ICOM-CC Exploring the late 19th-century 18th Triennial … · 2017-09-09 · roots in the 18th...

ART TECHNOLOGICAL SOURCE RESEARCH

ICOM-CC18th Triennial Conference2017 Copenhagen

BIRGIT REISSLAND*Cultural Heritage Agency of the NetherlandsAmsterdam, The [email protected] NESS PROAÑO GAIBORCultural Heritage Agency of the NetherlandsAmsterdam, The [email protected] LIGTERINKCultural Heritage Agency of the NetherlandsAmsterdam, The [email protected] G. NEEVELCultural Heritage Agency of the NetherlandsAmsterdam, The [email protected]*Author for correspondence

KEYWORDS: art technology, source research,

ink, iron-gall ink, logwood ink, synthetic dyes,

UHPLC/PDA, Van Gogh

ABSTRACTWithin a research project focusing on the dra-matic colour changes in Van Gogh’s pen-and-ink drawings, interpretation of the analytical results requires a thorough understanding of late 19th-century ink manufacturing. Our labo-ratory had the unique opportunity to acquire a set of 90 historic ink bottles still containing ink. In this study, their chemical characterisation and the interpretation of these findings within the framework of ink manufacturing history are reported.

Exploring the late 19th-century landscape of ink manufacturing via a collection of 90 bottles

A COLLECTION OF HISTORIC INK BOTTLES

The study of artist studio practices is only beneficial when done in the context of contemporary sources. Besides written sources, collections of historic artist materials are an essential source in art technological studies. Such collections are rare. Often their existence is unknown because they are in private hands, or they have fallen into neglect at universities or art academies (Theodorakopoulos and Colbourne 2016). Their access for scientific research is limited because just a few laboratories worldwide are specialised in this field.

The Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE – Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed) comprises a valuable reference collection of more than 10,000 items, including a recently acquired collection of 90 historic ink bottles. These originate from 31 ink manufacturers from 9 countries, the majority being of European origin (Figure 1, Table 1). The main focus of our study were the Dutch, French and Belgium inks from the late 19th and early 20th century due to our involvement in a research project investigating the severe discolouration of van Gogh’s writing and drawing inks (REVIGO project).

Figure 1. Part of the historic ink bottle collection at the RCE. © Birgit Reissland

mailto:[email protected]




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EXPLORING THE LATE 19TH-CENTURY LANDSCAPE OF INK MANUFACTURING VIA A COLLECTION OF 90 BOTTLES


Table 1. RCE reference ink collection (November 2016)

Country Manufacturer

Austria Hardtmuth

Belgium Bill Ink

G. Bouhon

Renard

Sidol

France Antoine & Fils

Chavariber

Herbin

Mathieu-Plessy

Paillard

Pelletier

Vervier

Germany Tintenfabrik Eduard Beyer

Pelikan

Rotring

Great Britain Arnold

Perry

Stephens

Mabie, Todd & Co. Ltd. / Swan Ink

Winsor & Newton

Portugal Ferreira

Russia Chimili Odessa

The Netherlands Van Blommestein Powalky N.V.

Gimborn

Klutman

Neelmeyer

Sheaffer

van Son

Talens

USA Carter

USA / French office Waterman

We were particularly interested in the question of whether the ink reference collection reflected the late-19th- and early-20th-century landscape of ink production and in how far the reference inks could be of help in understanding the studio practices of Van Gogh and other artists. The National Library of Norway owns a comparable collection of 40 ink bottles which is currently under investigation (Palandri 2015, 49). The results are of relevance to the research, exhibition and conservation of ink-based artefacts.

THE GOLDEN CENTURY OF INK PRODUCTION (1860–1960)

In the 19th century, ink manufacture had to meet new requirements. The increasing number of people able to write required a scaling up of ink production and, as a result, this hitherto cottage industry was replaced by commercial manufacture. The few traditional ink manufacturers with roots in the 18th century were confronted with newcomers. Arnold, for instance, had to deal with Stephens, a serious rival, who even settled in the same street, Aldersgate Street in London, in 1860. The number of ink companies significantly increased in the mid-19th century (Table 2). Their founding fathers had quite different backgrounds. For instance, G.P. van Blommestein was the former director of the post office in Apeldoorn, Heinrich von Gimborn was a pharmacist and the teacher Neelmeijer started his company by buying an ink recipe from Miss Meijer (De Indische Courant 1927). Some well-known producers of stationary, such as Faber, and art supplies, such as Winsor & Newton and Günther Wagner/Pelikan, extended their product range to produce ink as well, with the latter two focusing on inks for artistic use. Ink manufacture had become an industry.

