Iconoclastic Controversy
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Transcript of Iconoclastic Controversy
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JASO N LEO N AR D 06 /03 /2013 C H U R C H H I STO R Y
C H U R C H H I S T O RY
T H E I C O N O C L A S T I C C O N T R O V E R S Y
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Introduction
The beginning of the Iconoclastic (image-breaker) Controversy is multifaceted and
obscure1. In large part because prior to the Controversy the Christological argument for and
against icons (images) was not really developed.2
When the emperor of the Byzantine Empire,
Leo III, forbade image worship, he turned what the Second Council of Nicaea calls a royal
highway3 into an intersection of debate and division; instigating a controversy which would
take over one hundred years (725-842) to settle.
The Byzantine Backdrop
When Leo III took over the throne of the Byzantine empire in 717, the immediate task
was thwarting the Arab siege of Constantinople, the capitol of the empire. For more than twenty
years the Muslim forces had been advancing on Constantinople, laying it under siege once before
in the middle of the seventh century. The empire was also stricken from within, with a recent
history of short lived, despotic emperors. Leos defeat of the Muslim siege of Constantinople
marked a turning point for the Byzantine empire. The Muslim armies would not advance on
Constantinople for hundreds of years and the many internal reforms issued by Leo helped to
strengthen the empire.
It is in light of his securing Constantinople, and with it the Byzantine empire, in the face
of internal conflict and external struggle against Muslim forces that Iconoclasm comes into sharp
focus. In 727, Leo issued a prohibition from worshipping images. While the exact reasons for
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1 Cross, F. L., & Livingstone, E. A. Iconoclastic Controversy. The Oxford Dictionary of the ChristianChurch (3rd ed. rev.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 820. Logos.
2Hussey, J.M. The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. 34.Web. (as quoted by: http://theorthodoxlife.wordpress.com/2012/02/05/an-overview-of-the-iconoclastic-
controversy/)
3 Second Council of Nicaea. ewtn.com. ETWN. June 3, 2013. Section articulating history of beliefsabout icons and images. Web.
http://theorthodoxlife.wordpress.com/2012/02/05/an-overview-of-the-iconoclastic-controversy/http://theorthodoxlife.wordpress.com/2012/02/05/an-overview-of-the-iconoclastic-controversy/http://theorthodoxlife.wordpress.com/2012/02/05/an-overview-of-the-iconoclastic-controversy/http://theorthodoxlife.wordpress.com/2012/02/05/an-overview-of-the-iconoclastic-controversy/http://theorthodoxlife.wordpress.com/2012/02/05/an-overview-of-the-iconoclastic-controversy/ -
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Leos edicts against image worship are unclear, they were influenced by a number of factors.
Prior to Leos volatile decrees against image worship he forced the baptism of a large number of
Jews, who abhorred image worship as a form of idolatry and a violation of the second command
of the decalogue.4 In light of this, Leo might have thought the removal of image worship would
make it easier for Jews and Muslims to convert to Christianity.5 A Paulician sect from the region
where Leo was born might also have contributed to his iconoclastic bent.6 The forces of the
Byzantine empire had also witnessed the destruction of many cities and buildings which were
thought to be protected by images or relics of saints. This provides us with a strong reason why
the Byzantine army, who had witnessed the untrustworthiness of relics and images for protection
in battle, were largely iconoclastic.7 Perhaps the most significant influence on Leos
iconoclasm, however, was the constant warring with the Muslims who counted the Christians as
an idolatrous group because of their relic and image worship.8 The forces under the
Mohommadean banner were fighting against every form of idolatry and understood Christians,
with their claiming Jesus to be God and their bowing down and praying to images, to be a
religion of idolatry. Every victory over the Christians fed the Islamic armies the idea that their
battle against every species of idolatry was just. Given that Leo had just thwarted the downfall
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4 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Iconoclastic War, and the Synod of 754. History of the Christian Church.
