THE PEDAGOGICAL PRESS AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF HIGH

SCHOOL TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY (WITHIN THE

CONTEXT OF THE PORTUGUESE NEW STATE)

Joaquim PintassilgoFaculdade de Ciências da Universidade de LisboaCentro de Investigação em Educação

Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Lisbon, 11-

14 September 2002

This paper aims to study the role of the pedagogical press produced by teachers

regarding the construction of their professional identity and at the same time to analyse

some of their main demonstrations as far as teachers’ representations are concerned.

The context is that of the Salazarist New State, with the difficulties it presents as regards

the assertion of the teaching profession, in view of the tight control the political power

kept over teachers. Our main source is a sequence of about twenty articles on the

teaching profession and teacher training, published in the 50s and 60s in the journal

Labor, practically all of which were produced by high school teachers. Specifically, we

shall attempt to grasp the rebirth of the concerns regarding the teaching profession, so

evident at that time, along with the quantitative expansion of high school teaching.

Labor came to life through a group of teachers of the Aveiro High School,

having first been published in 1926, just before the establishment of the Military

Dictatorship that would lead to the New State. In its early stage, the journal played an

important role in the teachers’ associative movement, which in turn would lead to the

high school teaching congresses. Labor’s publication was interrupted twice – once,

briefly, between 1931 and 1932, another time for about 11 years, between 1940 and

1951. It would only stop being published in 1973, when the April 25th Revolution in

1974 was about to take place, having thus accompanied a substantial part of Portuguese

history during the Salazarist period and also witnessed high school teachers’ fight for

the dignity of their profession (Nóvoa, 1993a).

1

The present analysis will focus on the last phase of Labor’s life (1951-1973),

with the exception, due to its peculiarity, of a short period already in the 70s, in view of

the fact that this period covers the paradoxical context of the Veiga Simão Reform,

during which a return to teachers’ associative movement was evident. Thus, the

hypothesis underlying our work is that over those twenty-odd years, Labor assumed a

decisive role in high school teachers’ socialisation in the beliefs and values that are

inherent to the teaching activity. Its pages contributed to make public a set of ideas and

practices related to a good professional performance, and sharing such ideas and

practices was decisive in enhancing the feeling of belonging to one and the same

symbolic community.

We shall base our analysis on the discourses produced by teachers and for

teachers, in an attempt to understand the representations conveyed in this manner about

the profession and about the teaching activity, in order to sketch a portrayal of a “good

high school teacher” in the 50s and 60s, i.e. in the heyday of the New State. The

reflections included in the articles that form our documental corpus were most certainly

assumed by the more conscientious members of the class and incorporated in their

professional patrimony.

1. The New State and the teachers: to adhere or to criticise?

From the writings included in Labor, we can infer that there was a certain

ambiguity in the relation between teachers and the authoritarian regime. First of all, it is

convenient to remember the following. One of the consequences of the process of

construction of the teaching profession was that teachers were placed under the State’s

tutorship, which resulted in a historical ambivalence regarding the relation between the

two terms of the binomial – autonomy and control. This was visible throughout the

whole process, but it became much more so under the Salazarist regime, during which

there was a constant effort by the political power to control teachers’ work and lives, a

fact that definitely contributed to a certain discredit of the teaching activity (Nóvoa,

1993b).

2

The High School Statute (1947), a key element of the high school reform then

carried out, tried to bestow upon teachers a political and ideological function, assigning

to them, among others, the duties of “collaborating in the realisation of the higher aims

of the State and the defence of the political and social principles established in the

Constitution”, and also of “respecting the Catholic conscience of the Nation and the

Christian nature inherent to high school teaching” (Reforma e Estatuto..., 1947, pp.103-

104).

However, this role of regulation and control on the part of the State did not make all

teachers conform to a total heteronomy nor fully accept their role as agents in the

normalisation of thought and behaviour in the view of the established power. In fact,

some teachers tried to assume the role of “organic intellectuals” of the regime,

contributing to the dissemination of Salazarist values; several others, however, put up

some form of ‘resistance’, for instance through the attempt to create some – albeit

limited – autonomy.

