Identifying counterfeit items Developed by the CITES Secretariat GreenCustoms Knowledge Series No....

Identifying counterfeit items

Developed by the CITES Secretariat

GreenCustoms Knowledge Series No. 29

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Questions to answer

• Is that item real or fake?

• Is the counterfeit item still a wildlife product that is controlled by CITES?

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• This presentation provides tips on identifying fake and counterfeit items for the following groups:– Caviar– Furs and mammal skins– Precious corals– Tortoiseshell– Snake skin– Ivory– Crocodile skin– Giant clams

Overview

Caviar

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Caviar

• On its own, it is generally not possible to visually identify which species of sturgeon is present in a container, and one species may be sold as another

• It is also difficult to tell sturgeon caviar from certain substitutes or alternatives (other fish eggs, or artificial caviar)

• Identification of caviar to species level requires detailed forensic analysis (e.g. DNA testing)

• Thankfully, caviar in trade is labelled, and this can help ensure compliance with requirements

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Caviar packaging

• The packaging is not always a reliable indicator, as counterfeit packaging can look even better than the real one

Real packaging Forged packaging

Furs and mammal skins

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• Differentiating real from fake

– Raw or tanned whole skins will have a an irregular shape and include parts such as tails, legs etc., as well as imperfections or collection marks

– Cut pieces may be irregular in size, but will clearly show a leather base

– Fake fur is usually made from polyester or acrylic materials

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• Differentiating real from fake (garments)

– Push apart the fur to look at the base

• Real fur will have a skin/leather base that is whitish, or possibly dyed the same color as the fur

• Fake fur will have a cloth or woven base

– If the base is not clearly visible on a garment, try to see the underside of the 'fur', perhaps by undoing some stitching

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– If the fur has not been sheared, look at longer guard hairs under a magnifying glass

• Real fur will be tapered towards the tip, fake fur will be of the same diameter throughout

– Remove a few hairs and, well away from the specimen, subject the loose hairs to a flame

• Real fur will smell like burned human hair, fake fur will not

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– Experience is a real help

– Fake fur does not have the look, feel, sheen or other qualities of natural fur

Real Imitation

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• Counterfeit skins may be real skins, but are not the species claimed by traders or identified on documentation, labels or other marks

– Furs of common species (e.g. domestic cat, rabbit, dog, goat) are dyed or hand-colored to resemble rare species (e.g. counterfeit tiger pelts)

– Cowhide is pressed / embossed with a pattern resembling rare species (e.g. elephant)

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Pressed cow leather sold as 'genuine elephant leather'

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Counterfeit tiger skin

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• Curiously, real fur (often from Asian raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides, non-CITES) may be labeled as 'fake fur' (or 'faux fur') on clothing

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• Counterfeit skins are generally meant to fool persons who are not familiar with the real item

– Low value skins are passed off as high-value skins

– NOTE: High value skins are never passed off as low value skins, and high value skins are not likely to be made into 'ordinary' products

Precious corals

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Precious corals

• These coral groups are included in the CITES Appendices

– Black coral Antipatharia spp., Appendix II

– Red and pink coral (Corallium elatius, C. japonicum, C. konjoi, C. secundum - Appendix III, China)

– Blue coral Heliopora coerulea, Appendix II

– Stony corals SCLERACTINIA spp., Appendix II

– Organ-pipe corals Tubiporidae spp., Appendix II

– Fire corals Milleporidae spp., Appendix II

– Lace corals Stylasteridae spp., Appendix II

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• Uses of red and pink coral

– Jewelry

– Art objects

– Herbal or homeopathic medicine

Red and Pink Coral

http://www.greatestherbsonearth.com/nsp_homeopathic_remedies.htm

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Red and Pink Coral

• Is it Corallium?

