Ice Blasting

Seminar Report on Ice Blasting

1. ICE BLASTING

1.1 INTRODUCTION:-

Ice blasting is a simple process that uses compressed air and ice crystals,

shot through a hose and directed with a nozzle, a fine powerful mist is blasted

onto a surface, acting like a chisel to remove debris. Ice blasting is a non-

abrasive, cleaning process that uses ordinary tap water, compressed air and

electricity to create an environmentally friendly, cost effective method to

address a variety of cleaning needs.

1.2 HISTORY: -

The Department of National Defence in Canada contracted Dr. Sam Visaisouk to

determine the feasibility of ice blasting for cleaning in confined spaces such as inside ships.

The prospect of a dustless abrasive blasting process was very appealing on environmental

and worker safety compliance grounds. This effort led to the first operating commercial ice

blast machine in 1992. These ice blast machines had complex operating system controls

and required frequent defrosting as very cold air was used for fluidizing and transporting ice

particles from source to nozzle. At that time, any ice blockages were attributed to partial

melting of ice particles, which would favour agglomeration. The use of very cold fluidizing

air was deemed absolutely necessary. Periodic system defrosting was required as a result.

During this period, other methods of ice blast were introduced elsewhere. Gary

Settles of Penn State University patented a process in which a cryogenic fluid froze

atomized water in a nozzle for blasting. A French version (briefly licensed by Schlick)

utilized liquid nitrogen to freeze small water droplets to form ice particles for blasting. Both

of these processes relied on cryogenic fluid at very low temperatures and could not be

easily scaled up for robust industrial requirements.

In 1996 Sam Visaisouk took a drastic change in the method of producing and

fluidizing ice particles that resulted in patent US5, 913,711. He and Norm Fisher later

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produced a working model, patents US6, 001,000 and US6, 270,394. This breakthrough

method remains the base of the state of the art ice blast systems to date till 2003.

1.3 BLASTING IN GENERAL

Blasting refers to a high-speed impact of a

projectile on a target. The projectile can be either

discrete, as in solid media blasting, or continuous,

as in water blasting. A simple impact phenomenon

involves 2 bodies. The projectile normally called

the blast media can be spherical or angular, large

or small, hard or soft, solid or liquid and projected

at a variety of speed and angle towards the target. In general the user has no choice in

terms of nature of target the user’s choice is in the media property and condition of blasting.

a) Abrasive Blasting

In applications where erosion is to be controlled, solid media of low abrasivity such as

plastic media, starch media, glass beads, etc. are used. For solid media of low abrasivity,

the impact action is mainly displacement. One aspect of solid media blasting is the

generation of dust and secondary solid waste from spent media. Therefore, abrasive

blasting is not a cleaning process.

b) Water blasting

Water Blasting is non-abrasive therefore its applications relate mainly to cleaning.

Although at very high pressures, water is used for cutting as in water jetting. For effective

cleaning, normally detergents or other cleaning chemicals are added to the water. The

impact action is primarily rinsing. In many applications the water is recycled, thereby

requiring water treatment as additional process and cost. Generally water blast uses a large

volume of water, in the range of 1000-2500 Liters per hour. The treatment cost for such a

high volume can be considerable.

c) Ice Blasting: -

Ice blast is a cleaning technology which is essentially a hybrid

between abrasive (i.e. sand) and non-abrasive (i.e. water) types. Because ice is

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a phase change material, it cleans as a solid, then deforms on impact and

performs a scrubbing and rinsing action. No other blast cleaning material can

work in this fashion.

1.4 Ideal Blast - Clean but No Damage

In an ideal cleaning application, the deposit is

completely removed with no damage to the

substrate. It means that no such process should

be used which will have abrasive action on the

surface of finished components as it will

deteriorate the finished surface of the

components of which deburring is to be done.

1.5 ABOUT ICE BLASTING

1.5.1 Ice as media

Ice is a phase change media. Ice starts as a solid and changes into a liquid. Therefore it

possesses the combined characteristics of both solid and liquid blasts. Ice is not abrasive,

therefore is only marginal in erosion applications. Erosion by ice blast is a result of impact

fracture, not abrasive action. Being a phase change material, ice does not generate dust on

impact and does not require a large volume to do useful work.