New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 101. Logos.
5 Iconoclasm. newadvent.org. New Advent. June 3, 2013. Web.
6 An Overview of the Iconoclastic Controversy. theorthodoxlife.wordpress.com. Christ the King Mission
Station. June 3, 2013. Web.
7 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Worship of Images. Literature. Different Theories. History of the
Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 100. Logos.
8 Crone, Patricia. Islam, Judeo-Christianity and Byzantine Iconoclasm hs.ias.edu. International Schoolof Historical Studies. 66-69. June 3, 2013. Web.
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of the Constantinople ten years prior and was trying to fortify the empire, it is likely that he saw
Iconoclasm as a way to minimize the provocation of the Muslim armies.9
The Use of Icons & Images in the Christian World
Leos first prohibition against the worship of images was followed up three years later
(730) with a command to remove or destroy all of the images. He inaugurated this edict with the
destruction of an image of Christ which hung over the imperial gate. 10 This war on images
roused the anger of monasteries, the common people, and the Pope in the West.
Due to the increasing ubiquity of saint worship and relic infatuation, along with the
ongoing conversion of pagans into Christianity, images (or icons) played an important role in the
life of the Church. Dead saints, understood to be accessible and willing to pray and offer
blessing, were recognized as intermediate examples for the believers. Since the early second
century bones of martyrs and saints were recognized as treasures11 and the belief that they
offered some mystical powers or, at least, better access to the throne room of God was defended
from select accounts from the Bible.12 For the illiterate masses, images of the saints (along with
images of Jesus, Mary, the apostles, and martyrs) were simply one step removed from the relics
and were used as an aid in prayers.13 Along with being a help for prayer, these images were
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9 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Iconoclastic War, and the Synod of 754. History of the Christian Church.New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 101. Logos.
10 Schaff.
11 The Martyrdom of Polycarp. earlychristianwritings.com. June 3, 2013. Section 18:2. Web.
12 2 Kings 13:21, Acts 5:15; 19:12
13 Enns, Paul P. The Iconoclastic Controversy. The Moody Handbook of Theology. Chicago: MoodyPress, 1989. 433. Logos.
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thought of as educational14: a sort ofbookorBible for common people who could not read 15. So
prevalent was the use of images that when the Byzantine emperor issued his iconoclastic
demands, Pope Gregory II is noted for saying, [A]ll people in the West detest the emperors
action and will never consent to destroy their images at his command.16 Although there is
evidence of iconoclastic murmurings prior to 727, and no major synod or council had been called
to discuss the orthodox use of images, saint worship and the use of images in worship and prayer
was commonplace and largely uncontested in medieval churches in both the East and West.17
The Synod of 754
When Leo, then, demanded that everyone cease worshipping images and subsequently
began destroying the images, it is not surprising that the leader of the Roman church took issue
with the emperor. Gregory II (713-731) exchanged heated letters with Leo; threatening
excommunication while Leo threatened attack. The next Pope, Gregory III (731-741) held a
synod declaring all iconoclasts excommunicated from the church.18 Unmoved, Leos son
Constantine V (741-775) was an even greater force of iconoclasm.
Constantines long rule was marked by a vigorous iconoclasm and stamped with the
Synod of 754. He held a council in Constantinople, declared it ecumenical, and sought to
formally unite the church against image worship. Leaning heavily on the second commandment
and passages of Scripture condemning idolatry, condemned and forbade the public and private
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14 Janzen, Waldemar. Exodus. Believers Church Bible Commentary. Waterloo, ON; Scottdale, PA: HeraldPress, 2000. Exodus 20:18-21. Logos.
15 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Worship of Images. Literature. Different Theories. History of theChristian Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 100. Logos.
