Ic Engines Basic Material

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    Internal combustion engineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"ICEV" redirects here. For the form of water ice, seeIce V. For the high speed train, seeICE

    V.

    Diagram of a cylinder as found in stroke gasoline engines. Caption!C crankshaft.E e#haustcamshaft.I inletcamshaft.P piston.R connecting rod.S spark plug.

    V $al$es. red! e#haust, %lue! intake.W cooling water &acket. gray structure engine %lock .

    'n internal combustion engine (ICE ) is anengine where thecom%ustion of afuel occurswith an o#idi*er (usually air) in acom%ustion cham%er that is an integral part of the workingfluid flow circuit. In an internal com%ustion engine the e#pansion of the high+temperature andhigh+ pressure gases produced %y com%ustion apply directforce to some component of theengine. he force is applied typically to pistons, tur%ine %lades, or ano**le. his force mo$esthe component o$er a distance, transformingchemical energy into usefulmechanical energy.

    he first commercially successful internal com%ustion engine was created %y-tienne enoir

    around /012.3/4

    he terminternal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which com%ustion isintermittent, such as the more familiarfour+stroke andtwo+stroke piston engines, along with$ariants, such as thesi#+stroke piston engine and theWankel rotary engine. ' second class ofinternal com%ustion engines use continuous com%ustion!gas tur%ines, &et engines and mostrocket engines, each of which are internal com%ustion engines on the same principle as pre$iously descri%ed.3/4354 Firearms are also a form of internal com%ustion engine.354

    Internal com%ustion engines are 6uite different frome#ternal com%ustion engines, such assteam or7tirling engines, in which the energy is deli$ered to a working fluid not consistingof, mi#ed with, or contaminated %y com%ustion products. Working fluids can %e air, hotwater, pressuri*ed water or e$en li6uid sodium, heated in a %oiler . ICEs are usually powered

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICE_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICE_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecting_rodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecting_rodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_plughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppet_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppet_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_jackethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_jackethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_blockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine_bladehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propulsive_nozzlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lenoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-EB1-1http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-strokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-strokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-stroke_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-EB1-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-pulkrabek-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-pulkrabek-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boilerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Four_stroke_engine_diagram.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICE_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICE_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecting_rodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_plughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppet_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_jackethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_blockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine_bladehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propulsive_nozzlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lenoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-EB1-1http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-strokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-strokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-stroke_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-EB1-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-pulkrabek-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-pulkrabek-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boilerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_V
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    %y energy+dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, li6uids deri$ed from fossil fuels. Whilethere are many stationary applications, most ICEs are used inmo%ile applications and are thedominant power supply for cars, aircraft, and %oats.

    ypically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels likenatural gas or petroleum products such asgasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. here8s a growing usage ofrenewa%le fuels like %iodiesel forcompression ignition engines and %ioethanol for spark ignition engines. 9ydrogen issometimes used, and can %e made from either fossil fuels or renewa%le energy.

    Contents / 9istory 5 Etymology

    : 'pplications

    Engine configurations 1 ;eciprocating engines

    o 1./ 7tructure

    o 1.5 +stroke engines

    o 1.: 5+stroke engines

    1.:./ Crankcase sca$enged

    1.:.5 rocess

    1. .5 Diesel Ignition >rocess

    o 1.1 u%rication

    o 1.? Cylinder configuration

    o 1.@ Diesel cycleo 1.0 Fi$e+stroke engine

    o 1.2 7i#+stroke engine

    o 1./A Bther cycles

    ? Com%ustion tur%ines

    o ?./ =as tur%ines

    o

    ?.5 et engineo ?.:

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    @ Wankel engines

    0 Forced induction

    2 Fuels and o#idi*ers

    o 2./ Fuels 2././ 9ydrogen

    o 2.5 B#idi*ers

    /A Cooling

    // 7tarting

    /5 easures of engine performance

    o /5./ Energy efficiencyo /5.5 easures of fuel efficiency and propellant efficiency

    /: 'ir and noise pollution

    o /:./ 'ir pollution

    /:././ on+road engines

    o /:.5 oise pollution

    o /:.: Idling / 7ee also

    /1 ;eferences

    /?