1.5.2 Ice: - A phase changing media

Ice particles will change phase at

normal working temperatures, therefore are

ideally suited as a blast cleaning agent. As a

phase change solid, ice particles moving at

high speed can perform impact cleaning work

before phase change, during phase change

and after phase change.

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Fig. 2 Ideal Blasting

Fig. 3 Change of Phase


1.5.3 Deburring mechanism in ice blasting:-

1. Before Phase Change - Displace

Ice particles are solids possessing momentum to displace contamination on a target.

Displacement results when ice particle momentum exceeds the inertia of the

contamination.

2. During Phase Change - Scrub

Ice particles exert a pressure against the surface as it deforms, providing a strong ice-

surface interaction whereby minute amounts of contaminations can be scrubbed away. At a

blast pressure of about 7 bar, this scrubbing pressure has been estimated to be

approximately 300 bar

3. After phase change – Flush

Ice particles melt into water to rinse away removed contamination. The conversion of kinetic

energy to pressure energy enables to flush away the scrubbed debris. This conversion

adds the features of water deburring to the process. Thus having a two in one effect at the

same cost

1.6 WORKING: -

In ice blast, ice particles are accelerated by a stream of high velocity of air to do

impact cleaning work. Ice particles are not free flowing and will pack and agglomerate when

stationary. For ice blast to work readily, ice particles must be created and consumed

continuously in a dynamic state.

An ice blast machine is ready for work within seconds of pushing the start button.

Ice particles are produced continuously at a rate of 200 pounds per hour. Using a two hose

system, ice particles are transported through a low pressure hose to the blasting nozzle

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where a second higher pressure hose delivers up to 200 psi (“pounds per square inch”)

pressure to accelerate the ice particles towards the target surface. The solid ice particles

displace surface contaminants through the energy from the impact and through the lateral

deformation of the ice particles. At the heart of the ice blast technology is the scrub and

flush cleaning that takes place when the ice crystals impact onto a substrate. Ice crystals

deform to scrub on impact, and after impact melt into water to flush away debris. Ice

blasting uses up to 20 gallons per hour. Further, upon impact, the ice particles explode,

turning approximately half of its solid mass into vapour and the other half into liquid, thus

resulting in even less wastewater to contain.

1.6.1 Equipment used for Ice Blasting:-

A device that couples two commercially reliable items, the ice maker and the ejector nozzle,

forms the basis of a continuous ice blast machine. This device contains fractured chips,

receives sufficient fluidizing air form one end to balance the suction demand of the ejector

on other end to create an induced fluidized flow of the ice chips from source to nozzle.

When balanced this process operates indefinitely in a steady-state mode giving the ice

blast process unmatched long reliability as an industrial process. Figure 7 shows the

process of making ice chips, transporting them to the nozzle and ejecting them towards a

target.

A blast nozzle of the ejector design creates a vacuum which sucks the ice chips from the

ice maker to the nozzle where they are mixed with a high velocity air stream to be ejected

from the nozzle.

A method of continuously producing a stream of ice particulates comprising continuously

freezing water into a thin sheet of ice onto a surface of a rotating refrigerated element while

controlling a thickness of the sheet; continuously harvesting the self-fragmenting sheet from

the surface of the refrigerated element with a knife blade to form particles; directly

entraining the harvested particles into a stream of air with sufficient velocity to fluidize the

particles; and continuously ejecting the particles from a nozzle.

1.6.2 Refrigeration and ice making

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Ice blast requires ice particles and compressed air to provide high velocity for

impact work. Equipment-wise, it requires refrigeration and ice making. These are the two

most reliable industrial components today as our entire food supply infrastructure depends

on them. They can operate reliably under harsh climatic and environmental conditions,). In

combination, they have the attributes of a robust industrial process that is reliable and cost-

effective. This is the reason why production of ice crystals by cryogenic fluids is neither cost

effective nor reliable in comparison.

1) Refrigeration and ice making: -

The most reliable ice making process is

known as “immersed cold drum"

(Figure 8). As refrigerant cools a

rotating drum surface, a thin sheet of ice

is immediately formed. Under

appropriate conditions of drum

diameter, temperature and rotational

speed, the ice sheet can be formed

with sufficient internal stress that when its

frontal edge impacts a doctor blade, the sheet fractures into small ice fragments similar to

the shattering effect of a broken stressed (safety or Pyrex) glass.

