and past tense
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For children ages 3 to 8 years Normed to two groups of children per 6-
month age interval: Language impaired group and control (normal) group
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Procedures not usually found in conventional language tests Phonological probe as screening for test
appropriateness Attention to the syntactic context for
morphological assessment Focus on a morphological class instead of an
individual item (e.g., regular verb morphology and class of these verbs instead of a particular lexical item)
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Differentiation of grammatical functions of a given morpheme (e.g., BE copula vs. auxiliary, questions vs. statements)
Percentage correct of "attempted structures" instead of items correct/total items (i.e., partitioning of off-task or irrelevant items out of scoring)
Calculation of multiple outcomes scores, to form composites and to be considered individually
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Video demonstration of procedures
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Tryout and Standardization Sampling
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
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Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 51: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 52: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 53: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 54: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 55: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 56: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 57: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 58: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 59: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 60: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Outcomes
Growth curves – percentiles and means per age, with reference to normal samples
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Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 62: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
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Specificity/selectivity, with reference to normal and affected samples (bimodal distribution) percentage children per age group above or below a given level of performance
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Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
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Criterion Scores Suggested "cut points" for performance
within the normal range, referenced to affected group as well as normal group, with at least 80% sensitivity Example: For screening subtests for age range
of 4.06 to 4.11, criterion = .65
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Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 67: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
Further Data Reporting
Means and standard deviations per measure, per group, per age level
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Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 69: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 70: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Box and whiskers plot to show within group variation per measure per age level
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Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 72: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 73: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 74: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 75: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 76: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 77: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 78: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 79: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
Reproduced by Permission. Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychology Corporation.
![Page 80: Identifying Young Children with Language Impairments: Measurement Issues Mabel L. Rice Presentation at ASHA Conference for Speech- Language Pathologists.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062619/55163b4d55034694308b645d/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
Using the Rice/Wexler in Clinical Practice
Establishing eligibility for services As a screening tool Interpreting the Rice/Wexler scores
Elicited grammar composite Phonological probe Third person singular Past Tense BE/DO Grammaticality Judgments
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Comparisons with related test data Interpreting children's performance
relative to nonverbal intelligence and parental education levels
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Concluding Comments A "marker" approach to identification adds
a valuable clinical resource to assessment tools
Estimates of sensitivity and specificity provide valuable reference points for establishing criteria for identification and tracking a child's progress level
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Theoretically motivated research can generate new evidence that leads to new clinical instruments and new approaches to assessment
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ReferencesBedore, L. M., & Leonard, L. B. (1998). Specific Language Impairment
and grammatical morphology: A discrimination function analysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 1885-1192.
Fey, M. E., & Loeb, D. F. (2002). An evaluation of the facilitative effects of inverted yes-no questions on the acquisition of auxiliary verbs. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45, 160-174.
Cleave, P. L., & Rice, M. L. (1997). An examination of the morpheme BE in children with specific language impairment: The role of contractibility and grammatical form class. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 480-492.
Johnson, C. J., Beitchman, J. H., Young, A., Escobar, M., Atkinson, L., Wilson, B., Brownlie, E. G., Douglas, L., Taback, N., Lam, I., & Wang, M. (1999). Fourteen-year follow-up of outcomes. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 744-760.
Norbury, C. F., Bishop, D. V. M., & Briscoe, J. (2001). Production of English finite verb morphology: A comparison of SLI and mild-moderate hearing impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 165-178.
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Oetting, J. B., & McDonald, J. L. (2001). Nonmainstream dialect use and specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 207-223.
Paradis, J., & Crago, M. (2000). Tense and temporality: A comparison between children learning a second language and children with SLI. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 834-847.
Paradis, J., Crago, M., Genesee, F., & Rice, M. L. (2001, June). French-English bilingual children with SLI: How do they compare with their monolingual peers? Poster presented at the Symposium for Research on Children with Language Disorders, Madison, WI.
Redmond, S. M., & Rice, M. L. (1998). The socioemotional behaviors of children with SLI: Social adaptation or social deviance? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 688-700.