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    Applications

    ;eciprocating engine as found inside a car

    ;eciprocating piston engines are %y far the most common power source for land$ehicles includingautomo%iles, motorcycles, locomoti$es andships. Wankel engines are found onsome automo%iles andmotorcycles.

    Where $ery high power+to+weight ratios are re6uired, internal com%ustion engines appear inthe form ofcom%ustion tur%ines. >owered aircraft typically use an ICE which may %e areciprocating engine. 'irplanes can also use &et engines andhelicopters can also employtur%oshaftsG %oth of these are types of tur%ines. In addition to pro$iding propulsion,airliners employ a separate ICE as anau#iliary power unit.

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    wo+stroke engines are widely used insnowmo%iles, lawnmowers, string trimmers, chainsaws, &et skis, mopeds, out%oard motors, and manymotorcycles.

    wo stroke gasoline small engines are a common power source forchainsaws, leaf%lowers andlawnmowers.

    Engine configurations

    Internal com%ustion engines can %e classified %y theirconfiguration.

    Common layouts of engines are!

    ;eciprocating!

    wo+stroke engine

    Four+stroke engine (Btto cycle) 7i#+stroke engine

    Diesel engine

    'tkinson cycle

    iller cycle

    '#ial

    ;otary ! Wankel engine

    Continuous com%ustion!

    =as tur%ine et engine (includingtur%o&et, tur%ofan, ram&et, rocket, etc.)

    Reciprocating engines

    Structure

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    >iston, piston ring, gudgeon pin and connecting rodhe %ase of a reciprocating internal com%ustion engine is theengine %lock which is typically

    made ofcast iron oraluminium. he engine %lock contains thecylinders. In engines withmore than / cylinder they8re usually arranged either in / row (straight engine) or 5 rows( %o#er engine or V engine)G : rows are occasionally used (W engine) in contemporaryengines, and otherengine configurations are possi%le and ha$e %een used. 7ingle cylinderengines are common for motorcycles and in small engines of machinery. Water cooledengines contain passages in the engine %lock where cooling fluid circulate (the water &acket).7ome small engines are air cooled, and instead of ha$ing a water &acket the cylinder %lockhas fins protruding away from it to cool %y directly transferring heat to the air. he cylinder

    walls are usually finished %yhoning to o%tain a cross hatch which is %etter a%le to retain theoil. ' too rough surface would 6uickly harm the engine %y e#cessi$e wear on the piston.

    he pistons are short cylindrical parts which seal one end of the cylinder from the high pressure of the compressed air and com%ustion products and slide continuously within itwhile the engine is in operation. he top wall of the piston is termed itscrown and is typicallyflat or conca$e. 7ome two stroke engines use pistons with adeflector head. >istons are openat the %ottom and hollow e#cept for an integral reinforcement structure (the piston we%).When an engine is working the gas pressure in the com%ustion cham%er e#erts a force on the piston crown which is transferred through its we% to agudgeon pin. Each piston hasrings fitted around its circumference that mostly pre$ent the gases from leaking into the crankcaseor the oil into the com%ustion cham%er. '$entilation system dri$es the small amount of gasthat escape past the pistons during normal operation (the %low+%y gases) out of the crankcaseso that it does not accumulate contaminating the oil and creating corrosion. In two strokegasoline engines the crankcase is part of the air fuel path and due to the continuous flow of itthey do not need a separate crankcase $entilation system.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_blockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(engine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_configurationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_cylinder_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_cylinder_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_cylinder_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_jackethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_jackethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honing_(metalworking)#Cross-hatch_finishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflector_pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudgeon_pinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston_ringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankcase_ventilation_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankcase_ventilation_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piston_and_connecting_rod.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_blockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(engine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_configurationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_cylinder_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_cylinder_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_jackethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honing_(metalworking)#Cross-hatch_finishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflector_pistonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudgeon_pinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston_ringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankcase_ventilation_system
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    Val$e train a%o$e a Diesel engine cylinder head. his engine uses rocker arms %ut no pushrods.