2 ) Moving the Ice particles :

Above the doctor blade is mounted a tube with a longitudinal slot over the entire

length of the blade. One end of this tube is connected to a venturi-type nozzle that draws by

vacuum the ice fragments from the tube. The other end of the tube is connected to a

compressed air source that supplies sufficient air to balance the vacuum caused by the

venturi. In this manner, ice fragments are instantly fluidized and moved to the nozzle by the

induced flow.

1.7 SALIENT FEATURES

a) No mechanical Intervention:-

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Fig. 8 Ice making process


In this process design, there is no mechanical intervention within the ice particle production

area. This allows ice particles to flow with no interference. This process takes advantage of

the natural fragmentation of a stressed ice sheet to create particles and not rely on any

mechanical means to size them.

b) No dust, minimum waste:-

As ice particles disintegrate on impact, they create a blast mist, which can help to suppress

dust from the operation and to cool the environment for the workers. This is particularly

helpful in the summer. Evaporation will normally reduce the net liquid waste to about 50-70

Litres per hour.

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2. BENEFITS AND COMPARISONS

2.1 Benefits

Below given are some of the benefits of ice blasting that will definitely prove

its importance in the current finishing process scenario.

Table No.1

Feature Benefits

Unique 'Displace-Scrub-Flush'-deburring

mechanism

Superior cleanliness

Non-abrasive, no damage to surface

Very efficient and effective cleaning: speed

Using only 100 litre of (normal tap) water

per hour

Minimal waste - lower waste management

costs

Minimal waste - environmental friendly

Widely available, minimal logistical costs

No generation of dust

Relative low pressure; maximum of 12 bar Safe working environment

No damage to substrate

Low maintenance costs

No certification procedures required

No use of chemicals Environmental friendly

Safe working environment

No additional costs

Very reliable Ice making process Proven reliability worldwide, used for

decades

The above statements show that ice blasting is far better process than other

deburring methods which involves the use of soaps, chemicals and water based solutions

for deburring of finished components. This means, the process of ice blasting helps the

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user to get the lustrous finish that he always demands from components on which various

manufacturing and finishing operations have been performed, but is not free from burr. A

comparative study of Ice blasting process with the other blasting processes has been

explained here to stress the need of this process in the industry.

DISADVANTAGES:-

1 It is necessary that the surface temperature of the object being ice blasted is always

above 0 C as ice particles melt on impact.

2. Ice blasting will not remove deep rust or metal burrs as it is less abrasive.

2.2 COMPARISON (Ice blasting & Dry Ice Blasting): -

Table No. 2

Features Ice Blast Dry Ice Blast (CO2)

Blast Media PurchaseMinimum; less then € 1 per

hourYes: € 30-50 per hour

Logistical cost for media NoYes; 10-20% of media

purchase

Continuous operation Yes No

Waste generatedMinimum; app. 60 liter per

hourNone

Blasting temperature at

surfaceapp. +34°F/+1°C app. -100°F or -75°C

Airborne particulates Low; suppressed by mistHigh; “Explode” on

impact

Blasting in confined space YesMust have ventilation and

air monitoring

Typical max hose length 70 meters 20 meters

2.3 Problems faced with Dry Ice blasting

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a) Dry-Ice and Ice Blast are totally different technologies –

The biggest similarity of Dry-Ice Blast and Ice Blast is probably the name!

Both technologies use compressed air to move the media but they are totally distinct on all

other aspects.

b) Different cleaning mechanism, different results –

Dry Ice pellets 'explode on impact' or the dry-ice pellets change directly from

solid to gas without going through a wet liquid stage. Ice Blast is based on the Displace-

Scrub-Flush Cleaning Mechanism. The impact on the substrate is totally different resulting

in different level of cleanliness.

c) Not buying media makes the (cost) distinction -

Dry-ice pellets must be bought or produced in advanced. Depending

on the consumption of Dry-Ice pellets the cost varies between € 30-50 per hour. It requires

skilful matching of workload and media purchase to control cost because unused Dry-Ice

pellets will become useless. Ice Blast requires only normal tap water, an ideal media, which

is widely available at minimal cost in most of the world.