Table 2. Founding of ink companies in chronological order (this information is useful for assigning a terminus post quem)

Year established Ink company Place Source

1724 Arnold London Carvalho (1904, p. 208)

1788 Paillard Paris Paillard (1929, advertisement)

1818 Maynard & Noyes Boston Digger O’Dell Publications website

1824 Thaddeus Davis New York Carvalho (1904, p. 209)

est. 1826 / ink production 1854

Leonhardi Dresden 1826: Leonhardi (1885, advertisement) 1854: Dresdner Stadtteile website

1832 Stephens London Wild (2014, timeline)

1840 Antoine Paris Antoine & Fils (1900, catalogue, p. 1)

1842 Popp & Co Prague Drogisten Zeitung (15 Juli 1904)

1855 Gimborn Emmerich Lable: “1855 Gimborn Blauw-Zwarte Galnoten-Schrijfinkt” (Figure 6)

1856 Stafford New York Carvalho (1904, pp. 211–12)

1858 Carter Boston Carter’s Ink Company (1931, title page)

1858 Sanford Chicago Digger O’Dell Publications website

1866 Blommestein Powalky Apeldoorn Oud-Appeldoorn.nl website

1866 Verviers Belgium Lable: “Neos violette”

1868 van der Molen Geldern Nieuwsblad voor den boekhandel (5 November 1897, p. 453)

1869 Gardot Dijon Marques in Forum du CCOE

1872 Van Son Deventer Verf & Inkt (April 2013, pp. 30–1)

1880 Neelmeijer Apeldoorn Neelmeijer & Co. (advertisement)

est. 1761 / ink production 1881

Faber Stein Carvalho (1904, 211)

1899 Talens Apeldoorn Eskes 1989

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Figure 2a. Inks imported to Batavia, advertisement by H.M. van Dorp, Java-Bode 5, May 1872

Figure 2b. Inks imported to Batavia, advertisement by H.M. van Dorp, Java-Bode 5, September 1876

According to Carvalho, more than 300 ink companies existed in 19th-century America (Carvalho 1904, 208). He created a valuable list of 200 international companies (ibid., 215–16) containing well-known manufacturers, but also many that disappeared over the years. Unfortunately, Carvalho did not indicate their country of origin, nor did he report which of these 200 companies dominated the ink market. Schluttig and Neumann (1890), who tested a large variety of German inks, also did not reveal the names of the companies.

To understand the ink market, advertisements are of great importance. While smaller ink companies preferred to advertise in local newspapers, large companies exported their products and advertised internationally. For instance, in 1872, van Dorp announced in the Java-Bode newspaper that he had received inks from Morrell, Brown, Mathieu-Plessy, Antoine & Fils, Guyot, and Leonhardi for sale in his stationary shop in Batavia (Java-Bode, 25 May 1872; Figure 2a). Four years later, he also sold inks by Stephens and Gimborn (Figure 2b). This advertisement is a typical example of stationary suppliers or book sellers promoting the inks they have in stock.

Another indication of the significance of ink companies in the 19th century is their participation in the Great Exhibitions. Companies like Antoine & Fils, Mathieu-Plessy, Herbin, Neelmeijer, Talens and Wagner/Pelikan proudly included information about their prize-winning products in their catalogues, labels and advertisements.

The competition was heavy and some ink companies merged. For instance, Neelmeijer was taken over by Talens (1924) and Gimborn by Pelikan (1931). The widening use of the ballpoint pen caused most ink factories to close in the 1960s, marking the end of the golden century of industrial ink production. The world-famous French firm of Antoine & Fils closed its doors in 1960, as did the Dutch factories of Klutman in 1965 and Blommestein & Powalky in 1969.

In the context of the large variety of 19th- and 20th-century ink companies, the number of ink manufacturers represented in our collection (31) is quite low. However, the major Dutch (Gimborn, Neelmeyer, Talens), Belgian (Renard, Bill Ink), French (Antoine & Fils, Mathieu-Plessy) and English (Stephens, Arnold, Perry, Winsor & Newton) companies are present. This is no surprise, because inks available today are an indicator of production scale. Manufacturers selling millions of bottles per year have a chance of surviving. Particularly relevant to the Van Gogh studies are the 19th- and early-20th-century Dutch and French inks.