16 Iconoclasm. newadvent.org. New Advent. June 3, 2013. Web.
17 Schaff.
18 Iconoclasm. newadvent.org. New Advent. June 3, 2013. Web.
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worship of sacred images on pain of deposition and excommunication.19 Constantines wrath
against the iconodules (those in favor of image worship) was unrelenting and cruel. He was
adored by iconoclasts while labeled a heretic and even a second Mohammed (whose war on
images and idolatry had ravaged the Eastern empire) by those in favor of image worship.20
It is important to first understand that no one, on either side of the argument, was arguing
that the honor belonging to God was to be shared with anything or anyone else. Both the
icondules and the iconoclasts believed that God alone was to be worshipped. The question was
whether or not a derivative, or lesser, honoring of images of Christ or the saints was confusing
worship and practicing idolatry. The iconoclasts argued that images of Christ were not Christ
Himself, and neither were the images of the Saints the Saints themselves. Worshipping these
images in any way, then, was misplaced worship and a form of idolatry. Theses arguments were
were not persuasive enough to quell image worship.
The iconoclastic defense had major inconsistencies and weaknesses which undermined
their persuasive abilities. First, the iconoclasts stopped short of abolishing all images. They held
firmly to the idea that the Eucharist was the only image which could be worshiped and revered
because it was the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ.21 As they removed the images of
Christ coins and gates and walls, they often replaced them with a cross.22 The iconoclasts
struggle to oust forms of idolatry were evident even in the fact that the tomb of Constantine V
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19 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Iconoclastic War, and the Synod of 754. History of the Christian
Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 101. Logos.
20 Schaff.
21 Breckenridge, James D. The Iconoclasts Image of Christ. The University of Chicago PressVol. 11,No. 2 (1972): 3. JSTOR.
22 Breckenridge. 6.
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was a popular place of prayer for them.23 Though the tomb is not an image, and relics were left
largely untouched by the Synod of 754, this demonstrates the very real desire for Christians on
both side of the iconoclastic struggle to use various forms of mediation and authority in their
faith. While iconoclasm rightly worried about idolatry and appropriate worship, it only
succeeded at tearing down what the monks and masses used for worship and replaced it with
nothing. The iconoclasts attempted to white-wash an empire and this was its chief defect24.
The Iconodule Response at Nicaea
The iconoclastic controversy was far from over when Constantines son, Leo IV died.
His wife, Irene, led the Byzantine empire as regent for her son. She had a secret devotion to
image worship and when she took over the throne, she had the power to reverse the course of the
past fifty years. Elevating faithful image worshippers to high positions in society and
proclaiming tolerance, she is responsible for convening another council in 787 to discuss the
iconoclastic controversy.25
The Synod of 754 at Constantinople was not attended by patriarchs of Jerusalem,
Antioch, or Alexandria and Pope at the time refused to attend. The council Irene convened in
Nicaea had representatives from each of these places and was instigated with a much different
focus: Pope Hadrian I sent his representatives only on the condition that the Synod of 754 was
was condemned.26 This council at Nicaea was intended to overturn the iconoclastic decrees and
establish an ecumenical, authoritative endorsement for image worship.
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23 Schaff.
24 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Worship of Images. Literature. Different Theories. History of the
Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 100. Logos.
25 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Restoration of Image-Worship by the Seventh Oecumenical Council,
787. History of the Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 102. Logos.
26 Cross, F. L., & Livingstone, E. A. Nicaea, Second Council of. The Oxford Dictionary of the ChristianChurch (3rd ed. rev.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 1152. Logos.
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First establishing their trust in previous ecumenical councils and that the Synod of 754
was heretical and not ecumenical, the council was free to establish what they believed was the
proper understanding of images. They articulated that tradition and history of church was filled
with the Holy Spirit and that image worship was so common and useful that it was a royal
highway they were stepping in to the midst of.27 The council argued for a veneration of images
and icons and relics and understood this veneration to equal veneration for the person whom the
thing represented.28 Anathemas were declared upon anyone who does not confess that Christ can
be represented in his humanity, does not accept art as a valid means for representing evangelical
scenes, does not salute those representations as standing for the Jesus or the Saints, and anyone
who rejects the tradition (written or not) of the church.29
The councils arguments were defended with Scriptural examples of images being used in
the Tabernacle - particularly the Cherubim - to point beyond themselves to the glory of God
(particularly Exodus 25:17-22, Ezekiel 41:1, 15:19, Hebrews 9:1-5) and also the testimony of
alleged miracles performed by images.30
The council was closed with an image brought in and
everyone present kissing it.