– True Corallium will exhibit a solid, pit-free, longitudinally striated surface

– Imitation Corallium such as glass, porcelain or dyed chalcedony can feel cold; plastic can feel warm; striations will not be parallel

– Dyed or polymer-impregnated corals of other species can be identified by their porous surface which may or not be filled in with polymer

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Red and Pink Coral


– Corallium has a solid texture—with extremely few holes being visible in its polished external surface, other than a clusters of pin point holes that are the remnants of the coral’s central canal

– True Corallium is expensive

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Red and Pink Coral


– Corallium can range in color from deep red to pink to almost white

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Red and Pink Coral

• Corallium rubrum

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Red and Pink Coral

• Corallium elatius (App. III)

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Red and Pink Coral

• Corallium secundum

(App. III)

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Red and Pink Coral

• Corallium konojoi (App. III)

• Corallium japonicum (App. III)

http://www.molling.at/edelsteine/koralle/koralle_japonicum.htm

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Corallium look-alikes

• Sponge coral (trade name) is made by dying red pieces of the gorgonian species Melithaea ochracea (non-CITES)

• It can be identified by its rough and porous surface; by lighter-hued reticulated pattern or brown patches or swirls that are still visible on polished surfaces; and by red pigment may be visible in defects, stringing holes and on the polished surface

• Sponge corals may also be resin impregnated to increase their durability

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• Sponge coral

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• Bamboo coral Keratoisis profunda (Family Isididae, non-CITES) is widely used as a Corallium substitute

• Bamboo corals possess a skeletal arrangement which resembles bamboo - the skeleton is composed of calcareous plates separated by joint-like gorgonin protein

• The natural color is creamy white with brown or black

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• Bamboo coral skeletons have a smoother surface than sponge coral and can display longitudinal striations like Corallium

• Sometimes the harder calcitic sections are cut out and dyed to make small beads; larger pieces may retain the banded patterning

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• Bamboo coral

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• Bamboo coral using the calcitic sections only may be impossible to differentiate from Corallium, unless evidence of red dye can be seen under magnification

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Bamboo coral

(dyed)

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Bamboo coral

(natural)

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• When the internodes of bamboo coral are dyed red or pink, this color enhanced coral can be difficult to discriminate from Corallium — unless evidence of residual dye or wax is observed

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Black Coral

• Black coral is a term given to a group of deep water, tree-like coral which normally occurs in the tropics (Antipatharia spp. Appendix II)

– Though its living tissue is brilliantly colored, black coral takes its name from the distinctive black or dark brown color of its skeleton

– The skeleton is made of a tough, keratin-like protein called conchiolin or gorgonin, which is not highly mineralized

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Blackcoral_colony_600.jpg

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Black Coral

• Also unique to black coral are the tiny spines that cover the surface of the skeleton (black coral is also known as 'thorn coral'

– Properly prepared and polished pieces are near the equal of the stony types in durability and beauty, and can exceed them in value

– Black coral polishes very well, and colors range from black to dark brown to golden

– Black coral is 'thermoplastic' (it can be reshaped with heat)

http://www.artboxbz.com/images/BCB-02.JPG

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Black Coral

• Black coral can be identified by the presence of fine radially-arranged spines in unpolished sections, and remnants of the spines may be visible on polished surfaces under magnification

– Though superficially black, strong light can shine through surface layers, giving them a waxy brownish-red color against which the spine structure is obvious (best seenin daylight conditions)

– Applying a hot pin will release a 'salty burnt hair’ odor

– Cross-section cuts appears like a cross-section of a tree

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Blue Coral

• Blue coral Heliopora coerulea (App. II) is a natural colored blue calcitic coral that has limited value in jewelry due to its porosity

– The blue color is caused by the deposition of iron salts in the calcium carbonate skeleton

– The blue skeleton is also popular in the marine curio trade and is made into jewelry and ornaments

– The porous, relatively smooth surface has pores of two sizes - large pores of 0.7-1.0 mm diameter, and small pores of 0.1 mm diameter)

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Blue Coral (imitation)

• Imitation blue coral

Marine turtle shell (tortoiseshell)

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• The 13 back scutes are used

• Although whole carapaces may be traded as stuffed specimens, for bekko trade the scutes will be separated

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• Only the transparent/translucent part of the shell scute is valued

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• Polished whole shells are commonly traded

• Finished items made from the translucent portion of the scutes are also traded

• Raw scutes may be traded

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• Tortoiseshell has been used for a very long time, so many antique pieces exist