DATING INK BOTTLES

The dating of ink bottles is important to envision the range of goods available to artists in a particular period and crucial to interpret the analytical results.

Advertisements and catalogues show that customers could either purchase ink in a stoneware jar or in a glass bottle. Both materials are functional, because they do not react with the ink. In glass bottles, the colour and consistency of the ink were easily discernible. In stoneware jars, the ink was kept away from light exposure. The same ink was sold in different quantities, usually in 1/1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8 or 1/16 litre bottles, or quart, pint,

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Figure 3. A single type of ink is sold in differently sized bottles, Pelikan 1930 catalogue, p. 164

Figure 4. Longneck ink bottle designed for fountain pen users by D.A. Copier in 1938. © Art Proaño Gaibor

half-pint, 4 oz. or 2 1/2 oz. bottles (Figure 3). Large bottles were intended for schools or offices where many ink containers were to be filled; smaller bottles were for personal use. Small glass bottles came in a large variety of colours and shapes. Often the containers had one or more pen rests preventing the dip pen from touching the table when not in use. Later bottles were tailored to serve the particular needs of fountain pen users. For instance, Andries Dirk Copier designed the ‘Longneck’ ink bottle for Gimborn in 1938 (Figure 4). This bottle contains a glass marble in its neck, allowing ink to stay in the reservoir but preventing air from entering the bottle (Reissland 2014, 22). Stoneware jars were sold until at least the First World War in 1/1 and 1/2 sizes.

For dating, labels add important information about a bottle’s origin. Knowing the brand is crucial to find price lists and catalogues where a bottle might be included. Catalogues are difficult to find but are occasionally available on the internet. Our collection of catalogues, important for ink dating, comprises about 50 examples from suppliers of inks, stationary and artist materials. Labels also contain information on Great Exhibition prize medals won by companies which allow a terminus post quem to be indicated. Often the name of the company is indicative because it is known in which year a company changed its name or when it opened an office abroad. Compiling timelines for ink companies is crucial for dating.

The bottle itself can also be dated. Stoneware jars were usually made by a specialised firm which often left a distinct stamp or scar. Glass ink bottles were either hand blown or moulded and the technique used can indicate a bottle’s age, but this requires specialist knowledge. Ink bottles were re-used, an early habit of useful recycling (Reissland 2014, 24), so dating should be done with caution. It was found that Mathieu-Plessy sold their ‘Encre Nouvelle’ for a period of 50 years, starting before 1875 (Roret 1875, 34–6) until at least 1925 (Morin 1925, 415) in stoneware jars with comparable labels (Figure 5).

Thirteen of our ink bottles were matched in dated catalogues and advertisements, and much more were assigned a terminus post quem. The collection comprises 14 bottles dated from the 19th century, with the majority originating from the 20th century.

Figure 5. Mathieu Plessy ‘Encre Nouvelle’ bottle (left); Encre Mathieu-Plessy advertisement, 1914 (middle); advertisement in the Java-Bode, 17 June 1881 (right)

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COUNTLESS COMMERCIAL INK NAMES VERSUS LIMITED INK CLASSES

In 1890, P. van Son, a Dutch ink manufacturer from Deventer, summarised the situation in the ink market for writing inks:

When someone who does business with different ink manufacturers relies on the infinite number of names assigned by the manufacturers, he comes to the conclusion that the number of inks is immensely large. . . . But if one wants to rank the inks according to the main raw materials from which they are made, practically no more than three types are commercially available: aniline inks, wood extract inks and gall inks.

Iron-gall inks

Iron-gall inks were the primary inks for centuries and numerous recipes are known – of which compilations exist in, for example, RCE ArTeS database,1 Lehner (1899), Carvalho (1904), Mitchell and Hepworth (1904) and Andés (1906).2 They form a dark-coloured complex in contact with oxygen. After exposing the ink in a bottle to air for some days, it is directly visible during writing. Storing large ink quantities was problematic due to the formation of a precipitate. Stephens suggested keeping the ink complex in a solution by adding acid, thus inventing unoxidised gall inks (Mitchell and Hepworth 1904, 13). The resulting iron-gall ink was barely visible and required the addition of dyes to provide a temporary colour. In 1856, Leonhardi patented Alizarine ink by adding indigo and madder to an iron-gall ink (Andés 1899, 108–11; Lehner 1899, 65–77; Mitchell and Hepworth 1904, 13). Madder and indigo were often replaced by logwood shavings or logwood extract, indigo carmine, or aniline dyes. The labels of ink bottles classify iron-gall inks according to their colour as ‘blue-black inks’.