2.4 Comparison (Ice blasting & Water Blasting): -

Table No. 3

Features Ice Blast High Pressure Water

Blasting pressure 5-12 Bar 700 bar, up to 2000 bar

and higher

Water consumption 100 litre per hour 1000-3000 liter per hour

Waste generated Minimal; app. 60 liter per

hour

1000-3000 liter per hour

Safety requirements Normal High

Maintenance costs Low High

Recycling or Water

treatment

None / Optional Required to lower the

waste management costs

Chemical/solvents/soap

usage

None Optional

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http://www.iceblast.nl/web2003/iceblast/cleaning_mechanism.htm

http://www.iceblast.nl/web2003/iceblast/cleaning_mechanism.htm


2.5 Problems faced while cleaning with water:

The number of cleaning systems in industry has increased significantly during the

last decades. Cleaning with water has been optimized with chemicals, water pressure,

water volume and better equipment. The use of chemicals has further been limited by

environmental concerns. In essence the performance has been maxed out.

a) Increasing the pressure-

High Pressure Water cleaning systems with increasing working pressures have been

developed to extend the market opportunities. More pressure means more cleaning power

but at a cost: less safe working environment, more maintenance costs and increased

indirect costs.

b) Pressures up to 2000 Bar / 37000 PSI are not an exception these days. On the other

hand using Ice Blast at 12 Bar / 180 PSI to clean grease or crude oil gives the same or

better results.

c) Consuming more and more water- Swelling the volume of water has been another

attempt to increase the performance of high pressure water cleaning. Consuming 1000

Liter per hour per nozzle (and much more) is nothing special. Waste management costs

have become a major cost and will continue to increase. In contrast Ice Blast uses 100 liter

water per hour, only 10% or less, meaning 10% or less waste management costs.Ice Blast

is a cost saver!

d) Washing parts, using chemicals -In most today's production environment washers are

still the most common method for both degreasing and cleaning parts in the manufacturing

process. Over the years many changes and additions have been made to improve their

performance: increasing the water temperature, increasing the water pressure, adding

chemicals, using more water, etc.

e) Increasing complexity means increasing cost- Manufacturers have to meet lower

and lower contamination specifications. This leads to more water and chemicals use

resulting in increasing water reprocessing costs. Trends in environmental regulations favour

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lower use of both. To compromise more sophisticated water treatment systems are installed

to meet the latest standards.

3. APPLICATIONS

3.1 Scope

Ice blasting covers a wide variety of products right from environmental cleaning,

industrial cleaning, and applications as given below.

Cleaning Type

Examples of Potential Application

Competition Rationale For Adoption

Precision Cleaning

Involves removing surface contaminants and/or light deburring to defined tolerance, typically in a repetitive production setting where quality control are closely measured and monitored. Include a range of auto components(Transmission components & cases, valve bodies & housing, engine & cylinder head cast part, armatures, magnesium casting, etc.)

Water glass bead, manual labour & chemicals.

Superior cleaning , fewer rejects , dustless, highly reliable , reduced floor space environmental benige , lower maintenance, monitoring, and operating costs.

IndustrialCleaning

Manufacturing equipment, industrial plant of all kinds (petro-chemicals beverage, power station, pulp & paper, etc.) plastics molds & dunnage, turbines , yardEquipments

Water, dry ice, soda, abrasives, manual labour & chemicals.

Superior cleaning , reduced waste & cleanup, dustless, low operating costs, no damage to fiberglass or materials, simple field implementation.

Environmental Building structure, in Manual labor, Minimal waste, no

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Cleaning particular lead paintRemoval from steel bridges & asbestos abatement in building structures.

chemicals, water, dry ice, abrasives.

dust (no need for class A containment areas), improved worker health, simple implementation.

Other Nuclear decontamination, aerospace, marine, food & services.

3.1 EXAMPLE OF INDUSTRIAL CLEANING – GEAR DEBURRING

3.1.1 The process

The Gear cleaning process lifts and rotates the part as

the blast nozzle moves over the part. The gear is

being lifted and rotating. The nozzle, on the left,

directs the ice on the gear teeth. At its uppermost

position, the bottom of the gear is exposed to the blast

stream. The top and inside of the gear is cleaned

when the gear is in the lower position (Figure 9).