Up to a point, this ambiguity we find in the teachers’ discourses made public

through the journal Labor is natural, not least because, in such a context of political

censorship, while maintaining a certain degree of independence concerning the ruling

power, the journal could not openly assume itself as a clear opponent to this regime,

under risk of jeopardising its continuity. This necessary balance the journal tries to

keep, along with the desire to unite the teaching class around a minimally consensual

pedagogical ideal, is what gives it a certain pluralistic nature, that characterises it so

well throughout almost half a century and that probably guaranteed its longevity.

In other words, it is possible to find in Labor articles clearly in line with the

Salazarist ideology, such as one written by Virgílio de Lemos, a teacher of the Vila

Nova de Gaia High School, in which he pointed out the ground-breaking characteristic

of the “ethical and political doctrine of the New State, of which the trilogy God, Nation

and Family remains an attractive slogan”. The same author refers to the Colonial War,

begun in Angola in 1961, as “the war that was imposed upon us by the overseas

provinces”, and states it is a “war we must, above all, yield to and later win” (Lemos,

1967, Novembro, p.99). In another article, Virgílio de Lemos carries out a deep

reflection upon the necessary political framing of the Training period’s activities:

“During the Training period the State’s future teachers should undergo specific training

3

by the State, for they judge and decide in the name of the State and, as civil servants and

permanent workers towards the Common Good, they need to have the mystique of the

State” (Lemos, 1968, Junho, pp.462-463).

Another author, José Bettencourt, who taught at an overseas high school – the Diogo

Cão High School –, suggests that high school students should be “educated in an

atmosphere of tradition, of national feeling, developing in them the love for their

country” (Bettencourt, 1960, Abril, p.486). What is curious is that this conservative

discourse is assumed coupled with innovative pedagogical proposals such as Virgílio de

Lemos presents, and this brings up the complexity of people and situations in a real

context, and the impossibility of reducing them to simple or linear formulas.

Among those included in our documental corpus, the article that naturally assumes a

more critical stance is written by the well-known pedagogue Delfim Santos (Belo,

1999) and deals with the problem of teacher training. Referring to some of the

educational measures of the New State, such as the extinction of the Society of

Pedagogical Studies, the (temporary) withdrawal of the Statute of Teacher-Training

from the Pedro Nunes High School and the devaluation of the Section of Pedagogical

Sciences belonging to the School of Arts of the Lisbon University, Delfim Santos

regards these measures as meaning “the full subordination of the pedagogic to the

administrative”. The author comments on the exams then in force, pointing out that they

show “the failure of teaching, the absurdity of the methods, the fabrication of the

results”. He concludes with some pessimism: “But things have gone so far, the

desolation of the so-called national pedagogy has persisted for so long” (Santos, 1958,

Junho, pp.657 e 659).

However, the performance of the minister then in power, Francisco Leite Pinto

(1955-1961) seems to generate some hope – which is evident in this and other articles -,

he being usually considered one of the members of the technocratic wing of the regime

and a strong supporter of the modernisation of the educational system in connection

with the needs posed by the economic development (Teodoro, 2001). Delfim Santos

symptomatically concludes his article “with a word of hope backed up by the interest

the Minister of National Education is showing in what we have roughly sketched”

(Santos, 1958, Junho, p.671). Such a word of hope is justified by his admission that he

4

has been asked to co-operate in the reform of the educational system. That hope,

however, will not be accomplished at this stage.

As for the intellectual and pedagogic atmosphere of the late fifties, which actually

coincided with the political activities caused by Humberto Delgado’s presidential

campaign (the first serious threat to the regime), Carlos Montenegro Miguel, a teacher

at the Military School, uses a few examples as grounds to state that “It seems that a

breath of fresh air has animated the monotonous landscape of this land and men are

beginning to understand the need for dialogue” (Miguel 1959, Março, p.375). Before

long, the hardening of the regime and particularly the context ensuing from the start of

the Colonial War will frustrate the hopes of those who believed in the possibilities of a

pedagogic and cultural renovation.