Logwood (extract) inks

Around 1830, another invention conquered the market: the steel pen. This slowly replaced the time-tested quill pen and presented ink makers with a serious problem: the acidity of iron-gall inks caused steel nibs to corrode. A non-corrosive ink was needed, and in 1847 Runge invented the chrome-logwood ink (Runge 1848, 225–28). However, ink manufacturers soon realised that chrome-logwood inks tended to ‘gelatinise’ in the bottle. As an antidote, Stein suggested adding mercuric chloride (Stein 1849, 1472), Boettger sodium bicarbonate and others acids or phenol. Logwood forms coloured complexes with different metal salts. The 19th century saw alum-logwood inks, iron-logwood inks, copper-logwood inks and chrome-logwood inks. Analysis of 103 logwood-ink recipes by 12 authors indicated that metal salts were often added in combination, in search of inks that would create a deep black colour upon writing. Logwood inks were cheap but not permanent. Therefore, they were perfect inks for schools (‘Encre des écoles’). Van Son (1890, 620) explains that one can easily distinguish a logwood ink from an iron-gall ink when holding the ink bottle against the light and gently shaking it. An iron-gall ink appears blue or greenish blue, while a logwood ink is dark violet or purple in colour.

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Figure 6. Copy ink advertisement by Gimborn, 1939. The first ink is a blue-black iron-gall copy ink, the third one a purple-black logwood copy ink

Aniline inks

Brilliantly coloured, water-soluble, cheap aniline dyes were instantly adopted by ink makers, and in 1861 the first British patent to use aniline dyes for ink was granted to Crog (Mitchell & Hepworth 1904, 13). However, the colour instability of aniline inks was soon recognised. This led to discussions about their durability (e.g. Lehner 1899, 144; Carvalho 1904, iv; Van Son 1890, 618). Around 1880–90, many countries started to prescribe iron-tannate inks for use in governmental records. Schools and hotels, however, appreciated inks that would easily wash off (Carter 1931, 13).

Copy inks

The 19th century also saw another development – the copy press. Iron-gall inks, logwood inks and aniline inks could all be modified to produce copy inks. Ink recipes were adapted to obtain readable copies by adding sugar or glycerine to prolong an ink’s drying period, and water-soluble aniline dyes to achieve an intensely coloured copy. Labels usually distinguish between writing and copy inks, while catalogues often even specify the nature of the ink (Figure 6).

Fountain pen inks

The introduction of the fountain pen and the stylographic pen was another challenge to ink companies. Ink needed to flow easily, prevent clogging of the pen and not corrode the nib. In 1867, a solution of nigrosine was introduced as ‘stylographic ink’ (Mitchell & Hepworth 1904, 13–14), but all common inks could be modified.

Inks made for artists, architects and engineers included carbon-based Indian ink, sepia and bistre. Other inks were produced for special purposes such as stamping, or textile marking.

Recipes and work instructions from the archives of contemporary ink manufacturers are preferred sources, but extremely scarce. In the absence of this information, the publications by Wattenbach, Lehner, Andés, Carvalho, Margival, Chabrie, Champour & Malepeyre, and Mitchell and Hepworth are crucial because they are all scientifically well-informed and provide hundreds of recipes dating from around 1900. However, which of these recipes ink manufacturers actually used remains uncertain. Analysis of historical inks could verify the reliability of the published recipes. In addition, recreation of the historical recipes is crucial to assess their workability and feasibility.

ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL INKS

Thirty-five inks, including all 19th-century inks, were selected for analysis (Figure 7). These were examined using ultra-high-performance pressure liquid chromatography/photodiode array detection (UHPLC/PDA). Since inks often contain a deposit, it is important to shake the bottle before sampling. The re-use of ink containers is to be taken into account when interpreting questionable results.

The results are summarised in Table 3. Contemporary writers stated that ‘blue-black inks’ refer to iron-gall inks, and indeed this is true. Adding

Table 3. Results of ink analysis sorted by ink type

No Lable on bottle (front) Producer Date Country Colour/ lable Use ink type Identified (UHPLC-MS) Ink

No.