– Mention of tortoiseshell is made in classical Greek literature

– The Egyptians used to trade tortoiseshell with the Romans

– Tortoiseshell has been used in the making of Japanese musical instruments since the 8th Century

– Tortoiseshell was very popular in household items and art in 18th and 19th Century Europe

– Tortoiseshell has been commonly used in 20th Century items, from eyeglass frames to combs to guitar picks

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• Processed tortoiseshell is “nature’s plastic”

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• Tortoiseshell can be seen on many antique items

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• It is probably not possible to tell the difference between antique tortoiseshell items and new ones by looking at the shell alone

• Antique items may require a pre-Convention certificate, or may qualify for the exemption for personal and household effects

– See Resolution Conf. 13.6 Implementation of Article VII, paragraph 2, concerning 'pre-Convention’ specimens

– See Resolution Conf. 13.7 (Rev. CoP14) Control of trade in personal and household effects

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Marine turtle shell imitation

• Tortoiseshell has always been valued due to its beauty and rarity, so it is not surprising that imitation (fake) tortoiseshell has been around since adequate substitutes were first developed

– The first of these was celluloid, considered the first 'thermoplastic', developed in 1856

– Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from nitrocellulose and camphor, plus dyes and other agents

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• Celluloid is easily molded and shaped, and it was first widely used as an ivory replacement

– Celluloid is highly flammable and also easily decomposes, and is no longer widely used

– Its most common uses today are the table tennis ball and guitar picks (plectra)

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• Early imitation tortoiseshell made from celluloid is difficult to tell from real shell

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• Imitation tortoiseshell is commonly seen today, usually made from modern plastics

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• One method still used for creating imitation tortoiseshell for the construction of eyeglass frames and combs is to use a cellulose acetate resin cast in a large block

– It is a slow curing resin by design, which allows colored pigment resin sticks to be floated on the surface and dissolved in the resin to create the beautiful swirled patterns, often with multiple layers

– The block is then sliced very thinly

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• One test for distinguishing real shell from celluloid imitation tortoise shell is to rub the article on a piece of cloth until it becomes warm, or hold the piece under hot water for around 30 seconds

• If the warmth brings out an odour of camphor or vinegar, it is a celluloid imitation

• As celluloid can be flammable, do not use a hot flame or a hot pin in trying to tell shell from plastic

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Snake skin

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Snake skin

• A snake hatches with a fixed number of scales

– The scales do not increase in number as the snake matures nor do they reduce in number over time, but they do grow larger in size and may change shape with each molt

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Snake skin

• Each scale has an outer surface and an inner surface

• Except on the head, scales usually overlap

• The skin from the inner surface hinges back and forms a free area which overlaps the base of the next scale which emerges below this scale

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Snake skin

• Snake scales may be granular, have a smooth surface or have a longitudinal ridge or keel on it

• Snake scales may have pits, tubercles and other fine structures which may be visible to the naked eye or under a microscope

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Snake skin

• Certain primitive snakes such as boas, pythons and certain advanced snakes such as vipers have small scales arranged irregularly on the head

• Other more advanced snakes have special large symmetrical scales on the head called shields or plates

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Snake skin

• Snake scales occur in variety of shapes, and can be:

– Cycloid

– Long and pointed with pointed tips

– Broad and leaf-like

– As broad as they are long

– Keeled weakly or strongly

– With bidentate tips

– Spine-like, juxtaposed

– Large, non-overlapping knobs

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Snake skin

• To be able to identify snake skins using scales, you have to know which scales you are looking at, what identifying characteristics are present, and the number of dorsal rows (if possible)

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Snake skin

• Tanning

– Snake skins are usually pickled in a salt solution, then dried - and they may be traded as dried skins (known as 'crust' skins)

– Snake skins are usually subjected to mineral tanning (usually with chromium in the form of basic chromium sulfate), and in the raw state chrome tanned skins are blue in color

– Chrome tanning produces a pliable, stretchable leather which is desirable for use in handbags and garments

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Snake skin

• Tanning

– The last stage of tanning, known as retanning, applies retanning agents and dyes to the material in order to provide the physical strength and the properties desired in the end product