2. The belief in the value of education, in the role of the teacher and in the

student-person

One of the aspects that are common to the various discourses produced by teachers

is the belief in the vital importance of the role of education, and especially of the school

in terms of a simultaneous improvement of the student-person and of the quality of

social life. In this respect, teachers’ ideas continue to display an enlightened manner of

regarding education (Pintassilgo, 1998). One of the most emphatic followers of this

reasoning is José A. Teixeira, a teacher at the Camões High School and also director of

the journal Labor: “Without education there can be no human greatness” (Teixeira,

1957, Outubro, p.8). Assertions voiced by Manuel da Conceição Pires, a teacher at the

Ponta Delgada High School, point in the same direction: “Education is thus the first tool

of the life and the valuation of a people”. In the case of the latter author, the important

role played by high school teaching is justified by the fact that these establishments –

high schools – are “the nursery of the leading elite” (Pires, 1964, Maio, p.652). In this

case, the assumption of a traditional concept, as far as the purposes of this area of

secondary education are concerned, is quite clear: to form elites, paving the way for

their access to university.

5

The prospective dimension contained in the optimistic look upon the potential of

school education is particularly well expressed by Delfim Santos, when he claims the

school is like “a workshop where tomorrow’s men get their education” (Santos, 1958,

Junho, p.662), a formula that accounts for the socially productive role of the school. In

some texts, there are also expressions of typical ideas of the post-2nd World War era in

which these authors live, such as those associating schooling and economic

development, anticipating the theories of “human capital” that emerge shortly after

among us (Teodoro, 2001). The aforementioned author M. C. Pires, after seeing how

“far behind we are”, becomes the spokesman of that theory: “Therefore, education and

economy walk hand in hand, as if they were the spirit and body of a nation, like two

inseparable aspects of the same social unit” (Pires, 1955, Março, p.464).

This belief in school education is in tune with the respect for the student-person, an

idea shown in several articles and deriving from the diffused presence, in teachers’

discourses, of certain commonplaces of the New Education (Candeias, Nóvoa, &

Figueira, 1995). In the opinion of Delfim Santos – then a university professor who had

begun his career teaching in high school -, “the school, and within it the teacher, must

serve the student”, for which purpose they “must adapt to him/her”; the main goal of

their activity is “the child they are educating” (Santos, 1958, Junho, pp.669 e 661). This

opinion is definitely shared by various authors. Once again according to M. C. Pires, the

teacher’s mission regarding the students is to “develop their personality” and in order to

do so the teacher must “respect the students’ rights” (Pires, 1955, Março, p.449).

Thus, getting to know the student becomes “essential in the pedagogic act” (Santos,

1958, Junho, p.661). For this, it is necessary, on the one hand, to acknowledge that the

high school student “is not an adult” and “cannot and should not be treated as an adult”

(Pires, 1955, Março, p.449). On the other hand, one cannot talk “about the child with a

sense of generality that doesn’t exist. Ten years of age do not have the same

implications for Pedagogy as seventeen or eighteen” (Teixeira, 1959, Janeiro, p.248),

and the “psychological frame of the child’s evolution” should be taken into account

(Pires, 1955, Março, p.449).

3. Understanding the teacher as a professional of teaching

6

In this context, we do not view the idea of profession as an abstract ideal to be

reached, but as a social and historical construction, through which several components

were gradually incorporated, at different moments and with different intensities. Among

these we may point out the exercise of competencies based on a solid ground of

knowledge; a relatively long educational path leading to a certification; the belief in the

high social function of this activity; a relative autonomy regarding its performance; and

also a process of socialisation in certain values and rules of behaviour, sometimes

systematised in the shape of a code of conduct (Perkin, 1987; Sockett, 1987).

We do not intend to discuss in this paper the adequacy (or lack of it) of the teaching

profession to the features previously mentioned. It is our belief that now it is even

possible to overcome the polemic character of the concept of profession, while keeping

in mind the ambiguity and paradoxical character that define certain aspects of the

teaching activity, now as before, and that lead to the use of notions such as de-

professionalization, proletarianization, and so on.