1 Encre Moderne Antoine 1900 FR black writing ink carbon? shelloic acid - laccaic acid component 5

2 Vloeibare Oostindische inkt Talens 1933 tpq NL black drawing ink carbon? traces of ellagic acid (tannin) 6

3 Vloeibare Oostindische inkt Talens 1933 NL black drawing ink carbon? ellagic acid + Rhamnus (or emodin) like component

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4 1/16 Flacon / Nederlansche Kabinetinktfabriek

Neelmeyer 1903 NL brown writing ink iron-gall ellagic acid 4

5 1/2 Flacon / Nederlansche Kabinetinktfabriek

Neelmeyer 1903 NL brown writing ink iron-gall ellagic acid 3

6 Vulpen-Inkt Gimborn 1939 tpq NL blue fountain pen ink

synthetic dye & iron gall?

methyl violet + water blue IN + ellagic acid

22

7 Blue Black Writing Ink Perry 1900 taq UK blue black writing ink iron-gall & synthetic dye

ellagic acid + methyl violet (trace) + water blue IN (traces)

18

8 Swan ink Swan 1920-1940 UK blue black fountain pen ink

iron-gall & synthetic dye

ellagic acid + methyl violet (low concentration)

25

9 Blauw-zwarte Normaal-Schrijf-Inkt / Extrafijne Ijzer-Galnoten Inkt

Gimborn 1924-1931 NL brown / blue black

writing ink iron-gall & synthetic dye

ellagic acid + methyl violet 37

10 Encre Nouvelle / Communicative Double Violet a Copier

Mathieu-Plessy

1881 tpq FR purple copy ink natural-dye dehydrogenated brazilein / brazilwood

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11 Stempelinkt zonder olie Neelmeyer 1910-1925 NL black stamping ink

nigrosin nigrosin (CI acid black 2, CI 50420) 72

12 Apoldro inkt Talens 1932 tpq NL blue fountain pen ink

synthetic dye & iron-gall

gallic acid, methyl blue, Victoria blue, water blue IN

69

13 Royal Schrijfinkt Blommestein 1969 taq NL brown writing ink logwood? & synthetic dye

yellow degradation products + fuchsine (traces) + crystal violet (traces)

20

14 Encre Violette Antoine 1900 ca. FR violet writing ink logwood? & synthetic dye

several flavonols in high concentration + methyl violet B

85

15 Encre speciale / pour appareils copier Antoine 1900 ca FR violet copy ink logwood? & synthetic dye

several flavonols in high concentration + methyl violet B

86

16 Encre bleue / Encre a tampon sans huile

Antoine 1920 ca. FR blue stamping ink

synthetic dye Victoria blue B and auramin 16

17 Renard Red Renard 20th century BE red writing ink synthetic dye eosine A 65

18 Rembrandt watervaste Teekeninkt Pruisisch Blauw

Talens 1933 tpq NL blue drawing ink synthetic dye methyl violet 3B and Victoria blue B 70

19 Galnoten School Schryfinkt Klutman 1965 taq NL blue school ink synthetic dye water blue IN or a related synthetic blue

79

20 Blauwzwarte Galnoten Schrijfinkt Klutman 1930-1950 NL blue black writing ink synthetic dye methyl violet and modern acid dye? refilled bottle?

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21 Royal inkt Blommestein 1969 taq NL brown fountain pen ink

synthetic dye unknown synthetic blue colorants 68

22 Green Writing Ink Arnold 1893 tpq UK green writing ink synthetic dye yellowish light green SF (acid green 5) 59

23 Stephens Ink Stephens 20th century UK green fountain pen ink

synthetic dye yellowish light green SF (acid green 5) 62

24 Extra fijne groene schrijfinkt Neelmeyer 1924 taq NL green writing ink synthetic dye diamond green B 82

25 Encre de Chine | Vert Fonce Renard 20th century BE green sediment

drawing ink synthetic dye diamond green (CI basic green 4) 26

26 Perry & Co’s Cherry Ink Perry 1876 before taq

UK red writing ink synthetic dye probably acid red 52 (sulforhodamin B - 1902)

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27 Encre extra fluide / Rouge Bill 20th century BE red writing ink synthetic dye phenylated rosanilin (groep) 13

28 Terbo / Kleurechte, extra fijne roode schrijfinkt

Klutman 20th century NL red writing ink synthetic dye eosin A (CI acid red 87/CI 45380) 24

29 Encre de Chine Renard 20th century BE red drawing ink synthetic dye probably acid red 52 (sulforhodamin B - 1902)

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30 Encre rouge - Inkt rood Renard 20th century? BE red writing ink synthetic dye eosin A (CI acid red 87/CI 45380) 35