– The final stage of processing, known as finishing, is used to apply finishing material to the surface (or to finish the surface without the application of any chemicals)

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Snake skin

• Tanning

– REMEMBER: Tanning can drastically change the color and texture of snake skin, which can affect your ability to identify skins using available resources

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Snake skin

• Identifying products that are made from or contain pieces of snake skin is much more difficult than identifying whole dried or tanned skins :

– There is no size reference, and counting dorsal and ventral scales is almost impossible

– Color patterns may be obscured

• The most immediate concern is determining whether the item is made from real skin, or is fake

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Snake skin

• Real skins will have scales with edges that you can feel

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Snake skin

• Fake skin products have a scale pattern that is simply embossed or printed (with no scale edges)

• The pattern may repeat itself or be too even, especially over a large surface

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Snake skin

• Real or fake...?Real(Reticulated

python. dorsal cut)

Fake

Fake

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Snake skin

• Real or fake...? Fake

'Scales' indistinct

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Snake skin

• Real or fake...?

All three items are fakes

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Snake skin


Fake

Real(cobra)

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Snake skin


All three items are made with real skin, but the granular-skinned Elephant trunk snake Acrochordus javanicus is not a CITES species

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????Not everything with scales is a snake!

Snakeskin fruit Salacca zalacca

http://www.etawau.com/HTML/Agriculture/Salak/Salak_Fruit.jpg

http://www.etawau.com/HTML/Agriculture/Salak/Salak_Fruit.jpg

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What is ivory?

• The word “ivory” was traditionally applied only to the tusks of elephants

• However, the chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same regardless of the species of origin, and the trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread

• Items from species other than mammals have also been called “ivory”

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What is ivory?

• Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into an almost infinite variety of shapes and objects

• Tusks can be carved in a way that retains their characteristic shape

• Warthog tusks, teeth from sperm whales, killer whales and hippos can be superficially carved, and also retain their original shapes

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What is ivory?

• Ivory can also be found in less-recognizable form, such as inlays and small items

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Ivory in trade

• Ivory has been valued for a long time, with the first recorded use in carving by Cro-Magnons living from about 40,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic period of the Pleistocene epoch

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Lascaux-aurochs.jpg

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Ivory in trade

• Japanese artists starting in the 17th century cleverly invented the miniature sculptures known as netsuke to serve a very practical function (kimonos did not have pockets !)

• Modern copies of old netsuke designs are popular as art objects, and are often made from ivory

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Ivory in trade

• Netsuke carvings will have two small holes through which a braided silk cord was passed

• Genuine items and well-made copies will have holes of different sizes, as the larger hole will accommodate the knot

• Modern netsuke created as tourist items generally have holes of similar size, or holes that do not connect

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Ivory in trade

• Modern use and trade

– Decoration, art

– Cultural objects

– Musical instruments

– Name seals

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Ivory in trade


– Decoration, art



– Name seals

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Ivory in trade


– Decoration, art



– Name seals

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Ivory in trade


– Decoration, art



– Name seals

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Kinds of ivory

• Elephant (Asian, African)

• Mammoth (fossil ivory)

• Hippopotamus

• Walrus (including fossil walrus ivory)

• Narwhal

• Sperm whale

• Warthog

• Hornbill

• Natural substitutes

– Bone

– Composites

– Shell

– Vegetable ivory

• Synthetics, fake ivory

– Plastics

– Polyester resins

– Synthetics

– Casein

– Celluloid

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Real or fake...?

It is not so straightforward, or easy to tell...