The Tension Continues
Just as the Synod of 754 did not quell the image worship in the empire, the Second
Council of Nicaea did not oust iconoclasm. Fractious persecution marked both sides of the
debate with volatile regime changes in the East, armies largely iconoclastic, and the people and
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27 Second Council of Nicaea. ewtn.com. ETWN. June 3, 2013. Introduction. Web.
28 Second Council of Nicaea.
29 Second Council of Nicaea. ewtn.com. ETWN. June 3, 2013. Section on Anathemas. Web.
30 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Restoration of Image-Worship by the Seventh Oecumenical Council,787. History of the Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 102. Logos.
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monks largely devoted to image worship.31 For fifty five years the ebbs and flows of the debate
increased the division between the East and West and strained unity in the Byzantine empire. It
was not until 842, when another Synod at Constantinople reenacted the decrees of the seven
ecumenical councils, restored the worship of images, pronounced the anathema upon all
iconoclasts and commemorated the event with a celebration on the first Sunday of Lent that the
Iconoclast Controversy was finally settled. With minor struggles over the language of the
councils still to follow, particularly in the Turkish empire, for the next hundred years, the future
of image worship in the Eastern and Roman churches was settled.
The Impact of the Iconoclastic Controvery
The most obvious impact of Iconoclastic Controversy was the increased devotion to
images, relics, and saints after the ninth century.32 Before the iconoclasts raised their voices,
image worship was wide-spread but not authoritatively established by the leadership of the
church. Now an ecumenical council has declared anathema on any iconoclast - bolstering the
faith of the people in images and saints.33 By the end of the tenth century, any opposition to the
decrees of the Second Council of Nicaea virtually ceased.34
The ecumenical councils of the first seven hundred years of the Christian church dealt
largely with the theology of the person of Jesus and the nature of the Triune God. The seventh,
the Second Council of Nicaea, and the surrounding Iconoclastic Controversy had few
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31 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. Iconoclastic Reaction, and Final Triumph of Image-Worship, a.d. 842.
History of the Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 103. Logos.
32 Cross, F. L., & Livingstone, E. A. Icon. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed. rev.).
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 820. Logos.
33 Schaff.
34 Fahlbusch.
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repercussions35 on theology. It had much more significance in the practical results of liturgy
and expression of worship than it did on any major theological tenant. As already discussed,
both sides of the controversy agreed that there was a particular worship owed to God alone. So
while the the Iconoclastic Controversy had little effect on theological ideas about God or man, it
had the ironic effect of solidifying image worship in much of the church: becoming a fixed part
of Eastern Orthodoxy36 and it has remained a mostly unchanged practice in the Roman Catholic
Church for the past twelve hundred years.
Icons & The Reformation
Seven hundred years after the Iconoclastic Controversy was finally settled, the
reformation brought the next attack against images. Although not a major focus of schism
between the Catholic and Protestant churches, saint worship and the use of images was still a
dividing line. Image worship was a derivative and obvious ramification of saint worship.37 Even
the iconoclasts prior to the reformation revered and venerated the saints and image worship
spread naturally with their worship.38 When the Second Council of Nicaea sought to address the
challenge of the iconoclasts, their major tool for victory was in the delineation of worship
through vocabulary. The Council articulated that there is a worship due to God alone, a lesser
kind of worship (veneration) due to the saints, and a higher form of veneration due to Mary.39
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35 Cross, F. L., & Livingstone, E. A. Iconoclastic Controversy. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian
Church (3rd ed. rev.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 820. Logos.