This two-axis lift-and-rotate movement allows the part to

be cleaned both inside and outside, Fig 9:-Gear Deburring Process

and all around in a very short time. The Blast nozzle pivots and follows the gear as it is

lifted. The gear rotates at low RPM so that it is blasted all the way around. The normal

process includes a dwell in the lift and nozzle movement so that at least two revolutions of

ice blast are concentrated on the gear teeth themselves. This insures the removal of any

chips or residue that may have been caught in the root of the gear tooth.

3.1.2 Ice Blast Gear Deburring –

The Ice Blast cleaning cell (Fig.10) is

designed in modules. The available

modules are:

a) Ice Blast lift-and-rotate unit- The Ice

Blast lift and rotate is the heart of the

process. This is where the part is cleaned.

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Fig. 10 Deburring Cell


b) Clean water rinse, optional -When lower contamination requirements are needed the

rinse system is included to wash off any airborne particles which may resettle on the part

after blasting.

c) Rust preventative application - If the work part is made of steel, a rust inhibitor will

need to be applied to the part. When the gear manufacturing process includes an automatic

gear checker of the master gear variety, a separate rust preventative application booth is

added to the line after the gauging operation.

d) Hot air drying - The final module is the hot air, part dryer. This can be either

electric or steam heat. The parts emerge from the unit completely dry and clean.

Before After

Some Interesting Facts about Ice Blasting:-

1 The surface temperature of the object being ice blasted is always above 0 C as ice

particles melt on impact.

2 Ice particles produce a blast mist, which helps to suppress dust or airborne particulates to

minimize unintended dispersion.

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Fig. 11 Gear Deburring – Before / After


3. In warm climates, essential complete evaporation can take place, leaving only damp

blast debris. The aspect of ice blast is of particular interest to those concerned with waste

generation & disposal, especially in the cleaning hazardous chemicals.

4. The surface cleanliness depends on the quality of water & air used.

5. The injector nozzle used in ice blast allows introduction of additives into the ice stream.

For example, disinfectant can be metered into the iced stream for cleaning of food

processing equipments.

4. CASE STUDY

This case study includes the implementation of a new technology in the manufacture of

fuel pump valve housing components at the Robert Bosch Corporation Anderson sc facility.

The process qualification include a technical evaluation of ice blast technology for deburring

and cleaning the development of a production parts approval process the development of a

continuous ice blast system and implementation. Part I provides a technical introduction to

ice blast technology. Part II describes some technical evaluation result and development of

qualified process.

4.1 Introduction

Ice blast technology is relatively new process in manufacturing. Its ability to provides

superior cleanliness has been documented in the development of a process for the

manufacture of gear in automobile industry as given in application. In search of process to

deburr / deflash and clean zinc die cast valve housing component for its fuel pump

manufacturing, Bosch decided to evaluate ice blast technology because it offered the

promise to deburr and clean while not causing any dimensional or surface quality changes.

Furthermore the environmental purity of the process was appealing.

Prototype parts were ice blasted examination and evaluation. The viability of the

process was confirmed. A continuous ice blast cleaning process developed leading to the

submission of production parts approval process document. To date over one million parts

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have been processed by ice blast technology. This paper presents the entire process from

curiosity to qualification for production

4.2 PART I

4.2.1 Ice blast technology

Fundamentals of ice blast technology have been discussed in a prior part certain

aspects of ice blast impact phenomena that are relevant to this paper are presented here

for completeness.

Near room temperature ice is a phase change material. Therefore small ice particles at

high velocity can perform work in solid form as well as in liquid form. From this point of view

ice blast is a hybrid of solid media blast and water blast but without the solid waste normally

generated from solid media blast. This work done by solid ice participles is of the

displacement type. To deburr or deflash solid ice particles must have sufficient momentum

to overcome the inertia of the target material.

An intuitive and cost effective way to maximize momentum is to use ice particles that

have large average size hence large mass. The formula for the impact force confirms this

size dependence as shown in figure 12

F = R2 V 1.2 cos. θ.................................... (1)

Thus we can say that to get the desired force we should vary the angle θ and it can be

found out by

θ = cos – 1 (F / R2 V 1.2)............................. (2)

So it can be seen that optimal angel of attack is typically in the direction of the

intended displacement, seen by the cos. dependence

Thus, the work done by ice particle in liquid form is rinsing. Debris from the blast

impact action is conveniently rinsed away. As is obvious now, ice blast is more than the

combination of solid and liquid blast. This is because the impact action takes a finite time

during which ice particles deform. The deformation exerts a pressure force on the surface.