Ivory identification

...and in which CITES Appendix? Bone

CelluloidWarthog

Synthetic

IIIWalrus

IIHippo

IHornbill

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• Elephant and Mammoth

– Polished cross-sections of elephant and mammoth ivory dentine display uniquely characteristic Schreger lines, commonly referred to as cross-hatchings, engine turnings, or stacked chevrons

– The intersections of Schreger lines form angles, which are on average <90-100 deg. (acute) in extinct mammoth ivory and >100-115 deg. (obtuse) in Asian/African elephant ivory

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• Elephant and Mammoth

– Polished cross-sections of elephant and mammoth ivory dentine display uniquely characteristic Schreger lines, commonly referred to as cross-hatchings, engine turnings, or stacked chevrons

– The intersections of Schreger lines form angles, which are on average <90-100 deg. (acute) in extinct mammoth ivory and >100-115 deg. (obtuse) in Asian/African elephant ivory

Mammoth Elephant

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Mammoth (non-CITES)

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Elephant

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Mammoth (non-CITES)

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• Remember, Schreger lines appear in cross-section

• In a three-dimensional carving, it is usually possible to find a side that corresponds to a cross-section

• However, items that are cut length-wise in thin layers (such as piano keys) will not have these lines, and may exhibit wavy or parallel lines on their surface

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• Mammoth ivory will occasionally display intrusive brownish or blue-green coloured blemishes caused by an iron phosphate called vivianite

• When the discolouration is barely perceptible to the eye, the use of a hand-held ultraviolet light source causes the blemished area to stand out with a dramatic purple velvet-like appearance

• Even if discoloured, elephant ivory will not have the characteristic fluorescence of vivianite

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• Hippopotamus

http://www.ea-crafts.com/Posted%20Items%20Web%20Pages/Hippo%20Ivory/Others/pages/HGOD020312.htm

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• Hippopotamus

– Upper and lower canines and incisors are the most common sources for hippo ivory

• Upper canine is oval to rounded in cross-section

• Lower canine is large, strongly curved, triangular in cross-section

• Incisor is peg-shaped, dot in centre of cross-section

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• Hippopotamus

– Close examination of cross-section of hippo dentine with the aid of a 10X hand lens reveals a tightly packed series of fine concentric lines that can be regularly or irregularly spaced

– The orientation of the lines will follow the overall shape of the particular tooth, and the centre of the tooth may display an interstitial zone

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• Walrus

– Walrus tusk ivory comes from two modified upper canines, which have a rounded, irregular peg shape

– The tip of a walrus tusk has an enamel coating which is worn away during the animal’s youth

– Fine longitudinal cracks, which appear as radial cracks in cross-section, can be seen throughout the length of the tusk

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• Walrus

– Walrus tusk ivory comes from two modified upper canines, which have a rounded, irregular peg shape

– The tip of a walrus tusk has an enamel coating which is worn away during the animal’s youth

– Fine longitudinal cracks, which appear as radial cracks in cross-section, can be seen throughout the length of the tusk

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• Walrus

– “Fossilized” walrus ivory is also traded (carvings, musical instrument parts)

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Old, new and ‘fossil’ walrus ivory

Fossil

Old

New

New

Old

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• Narwhal

– Upper incisor, spiral in shape, hollow centre in cross-section

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• Sperm whale

– Whole teeth

– Whole teeth with scrimshaw(surface carving)

– Tabua

• Enamel tip, dentine rings in cross-section

• Many good fakes, using polyester resin

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• Sperm whale

– The root cavity of whale teeth is generally deep and conical (except in old animals)

– The edge of a whale tooth is fairly sharp, thin, and can exhibit cracks due to age and loss of moisture

– If the edge has been trimmed it is usually finished smooth, follows the outside shape of the tooth, and is usually unstained

– The base cavity of most fakes is shallow and rounded, and may be discoloured from dye immersion to simulate patina on the outer surface

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• Sperm whale

– The tip of a sperm whale tooth is yellowish, with a sharp line separating tip from the whiter ivory, and may also display sharp, thin and short age lines, crossing from ivory to crown

– The patina is usually subtle and not uniform, and will not easily scratch off; it is also a different color than ink of the scribed image

– Very few authentic antique scrimshaw have text, and even fewer are dated

– With many of the resins now in use, “hot-needle” tests and UV-light examination are not as reliable as they once were

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• Warthog

– Warthog ivory comes from the animal’s upper and lower canine teeth

– These tusks are strongly curved and have generally squared cross-sections

– Warthog ivory tends to have a mottled appearance

– Examination of a cross-section with a 10X hand lens reveals that warthog dentine shows irregularly spaced concentric lines of varying thickness