    hecylinder head is attached to the engine %lock %y numerous %olts or studs. It has se$eralfunctions. he cylinder head seals the cylinders on the side opposite to the pistonsG it containsshort ducts (the ports ) for intake and e#haust and the associated intake $al$es that open to letthe cylinder %e filled with fresh air and e#haust $al$es that open to allow the com%ustiongases to escape. 9owe$er, 5+stroke crankcase sca$enged engines connect the gas portsdirectly to the cylinder wall without poppet $al$esG the piston controls their opening andocclusion instead. he cylinder head also holds thespark plug in the case of spark ignitionengines and thein&ector for engines that use direct in&ection. 'll CI engines use fuel in&ection,usually direct in&ection %ut some engines instead useindirect in&ection. 7I engines can use acar%uretor or fuel in&ection as port in&ection ordirect in&ection. ost 7I engines ha$e a singlespark plug per cylinder %utsome ha$e 5. ' head gasket pre$ents the gas from leaking %etween the cylinder head and the engine %lock. he opening and closing of the $al$es iscontrolled %y one or se$eralcamshafts and springs or in some engines a desmodromicmechanism that uses no springs. he camshaft may press directly the stem of the $al$e ormay act upon arocker arm, again, either directly or through a pushrod.

    Engine %lock seen from %elow. he cylinders, oil spay no**le and half of the main %earingsare clearly $isi%le.

    he crankcase is sealed at the %ottom with asump that collects the falling oil during normaloperation to %e cycled again. he ca$ity created %etween the cylinder %lock and the sumphouses acrankshaft that con$erts the reciprocating motion of the pistons to rotational motion.

    he crankshaft is held in place relati$e to the engine %lock %y main %earings, which allow itto rotate.

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    2. Compression ! In this stroke, %oth $al$es are closed and the piston mo$es upwardreducing the com%ustion cham%er $olume which reaches its minimum when the piston is at DC. he piston performswork on the charge as it is %eing compressedGas a result its pressure, temperature and density increaseG an appro#imation to this %eha$ior is pro$ided %y theideal gas law. ust %efore the piston reaches DC, ignition %egins. In the case of a 7I engine, the spark plug recei$es a high $oltage pulse thatgenerates the spark which gi$es it its name and ignites the charge. In the case of a CIengine the fuel in&ector 6uickly in&ects fuel into the com%ustion cham%er as a sprayGthe fuel ignites due to the high temperature.

    3. Po$er or $orking stroke ! he pressure of the com%ustion gases pushes the pistondownward e#erting morework than it was made to compress the charge.Complementary to the compression stroke, the com%ustion gases e#pand and as aresult their temperature, pressure and density decreases. When the piston is near to

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    While a +stroke engine uses the piston as a positi$e displacement pump to accomplishsca$enging taking 5 of the strokes, a 5+stroke engine uses the last part of the power strokeand the first part of the compression stroke for com%ined intake and e#haust. he workre6uired to displace the charge and e#haust gases comes from either the crankcase or aseparate %lower. For sca$enging, e#pulsion of %urned gas and entry of fresh mi#, two mainapproaches are descri%ed! 8 oop sca$enging8, and 8Jniflow sca$enging8, 7'E news pu%lishedin the 5A/As that 8 oop 7ca$enging8 is %etter under any circumstance than 8Jniflow7ca$enging8.3citation needed 4

