Identification from skeletal

remains

Age Sex Race Stature

Race Race can be determine from the

examination of :1. Skull2. Mandible3. Teeth4. Limb bones.

Skull Certain differences exist

between

Negroid (Black )

Caucasoid ( Europeans ).

Mongoloid ( Native Americans, Koreans, Japanese, Chinese, South east Asians )

Race can be determine by:

1. Cephalic index.

( breadth index ).

2. Height index.

3. Nasal index.

Cephalic index

The cephalic index is calculated as maximum breadth divided by maximum length of the skull multiplied by 100.

Breadth is measured above the mastoid process.

Length is measured between the glabella and the occipital protrobrance with caliper.

Type of skull Cephalic index

Race

Dolico cephalic ( long headed )

70 -74.9 Aryans, Black .

Mesati cephalic ( medium headed )

75 – 79.9 Europeans,

Brachy cephalic ( round headed)

80 or > Mongolians

Height index The height index is calculated as

height of the skull divided by length of the skull, multiplied by 100.

Nasal index

The nasal index is calculated as width of nasal aperture divided by height of nasal aperture multiplied by 100.

Blacks Europeans

Mongols

Cephalic index ( CI )

70 – 74.9

75 – 79.9

80 and above

Height index ( HI )

72 71 75

Nasal index ( NI )

55 46 50

Other differences in different racesBlacks Europea

nMongols

Orbits Square Triangular Rounded

Nasal opening

Broad Narrow and elongated

Rounded

Palate Rectangular

Triangular Rounded

The cheek bones or zygomatic arches are prominent in mongols.

in mongols, unlike other groups, the face width generally exceeds the head width.

Mandible and teeth In Blacks lower jaw is strongly prognathic .

Third molar is bigger than the first two molars.

In Mongols: Shovel shaped of upper central

incisors. Enamel pearls: are small nodules of

enamel on the tooth surface. Taurodontism ( bull tooth ): these

are common in Mongols. The pulp cavity is wide and deep and roots are fused.

Congenital lack of third upper molar is common.

In white Races Carbelli`s cusp: Small nodules on

lingual surface of maxillary molar is common.

Limb BonesRadio-humeral index

(Brachial index): Length of RADIUS divided by

length of HUMERUS multiplied by 100.

Europeans

Blacks

Radio-humeral index

Below 75 Above 80

Tibio-femoral index ( Crural index ): Length of tibia divided by

length of femur multiplied by 100.

Europeans

Blacks

Tibio-femoral index

Below 83 Above 83

Sex determination from skeleton

General featuresMales Females

1 Skeleton comparatively bigger and stouter, weight = 4.5 kg

Skeleton comparatively smaller and slender, weight = 3.00 kg

2 Muscular ridges, depressions and processes more prominent.

Muscular ridges, depressions and processes less prominent.

3 Shaft of long bones relatively rough & articular surfaces & ends larger

Shaft of long bones relatively smooth & articular surfaces & ends smaller.

Male pelvis Female pelvis 1 Bony framework

massiveBony framework less massive

2 Inlet: deep & narrow Inlet: shallow & wide3 Ant. Superior iliac

spines not widely seperated

Ant. Superior iliac spines widely separated

4 Ilium less expanded Ilium more expanded5 Subpubic arch narrow,

V shaped, angle= 70 degree

Subpubic arch wide, U shaped, angle>90 degree

6 Ischial tuberosities = inverted

Ischial tuberosities = everted

7 Obturator foramen = ovoid

Obturator foramen = triangular

8 Greater sciatic notch narrow, deep, & less then right angle

Greater sciatic notch wide, shallow & almost right angle.

9 Sacrum long & narrow, has five or more segments. Well marked promontory

Sacrum wide & short, has five segments. Promontory less marked.

10

Acetabulum wider & deeper

Acetabulum narrower & shallower

11

Pelvic brim heart shaped

Pelvic brim circular, elliptical

12

Anterior curvature is equally distributed along its length.

Anterior curvature is straight in upper half & sharply curved in lower half.

13

Articular surface of sacrum extends to 2 ½ to 3 vertebral bodies

Articular surface of sacrum extends to 2 to 2 ½ vertebral bodies

Femur Male femur Female femur

1 Head of femur is larger

Head of femur is smaller

2 Articular surface forms more then two thirds of sphere

Articular surface forms less then two thirds of sphere

3 Neck forms obtuse angle with shaft (125 degree)

Neck forms right angle with shaft

Skull Male Female

1 Bigger, heavier & rough.

Smaller, lighter, & smooth.

2 Cranial capacity almost 10 % more

Cranial capacity almost 10 % less

3 Frontal sinuses more developed

Frontal sinuses less developed

4 Fronto-nasal angulation distinct

Fronto-nasal angulation smoothly curved

Male skull Female skull 5 Glabella, supra-

orbital rigdes, zygomatic arch, mastoid process, occipital protuberance, occipital condyle & muscular attachments are more pronouced.

Glabella, supra-orbital rigdes, zygomatic arch, mastoid process, occipital protuberance, occipital condyle & muscular attachments are less pronouced.

6 Orbital opening comparatively big & rectangular

Orbital opening comparatively small & rounded

7 Facial bones more massive & not delicate in texture.

Facial bones less massive & delicate in texture.

Spinal columnMale Female

1 Mean breadth of first cervical vertebra 83 mm

Mean breadth of first cervical vertebra 72mm

2 Lumbar lordosis less marked

Lumbar lordosis more marked

Mandible Male Female

1 Lower jaw more massive

Lower jaw less massive

2 Chin - square Chin – pointed or rounded

3 Symphyseal height more

Symphyseal height less

4 Ramus – more broad Ramus – less broad

5 Angle region - everted

Angle region – not everted

Thorax Male Female

1 Thoracic cage – longer & narrower

Thoracic cage – shorter & wider

2 The ribs have a less pronounced curvature

The ribs have a more pronounced curvature

3 Body of sternum is bigger & more then twice the length of manubrium

Body of sternum is shorter & less then twice the length of manubrium

4 Upper border of sternum at level of body of 2nd thoracic vertebra

Upper border of sternum at level of body of 3nd thoracic vertebra

Sacral index Sacral index ( SI ): calculated as breadth of

base divided by anterior length of sacrum multiplied by 100. Male Female

Sacral index 112 116

Ischio-pubic index Ischio-pubic index ( IPI ): calculated by ischial

length divided by pubic length multiplied by 100. Male Female

Ischio-pubic index

73 - 94 91 -115

According to Krogman, degree of accuracy to determine sex

from boneEntire skeleton 100 %

Pelvis & skull 98 %

Pelvis alone 95 %

Skull alone 90 %

Long bones alone 80 %

Age determination from skeleton

MandibleFeatures Infancy Adult Old age

1 Angle b/w ramus & body

Obtuse right angle

obtuse

2 Body Shallow & small

Thin & elongated

Shallow & big

3 Ramus Short & oblique

Stunted Long & oblique

4 Condylar process

at lower level than coronoid process

Above the level of coronoid process

Neck is bent backward

5 Mental formamen

Placed near to the lower border

Midway b/w upper & lower border

Near the alveolar margin

5 Mental formamen

Placed near to the lower border

Midway b/w upper & lower border

Near the alveolar margin

Spinal column In youth : upper and lower surfaces of

bodies of the vertebrae bear radial markings, at age of 10 years.

By the age of 30 years, they begin to fade and disappear.

The osteophytic outgrowths from the anterior and lateral margins of the intervertebral discs become visible by 40 years.

The disc undergoes atrophic changes by about 40 – 45 years.