Rice, M. L. (1999, July). GAPS over time: Longitudinal observations of children with SLI. Paper presented at the VIIth congress of the International Association for the Study of Child Language, San Sebastian, Spain.
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Rice, M. L. (2000). Grammatical symptoms of specific language impairment. In D. V. M. Bishop & L. B. Leonard (Eds.), Speech and language impairments in children: Causes, characteristics, intervention and outcome. East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press Ltd.
Rice, M. L. (in press). A unified model of specific and general language delay: Grammatical tense as a clinical marker of unexpected variation. To appear in Y. Levy & J. Schaeffer (Eds.), Language competence across populations: Toward a definition of SLI: Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rice, M. L., & Bode, J. (1993). Gaps in the verb lexicons of children with specific language impairment. First Language, 13, 113-131.
Rice, M. L., Mervis, C., Klein, B. P., & Rice, K. J. (1999, November). Children with Williams syndrome do not show an EOI stage. Paper presented at the Boston University Conference on Language Development, Boston.
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Rice, K. J., Rice, M. L, & Redmond, S. M. (2000, June). MLU outcomes for children with and without SLI: Support for MLU as a matching criterion. Paper presented at the Symposium on Research in Child Language Disorders, Madison, WI.
Rice, M. L., Spitz, R. V., & O'Brien, M. (1999). Semantic and morphosyntactic language outcomes in biologically at-risk children. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 12, 213-234.
Rice, M. L., & Tomblin, B. (1999, June). Clinical indices of language impairment: Grammatical tense compared to conventional testing. Poster presented at the Symposium on Research in Child Language Disorders, Madison, WI.
Rice, M. L., Tweed, S., & Higheagle, B. (2000, June). GAP verbs of children with SLI: Longitudinal observations. Paper presented at the 21st Annual Symposium on Research in Child Language Disorders, Madison, WI.
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Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (1996). Toward tense as a clinical marker of specific language impairment in English-speaking children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 39, 1239-1257.
Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2000, November). What she saying? SLI children's judgments of questions. Paper presented at the Boston University Conference on Language Development, Boston.
Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Rice, M. L., Wexler, K., & Cleave, P. (1995). Specific language impairment as a period of extended optional infinitive. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 850-863.
Rice, M. L., Wexler, K., & Hershberger, S. (1998). Tense over time: The longitudinal course of tense acquisition in children with specific language impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 1412-1431.
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Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (1995). A phenotype of specific language impairment: Extended optional infinitives. In M. L. Rice (Ed.), Toward a genetics of language (pp. 215-237). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Rice, M. L., Wexler, K., Marquis, J., & Hershberger, S. (2000). Acquisition of irregular past tense by children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 1126-1145.
Rice, M. L., Wexler, K., & Redmond, S. M. (1999). Grammaticality judgments of an extended optional infinitive grammar: Evidence from English-speaking children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 943-961.
Shriberg, L. D., Tomblin, J. B., & McSweeny, J. L. (1999). Prevalence of speech delay in 6-year-old children and comorbidity with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1461-1481.
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Tager-Flusberg, H., & Cooper, J. (1999). Present and future possibilities for defining a phenotype for specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1275-1278.
Tomblin, J. B., Records, N. L., Buckwalter, P., Zhang, Z., Smith, E., & O'Brien, M. (1997). Prevalence of specific language impairment in kindergarten children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 1245-1260.
Watkins, R. V., Rice, M. L., & Moltz, C. C. (1993). Verb use by language-impaired and normally developing children. First Language, 13, 113-131.
Wexler, K. (1994). Optional infinitives, head movement and the economy of derivations. In D. Lightfoot & N. Hornstein (Eds.), Verb movement. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
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Wexler, K. (in press). Lenneberg's dream: Learning normal language development, and specific language impairment. To appear in Y. Levy & J. Schaeffer (Eds.), Language competence across populations: Toward a definition of SLI. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Zhang, S., & Tomblin, J. B. (2000). The association of intervention receipt with speech-language profiles and social-demographic variables. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9, 345-357.