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• Hornbill

– Hornbill ‘ivory’ is derived from the casque of the Helmeted hornbill Rhinoplax vigil

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– Bone can superficially look very much like ivory

Bone is extensively permeated by Haversian pits or canals through which fluid flows

These can be seen on a polished bone surface using a 10X hand lens, appearing as pits or scratch-like irregularities

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– Composites

• Elephant ivory dust, a by-product of carving and manufacturing, can be bound with resins and molded or cut and polished to make a commercially usable product (e.g. for piano keys)

• Technically it is still an ivory specimen, but it will not have the usual identification characteristics

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– Shell

• Polished calcium carbonate, for inlays and small items

– Vegetable ivory (tagua palm nut)

• Cross-section reveals fine, regularly spaced concentric lines similar to those seen in hippopotamus ivory

• Vegetable ivory UV fluorescence is very similar to elephant ivory fluorescence

– Sulphuric acid applied to vegetable ivory causes an irreversible pink coloring in about 12 minutes


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Asian-style and modern tagua nut carvings

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• Synthetics, fakes

– Plastics, polyester resins, synthetics, casein, celluloid

– Some try to mimic the Schreger lines (such as celluloid, invented in 1869 – which means you can have old fakes)

Crocodile skin

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Crocodile skin

• To spot fake crocodilian products, look for:

– creases with an unnatural look

– repetitive patterns

– pock marks and blistering on the surface made by a mould

– different body regions are associated together

– dorsal and nuchal scales fold under finger pressure

http://www.letraset.com/shopdisplayproducts.asp?id=1989&cat=Fake+Alligator+Skin+10%2E5%2E32%0D%0A&ssctn=graphics

http://www.interiormall.com/cat/displaycoll.asp?c1=Faux+Leather&bookname=Vintage

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Crocodile skin

• To spot fake crocodilian products, you can also try the burn test:

• If burning a small part smells like burnt plastic, it is a fake

• the keratin in crocodilian skin will smell like burnt hair

Giant clams

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Giant Clams

• All 9 species of the Family Tridacnidae are included in Appendix II of CITES– Tridacna gigas

– Tridacna derasa

– Tridacna squamosa

– Tridacna maxima

– Tridacna crocea

– Tridacna rosewateri

– Tridacna tevoroa

– Hippopus hippopus

– Hippopus porcellanus

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Giant Clams

• While there may be some trade in meat for sushi (Himejako), most trade is in the form of clam shells (either single or in pairs, or made into curios and souvenirs)

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Giant Clams

• "Pearls" from giant clams are occasionally offered for sale

• These are likely polished shell material and are either sold as polished beads or made into necklaces or other items

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Giant Clams

• True nacreous pearls from giant clams are known, but are very rare and irregularly shaped

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Giant Clams

• Tridacna gigas

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Giant Clams

• Tridacna squamosa shell in trade

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Giant Clams

• Tridacna maxima

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Giant Clams

• Tridacna crocea

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Giant Clams

• Tridacna rosewateri (found in Mauritius only)

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Giant Clams

• Tridacna tevoroa (found in Tonga and Fiji)

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Giant Clams

• Hippopus hippopus

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Giant Clams

• Hippopus porcellanus

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Imitations

• Imitations can be found that are made of porcelain or ceramic

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Imitations

• Some imitations made from resin can be very realistic in appearance

http://www.shadesoflight.com/Seasonal_and_Holiday/Resin-Giant-Clam-Shell-Bowl/Page_5/AC05047.html

http://www.charleskeath.com/ckeath/prod_display1.asp?product=103871&PID=&SID=8

http://blognursinghomedrugreviews.info/garden-statue/poseidon-giant-clam-garden-statue.html

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Summary

• Real versus fake

• Real, but counterfeit

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Summary

• Caviar

• Furs and mammal skins

• Precious corals

• Tortoiseshell

• Snake skin

• Ivory

• Crocodile skin

• Giant clams

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CITES SecretariatGeneva

www.cites.org

Identifying counterfeit items Developed by the CITES Secretariat GreenCustoms Knowledge Series No....

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