Viewed as a historical project, professionalization is something we can intuit from

the teachers’ discourses when they write in the pages of the journal Labor during the

50s and 60s, for it is a notion that visibly contributes to the valuation of the teaching

activity. According to the teacher Abílio Alves Perfeito, of the D. João III Teacher-

Training High School of Coimbra, “the high school teacher should be a teacher

structurally … I think that to teach classes and rush out of school is a pseudo-

understanding of the teaching profession” (Perfeito, 1959, Março, p.374). The writer

Mário Dionísio, then a teacher at the Camões High School, is even more explicit when

he refers to the professional socialisation offered by the training period: “The two years

of training should – just through the thousand real cases of everyday life at school –

create in the future teacher the conscience of the greatness of the task he/she is destined

for and that this … is a profession and not a job” (Dionísio, 1959, Março, p.390).

Referring to the Pedro Nunes Teacher-Training High School teachers, the ex-

Headmaster Francisco Dias Agudo states the following: “The teachers of this High

School, to a large extent … have a specific preparation of their own, they are

professionals” (Liceu Normal..., 1967, Outubro, p.50). One of the implications of this

statement is the idea that teachers are the true specialists of the educational act, those

who detain such knowledge that allows them to scientifically found their activity. As

7

Mário Dionísio says: “Specialists who, naturally, only after becoming such, may

integrate a culture specialized in new specializations, that they lack, such as pedagogy

and the practice of teaching” (Dionísio, 1959, Março, p.389).

Sometimes the image of the teacher as a professional of teaching as opposed to that

of a civil service professional comes up – something rather strange in a country like

Portugal, where the process of transformation of teachers into civil servants was

relatively premature and an inseparable part not only of the structuring of the modern

State, but also of the construction of the teaching system and of teacher education

(Nóvoa, 1987). Normally supported by the teachers themselves, this situation illustrates

the ambiguity that has always marked the teaching profession in this respect: civil

servants, but aspiring to reach the statute of intellectuals by means of their social

function; asserting their statute as professionals, but assuming amateur practices in their

teaching activities. This produces contradictory profiles (Pintassilgo, 2002).

Let us take a look at some examples. When defending teachers’ “updating” and

“professional improvement” – common to all professions -, José A. Teixeira

exemplifies with what a teacher should not be – a “bored civil servant sitting at his

desk” (Teixeira, 1953, Janeiro, pp.222-223). Delfim Santos’ ideas are similar, as he

considers that teachers become “teaching civil servants” when they regard themselves

as mere “administrators of the knowledge that corresponds to the programmes’ items”

(Santos, 1958, Junho, p.658). Mário Dionísio voices a similar opinion, when he regards

these teachers as a “huge chorus mechanically reciting the programmes’ contents, for

whom school life only has two happy moments: the bell at the end of the day and the

thought of the holidays” (Dionísio, 1959, Março, p.392). Virgílio de Lemos, in an

article defending benefits for high school temporary teachers, declares: “What is

necessary is to defend intellectuals” (Lemos, 1967, Novembro, p.99), considering

teachers as such.

As intellectuals, teachers are assigned a mission, a high social ideal. The thing that

unites teachers as professionals is that they all are “champions of the same ideal of

education for youth” (Sampaio, 1964, Junho, p.690). According to Delfim Santos, “the

most important mission [for the teacher] to develop in his students” is “to promote their

development”, contributing for the “shaping of [their] personality” (Santos, 1958,

Junho, pp.663 e 658-659).

8

Hence the close link between the notions of teacher and educator that the texts

present. José A. Teixeira considers that for the teacher, being an educator means being

capable of “conducting, guiding, meditating, promoting love among people”, thus

yielding “to the cult of the most noble part of human nature – the spirit”. He concludes

with some scepticism: “Only the educator can shape characters. But how many

educators are there in the thousands of civil servant teachers the State counts on?”

(Teixeira, 1957, Outubro, p.9).