    Crankcase sca'enge#

    Diagram of a crankcase sca$enged 5+stroke engine in operation

    7ome 7I engines are crankcase sca$enged and do not use poppet $al$es. Instead thecrankcase and the part of the cylinder %elow the piston is used as a pump. he intake port isconnected to the crankcase through a reed $al$e or a rotary disk $al$e dri$en %y the engine.For each cylinder a transfer port connects in one end to the crankcase and in the other end tothe cylinder wall. he e#haust port is connected directly to the cylinder wall. he transfer ande#haust port are opened and closed %y the piston. he reed $al$e opens when the crankcase isslightly %elow intake pressure to let it %e filled with a new charge, this happens when the piston is mo$ing upwards. When the piston is mo$ing downwards the pressure in thecrankcase increases and the reed $al$e closes promptly, then the charge in the crankcase iscompressed. When the piston unco$ers the transfer port the higher pressure of the charge inthe crankcase makes it enter the cylinder, %lowing the e#haust gases. u%rication isaccomplished %y adding2-stroke oil to the fuel in small ratios. Petroil refers to the mi# ofgasoline with the aforesaid oil. his kind of 5+stroke engines has a lower efficiency thancompara%le +strokes engines and release a more polluting e#haust gases for the followingconditions!

    hey use atotal-loss lubrication system ! all the lu%ricating oil is e$entually %urnedalong with the fuel.

    here are conflicting re6uirements for sca$enging! Bn one side, enough fresh charge

    needs to %e introduced in each cycle to displace almost all the com%ustion gases %uttoo much of it means that a part of it gets in the e#haust.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_displacement_pumphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-stroke_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-stroke_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total-loss_oiling_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Two-Stroke_Engine.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_displacement_pumphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-stroke_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total-loss_oiling_system
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    hey must use the transfer port(s) as a carefully designed and placed no**le so that agas current is created in a way that it sweeps the whole cylinder %efore reaching thee#haust port. +stroke engines ha$e the %enefit of forci%ly e#pelling almost all of thecom%ustion gases, and during e#haust the com%ustion cham%er is reduced to aminimum $olume. In crankcase sca$enged 5+stroke engines, e#haust and intake are performed mostly simultaneously and with the com%ustion cham%er at the ma#imum$olume.

    he main ad$antage of 5+stroke engines of this type is mechanical simplicity and a higher power+to+weight ratio than their +stroke counterparts. Despite ha$ing twice as many powerstrokes per cycle, less than twice the power of a compara%le +stroke engine is attaina%le in practice.

    (lo$er sca'enge#

    Diagram of uniflow sca$enging

    Jsing a separate %lower a$oids many of the shortcomings of crankcase sca$enging, at thee#pense of increased comple#ity which means a higher cost and an increase in maintenance

    re6uirement. 'n engine of this type uses ports or $al$es for intake and $al$es for e#hauste#cept opposed piston engines, which may also use ports for e#haust. he %lower is usuallyof the;oots+type %ut other types ha$e %een used too. his design is commonplace in CIengines, and has %een occasionally used in 7I engines.

    CI engines that use a %lower typically useuniflow scavenging . In this design the cylinder wallcontains se$eral intake ports &ust a%o$e the position that the piston crown reaches when at

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    engines of any kind. 7ome Diesel+electric locomoti$e engines operate on the 5+stroke cycle.he most powerful of them ha$e a %rake power of around .1W or ?,AAA9>. heE D

    7D2A 'C class of locomoti$es use a 5+stroke engine. he compara%le class=E 'C?AAACWwhose prime mo$er has almost the same %rake power uses a +stroke engine.

    'n e#ample of this type of engine is theWKrtsilK+7ul*er ; '2?+C tur%ocharged 5+strokeDiesel, used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful internal com%ustionengine in the world with athermal efficiency o$er 1AH.3143?43@4304 For comparison, the mostefficient small four+stroke engines are around :H thermally+efficient (7'E 2AA? 0)G3citationneeded 4 si*e is an ad$antage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of $olume to surfacearea.

    7ee thee#ternal links for a in+cylinder com%ustion $ideo in a 5+stroke, optically accessi%lemotorcycle engine.