31 Pelikan / Vulpeninkt Pelikan 1931 tpq NL red fountain pen ink

synthetic dye eosin A (CI acid red 87/CI 45380) 39

32 Extra fijne Roode Metaalinkt Talens 1906 tpq NL red writing ink synthetic dye eosin A (CI acid red 87/CI 45380) 83

33 Fijne Violette Inkt Gimborn 1937 tpq NL violet writing ink synthetic dye crystal violet + yellow auramines 14

34 Violet / Stephens Ink / No. 135 Stephens 20th century UK violet fountain pen ink

synthetic dye crystral violet + Michler’s ketone 61

35 Extra Fijne Violette Schrijfinkt Neelmeyer 1924 taq NL violet writing ink synthetic dye methyl violet B 80

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synthetic dyes to iron-gall inks and logwood inks was obviously common practice. Coloured 20th-century inks contain mainly synthetic dyes, while the 19th century saw a wider variety in ink ingredients. Indian inks could not be characterised with the applied technique. Due to a lack of references, a few 20th-century synthetic dyes could not be identified.

The preferred dye for red inks was eosin. Acid red 52 was identified in two cases. Purple inks usually contain crystal violet or methyl violet. ‘Encre nouvelle’ by Mathieu Plessy is one of the oldest inks in the collection (Figure 5). It writes bright violet and was made of a natural dye, brazilwood. Our analysis proved to be correct (Roret 1875, 36). Blue inks are made of Victoria Blue B or water blue IN, and green inks of Diamond green or acid green 5. Auramines are necessary half products for making synthetic dyes. Nigrosine was identified in one black stamping ink. Identification of synthetic dyes combined with knowledge on patent literature make it possible to define a terminus post quem for the inks.

The results obtained alert conservators to the fact that late-19th- and 20th-century objects written or drawn with coloured inks most probably

Figure 7. The 35 analysed inks. © Frank Ligterink, Art Proaño Gaibor, Birgit Reissland (RCE)

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contain synthetic dyes and therefore are to be categorised as extremely light sensitive. Synthetic dyes dissolve in water and polar solvents. They can be removed together with other soluble components by applying conservation treatments, irreparably changing the ‘fingerprint’ of original artefacts.

VAN GOGH AND OUR REFERENCE COLLECTION

Analysis of 48 letters and 100 drawings by Van Gogh indicate that he used logwood inks, especially chrome-logwood inks, iron-gall inks and inks made from synthetic dyes (RCE Final Report REVIGO 2017). Contemporary inks from these classes are all present in our reference collection. A remarkable outcome is that the combination of logwood and methyl violet dye is combined in one ink, which was recently identified in several drawings and letters by Van Gogh during his stay in Arles. This combination was also found in two of our 19th-century inks made by Antoine & Fils (no. 14 and 15).

CONCLUSION

Ink bottles that are included in reference collections ought to have a label and should still contain ink or at least ink residues, a prerequisite for dating and analysis.

The analysis of historic ink bottles has been a unique opportunity to improve our understanding by relating their chemistry to an extended network of variables in their manufacture, properties, use and subsequent ageing behaviour. Such an understanding is not only intellectually rewarding in itself, but also provides background knowledge that is essential for the interpretation of chemical traces that can now be detected in inks on precious drawings and manuscripts.

In the authors’ opinion, the role of art technological research is to acquire data efficiently from all available resources, and to make sense of them by inferring causal relations from their patterns. By doing so, we can help to answer diverse queries ranging from preservation to art history.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to colleagues at the Stichting Onterfd Goed who supplied the first ink bottles for our collection and colleagues at the Van Gogh Museum for a fruitful collaboration. The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) kindly funded part of this research.

NOTES

1 RCE Art Technological Sources Database (ArTeS): more than 250 iron-gall ink recipes from the 3rd to the early 20th century.

2 These publications know many editions and translations. The reference list refers to the first edition unless otherwise stated.

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ANTOINE & FILS. 1900. Product catalogue. Paris: N. Antoine & Fils.

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How to cite this article:Reissland, B., A.N. Proaño Gaibor, F. Ligterink, and J.G. Neevel. 2017. Exploring the late 19th-century landscape of ink manufacturing via a collection of 90 bottles. In ICOM-CC 18th Triennial Conference Preprints, Copenhagen, 4–8 September 2017, ed. J. Bridgland, art. 0105. Paris: International Council of Museums.

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