The transcendence of the teacher’s mission is responsible for the analogy some

authors draw with priesthood. Fernando Carvalho Conceição is one such author, in a

text where he also criticises the traditional duplicity of the official discourse about

teachers, while simultaneously asserting the professional character of the teaching

activity:

While for many teaching is, above all, a priesthood, for many others it is essentially a profession like any other. For these – among whom the author includes himself –, the expression priesthood is just a form of hiding the guilty conscience of those who do not pay the work of teachers well enough, but glorify their sublime task. As they say, more honours than salary are given to teachers (Conceição, 1972, Maio, p.400).

The assertion of the professional character of the teaching activity does not

imply the refusal of the emotional dimension of its performance. In the homage paid at

the time to the former Headmaster Dias Agudo, the President of the Parents’ Council

praised not only this man’s “professional vocation”, but also the “devoted love for

teaching” that he showed (Liceu Normal..., 1967, Outubro, pp.48-49). Mário Dionísio

considers that the most important elements for educational success are “the teacher’s

passion and competence”. Being a “good teacher”, according to him, “requires a rare

inner strength”, where qualities such as “freshness and enthusiasm” and “an

understanding, tolerant and giving spirit” coexist with competencies of a more

professional nature (Dionísio, 1959, Março, pp.392-393). Hence the importance some

texts attribute to the teacher’s personality, on a par with his professional training and

competence. For Delfim Santos, the teacher’s “objective preparation” must be

accompanied by his “subjective education”, which implies a “full awareness of his

personality”, for only this is “capable of influencing” (Santos, 1958, Junho, p.668).

9

The recurring concern with teachers’ conduct involves modern and traditional

references at the same time. On the one hand, the effort to construct a professional

deontology is visible, but on the other hand the usual topic of the teacher’s exemplarity,

as a master, is always being brought up (Pintassilgo, 2002). In the Labor number that

includes texts paying homage to Fernando Zamith, a teacher-methodologist of Physics

and Chemistry of the D. João III Teacher-Training High School in Coimbra, deceased in

1964, there is a particular focus on the fact that he is “a great master”, “a model of

virtues” and “a noble example” for all disciples and colleagues. In the opinion of one of

the contributors to this homage, José A. Teixeira, Fernando Zamith could be considered

by many as “my best teacher”. Some of the features that define him as such are the

following: “best in competence, reflected in his graduation mark (19 out of 20) and in

his State Exam mark (17 out of 20); best in understanding, humanity, justice; best in

devotion; best in example” (Teixeira, 1964, Junho, pp.692-693).

4. Construction of a few elements of a professional conscience

The appraisal of the professional dimension of teaching and the adoption of a set

of specific values and rules for the practice of the profession contribute, among other

factors, to the teachers’ discursive assertion of an alternative identity vis-à-vis the one

the official discourse intended to give them (Lawn, 2000). In fact, the awareness of

belonging to the same professional group is one of the most important dimensions of the

teaching activity’s professionalization process at the high school level. A journal like

Labor, written by and for elements of a “class”, certainly had a decisive role in the

historical construction of the said identity, thus contributing to the creation of a

symbolic community brought together by a set of knowledges, beliefs, ideals and

practices identified with a sound practice of the teaching activity.

One of the strategies normally used has to do with homages paid to teachers who

have passed away recently or who have left their posts. These are the cases of the

homages paid to the teachers Nicodemos Pereira and Fernando Zamith, but it is also the

case of the homage to Francisco Dias Agudo when he ceased his functions as

10

Headmaster of the Lisbon Teacher-Training High School. All these examples show

rituals that aim at strengthening the sense of belonging to the same imagined

community (Pintassilgo, 2002).

The identity bonds between high school teachers, and sometimes between

teachers in general, are stressed in various manners in the pedagogic press. According to

the teacher José Bettencourt, “it is necessary . . . to defend the interests of the teacher

community better” (Bettencourt, 1960, Abril, p.485). As for Virgílio de Lemos, he adds:

“it is up to us, teachers, to defend our professional rights” (Lemos, 1967, Novembro,

p.99). The need for a symbolic unity between high school teachers is also asserted, as

the same Virgílio de Lemos does: “so there is great benefit in creating a genuine teacher

body, during the training period and in high schools, instead of bodies that work

individually” (Lemos, 1968, Junho, p.464). Therefore, the author fights to put an end to

the “isolation . . . between permanent teachers and temporary teachers”, which, he feels,

“does not bring any prestige into the class” (Lemos, 1967, Novembro, p.95).