As a result, ice particles perform frictional scrubbing work on the surface during its phase

change. This phase-change is unique to ice, therefore only ice particle can provide frictional

scrubbing work without damage to the surface. The optimal angle of attack is normal to the

surface to be cleaned, as described by the following formula:

P=V1.2sinθ................................................... (3)

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However, scrubbing requires motion parallel to the surface. Optimal scrubbing

action therefore requires a slight oblique angle attack.

There is no such scrubbing action from water blast; therefore it cannot offer the

same level of cleanliness, even at much more elevated blast pressures and at much higher

volumes.

4.3 PART II

4.3.1 Deburring Evaluation

The burrs to be removed from the housing part are shown in figure 12. The burrs

from the injector pins pose a particular problem as they are nearly hidden from the line of

sight of the ice blast stream, and they are oriented perpendicular to the optimal direction for

the displacement deburrs.

Selected prototype parts were photographed before and after ice blasting. Typical

results are shown in figure 13 in the photographs. They represent large and small burrs.

The small burrs are particularly difficult to remove as they have small frontal areas and long

hinge sections. Note the deburred parts take on a clean, sparking appearance. These tests

confirmed the deburring capability of ice blast.

Figures before and after comparison of ice blasted parts containing a large and small burr

are as shown.

4.3.2 Implementation

Upon validation of deburring efficiency, a process was developed to deburr and clean

parts on a continuous basis. To meet the final QA requirement, a line consisting of an ice

blast station, rinsing station and drying station was developed. This is shown schematically

as figure 14 below.

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It was

determined that the part must be ice blasted from both sides and the total ice blast

operation was 4 seconds. With fixed nozzles fanned to cover the entire height of the parts,

the parts transfer speed was 5 feet/min.. In order to track quality and provide quality

assurance, a production parts approval process was developed, as shown.

4.4 PART III

4.4.1 Comparison with alternative processes –

For fuel pump assembly three parameters are judged important in terms of

acceptability of process for deburring and cleaning of valve housing:

1) Air leak test - The pump need to be tested at desired pressure to pump the fluid but due

to presence of burr no effective cleaning is possible thus resulting in improper assembly

accusing air leaks & cavitations.

Fig. 15 Air Leakage Test Graph

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Fig. 14 Station Layout


2) 14 day leak test – In this test the fuel is filled in the pump assembly and after 14 days

the volume remaining in checked for leakages. This % is less in case of pump with no

proper assembly due to presence of burr.

Fig. 16:--14 day Leak Test

5

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these results, the acid etching process produced unacceptable leak-down

results while the vibrating deburring process failed on excessive air leaks. In summary, ice

blast offers the most desirable results of the three tested processes. In practice, ice blast

offers a cleaner and offers infinitely lower chance of contamination which is a major issue

faced by many automotive component suppliers.

In a Ice blast is also used in more conventional deburring applications such as

transmission valve body parts where fine burrs from machining and milling must be

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removed.. manufacturing environment, ice blast deburring and cleaning offer the following

benefits:

1. high deburring efficiency

2. superior cleanliness

3. low waste generation

4. simple equipment requiring little maintenance

5. compact size of equipment

6. no recycling/waste water processing requirements

7. low operating cost

8. low capital cost

9. environmentally sound

The main objective of this seminar was to give others an overview of new trends in

Deburring process i.e. Ice blasting.

6. REFERENCES –

a) Books / research papers

1. Herb, Brett and Sam Visaisouk, Ice Blast Technology for Precision Cleaning,

Precision Cleaning ’96 Proceedings, Anaheim CA, May 14-16, 1999, pp172-179.

2. Herb, Brett, Cleaning Process for Enhancing the Bond Integrity of Multi-Layered

Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Tubing, U.S. Patent no. 5, 483, 563, January 9,

1999.

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3. Tonello, Tony, Ice Blast : New Technology for An Old Problem, ATCO Team

Review, Ford Motor Company, Volume, Number 1,February 2002, p6.

4. Gear Technology Magazine, Article - Cleaning gears with Ice Chips – and Nothing

Else, May-June 2002.

b) Web- sites.

1. www. powertransmission.com

2. www. geartechnology .com

3. www. howlett – research.com

4. www. iceblast .net

5. http://www.strahlverfahren.de

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Ice Blasting

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