36 Cross, F. L., & Livingstone, E. A. Nicaea, Second Council of. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian
Church (3rd ed. rev.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 1152. Logos.
37 Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. The Worship of Images. Literature. Different Theories. History of the
Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910. Section 100. Logos.
38Schaff.
39 Second Council of Nicaea. ewtn.com. ETWN. June 3, 2013. Definition of Veneration. Web.
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The reformers of the sixteenth century did away with saint worship and so, with it, the fuel for
any image worship.
Though the reformers were varied in their use of imagery for education and adornment
purposes - with some aligning more with the Catholic use of images (Luther) and some more
firmly iconoclastic (Zwingli)40 - they were alike in their understanding that saints were not to be
worshipped. Calvin articulated clearly how the reformers felt about the Catholics veneration of
saints. It is plain that the worship which Papists pay to saints differs in no respect from the
worship of God: for this worship is paid without distinction.41 Although the Catholics defined
the worship with different language, Calvin argued that if the difference is only in language and
not in practice, it is no real difference at all.
It is no mere coincidence that a sixteenth century which saw the invention of the printing
press, the translation of the Bible into common vernacular, and the emphasis of the reformers on
Biblical literacy and authority were the backdrop for a rejection of saint worship. The common
people in the sixteenth century had more access to the Scriptures and a greater opportunity to
develop a comprehensive theology from the texts than ever before. The need for images as more
than adornment was shrinking and the opportunity to learn directly from the Scriptures was
increasing.
Conclusion
Imagery can never be entirely done away with. Even as some reformers championed the
Scriptures over and against imagery and pomp, the Scriptures themselves are ripe with imagery.
Everything God has made has a degree of glory and honor due to it (1 Corinthians 15:40-41).
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40 Janzen, Waldemar. Exodus. Believers Church Bible Commentary. Waterloo, ON; Scottdale, PA: HeraldPress, 2000. Exodus 20:18-21. Logos.
41 Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. 1.12.2. Web.
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God has given his people objects which point to other things (Hebrews 8:5). Jesus even
insinuated that people could believe in God on account of signs and miracles (John 14:11).
Images, in other words, are not the problem and idolatry cannot be eliminated simply by
removing a particular form of art from culture.42 The iconoclastic desire to eradicate all forms of
idolatry would find support in the Scriptures and the history of the Church, but not because
images themselves are bad. So too, the iconodule recognition that we have things before around
us which can point to other things - to serve as shadows or copies of greater things would find
support in Scripture. The problem, which the Synod of 754 tried to address, is that there is a
worship which is due only to God and not to anything else. We should have no other gods before
Him and there is only one mediator between God and Man (1 Timothy 2:5), Jesus Christ. This
Jesus was neither an iconoclast - for He created more images and signs for the Church - nor an
icnonodule - for He needed nothing outside of God to worship God in Spirit and in Truth. If the
church can not live in the tension of following Jesus, it will always surrender to an iconoclastic
or iconodule temptation.
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42 Janzen.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Articles
Breckenridge, James D. The Iconoclasts Image of Christ. The University of Chicago Press
Vol. 11, No. 2 (1972): 3-8. JSTOR.
Books
Cross, F. L., & Livingstone, E. A. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed. rev.).
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Logos.
Enns, Paul P. The Iconoclastic Controversy. The Moody Handbook of Theology. Chicago:
Moody Press, 1989. 433. Logos.
Fahlbusch, Erwin and Geoffrey William Bromiley. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. GrandRapids, MI; Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999-2003.
Janzen, Waldemar.Exodus. Believers Church Bible Commentary. Waterloo: Herald Press, 2000.
Exodus 20:18-21. Logos.
Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S.History of the Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribners Sons,
1910. Logos.
Websites
Second Council of Nicaea. ewtn.com. ETWN. June 3, 2013.
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