In certain texts, the idea of identity comprises what we might call a culture of

high school teaching, or even a culture of school. At the time of his homage, Francisco

Dias Agudo defends that “a public cause … such as high school” deserves every

possible sacrifice. Further on, he considers the moment to be “a family party – the large

family of the Pedro Nunes High School”. Since this establishment was a Teacher-

Training High School at the time, that is to say, it formed teachers, it should have a

specific culture of its own that would enhance its educational character: “It is imperative

that teachers have lived in this ‘teacher nursery’ and experienced this environment,

because education is absorbed through the skin, through the senses and through the

soul” (Liceu Normal..., 1967, Outubro, pp.49-51).

In order to grow strong, an identity needs a memory. That is why one of the

most interesting articles regarding this matter evokes the heroic times of the

organisation of high school congresses, which took place in the still unstable period of

the military dictatorship that preceded the institutionalisation of the New State. While

the authoritarian regime did not forbid or punish any form of associativism, teachers’

included, high school teachers carried out five congresses, between 1927 and 1931, at

the rate of one a year. These congresses were brought to life by a Federation of the High

11

School Teachers’ Association and the journal Labor (then at the start of its publication)

played an important part in them (Bento, 1973).

In an article published in 1959, Mário de Vasconcelos e Sá, a retired teacher of

the Alexandre Herculano High School and an active participant of the teacher

associative movement of the time, “recalls the five high school congresses which took

place a while back with the exclusive initiative, organisation and presidency of high

school teachers”. The publication of this article, three decades after the events it

remembers, aims to “reach the entire class, particularly the new teachers”. Based on

memories of the profession, this statement clearly shows how much the new teachers

wish to associate. The author himself justifies his text as follows: “It is worth recalling

these thirty years back, for they relive an activity worthy of acknowledgement, as it

expresses a craving and a firm wish to value teaching and to dignify the teaching class”

(Sá, 1959, Janeiro, p.234). As we can see, the present ennoblement of the teaching

profession is an aspiration, founded on the memory of the strong points of its history. At

the same time, the idea is for teachers to construct their own thoughts about educational

problems and their pedagogic practices. This is what Mário de Vasconcelos e Sá means

when he declares:

Congresses are always a proof of vitality of who wants to live and elevate oneself, thus making clear what a class thinks and feels . . .

Actually, a class only values and asserts itself when it attempts to impose itself through its work, its way of thinking and feeling. The complex, fundamental problems of teaching must be technically dealt with and ventilated, by those who know them and live off them (Sá, 1959, Janeiro, pp.236 e 238).

Once again, we face the assertion that, given the technical requirements they

involve, matters of teaching should be handled by specialists – teachers – with the

necessary know-how, as a strategy to legitimise their work, value their social statute and

assert their identity.

12

We may now conclude the reflection carried out so far, re-stating some of the

core ideas we have tried to present throughout this paper. The teachers’

professionalization process implied, among others, the construction of a symbolic

community, in which beliefs, ideas, values, specialised knowledges and desirable

practices were shared. This construction, concerning high school teachers in Portugal at

the time of the New State, was the object of our analysis.

Another idea we wish to stress is the following: Professional autonomy

regarding the teaching activity was always quite relative, but in the case of the

Portuguese authoritarian regime the constraints were very real. The political power was

acutely aware of the role that education had in socialising Portuguese youth according

to Salazarist values and it exerted heavy vigilance and control over teachers’ activities,

thus strongly conditioning their professional development. Even in adverse conditions

such as these, high school teachers gradually built certain elements of their professional

conscience and reinforced their identity, in many aspects in disagreement with the

identity the New State intended to give them.

The pedagogical press, particularly the one produced by the teachers themselves,

had a fundamental role in these processes, as it allowed the dissemination of specialised

pedagogical knowledge, the socialisation in common rules and values, the exchange of

experiences at the level of good practices, along with symbolic interchanges that

fortified the feeling of belonging to one same community in terms of thinking and

action.

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