    Ignition

    Internal com%ustion engines re6uire ignition of the mi#ture, either %y spark ignition (7I) orcompression ignition (CI).

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    While gasoline internal com%ustion engines are much easier to start in cold weather thandiesel engines, they can still ha$e cold weather starting pro%lems under e#treme conditions.For years the solution was to park the car in heated areas. In some parts of the world the oilwas actually drained and heated o$er night and returned to the engine for cold starts. In theearly /21As thegasoline )asifier unit was de$eloped, where, on cold weather starts, rawgasoline was di$erted to the unit where part of the fuel was %urned causing the other part to %ecome a hot $apor sent directly to the intake $al$e manifold. his unit was 6uite popularuntil electric engine %lock heaters %ecame standard on gasoline engines sold in cold climates.3/A4

    *iesel Ignition Process

    Diesel engines and9CCI (9omogeneous charge compression ignition) engines, rely solelyon heat and pressure created %y the engine in its compression process for ignition. hecompression le$el that occurs is usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel enginestake in air only, and shortly %efore peak compression, spray a small 6uantity of diesel fuelinto the cylinder $ia a fuel in&ector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. 9CCI type enginestake in %oth air and fuel, %ut continue to rely on an unaided auto+com%ustion process, due tohigher pressures and heat. his is also why diesel and 9CCI engines are more suscepti%le tocold+starting issues, although they run &ust as well in cold weather once started. ight dutydiesel engines withindirect in&ection in automo%iles and light trucks employglowplugs that pre+heat thecom%ustion cham%er &ust %efore starting to reduce no+start conditions in coldweather. ost diesels also ha$e a %attery and charging systemG ne$ertheless, this system issecondary and is added %y manufacturers as a lu#ury for the ease of starting, turning fuel onand off (which can also %e done $ia a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for runningau#iliary electrical components and accessories. ost new engines rely on electrical andelectronicengine control units (ECJ) that also ad&ust the com%ustion process to increaseefficiency and reduce emissions.

    +ubrication

    Diagram of an engine using pressuri*ed lu%ricationWikimedia Commons has media related to Internal combustion piston enginelubrication systems .

    7urfaces in contact and relati$e motion to other surfaces re6uirelu%rication to reduce wear,

    noise and increase efficiency %y reducing the power wasting in o$ercomingfriction, or tomake the mechanism work at all. 'n engine re6uires lu%rication in at least!

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HCCIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HCCIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glowplughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glowplughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_control_unithttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internal_combustion_piston_engine_lubrication_systemshttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internal_combustion_piston_engine_lubrication_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Overhead_cam_engine_with_forced_oil_lubrication_(Autocar_Handbook,_13th_ed,_1935).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HCCIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glowplughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_control_unithttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internal_combustion_piston_engine_lubrication_systemshttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internal_combustion_piston_engine_lubrication_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction
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    in mo$ement relati$e to the cylinder it lu%ricates, %ut always pointed towards it or thecorresponding piston. Instead, the no**le can also %e placed fi#ed in the crankshaft and pointing upwards.

    ypically a forced lu%rication systems ha$e a lu%ricant flow higher than what is re6uired tolu%ricate satisfactorily, in order to assist with cooling. 7pecifically, the lu%ricant system helpsto mo$e heat from the hot engine parts to the cooling li6uid (in water cooled engines) or fins(in air cooled engines) which then transfer it to the en$ironment. he lu%ricant must %edesigned to %e chemically sta%le and maintain suita%le $iscosities within the temperaturerange it encounters in the engine.

    Cylin#er configuration

    Common cylinder configurations include thestraight or inline configuration, the morecompactV configuration, and the wider %ut smootherflat or %o#er configuration. 'ircraftengines can also adopt a radial configuration, which allows more effecti$e cooling. oreunusual configurations such as the9 , J , L, and W ha$e also %een used.

    ultiple cylinder engines ha$e their $al$e train and crankshaft configured so that pistons areat different parts of their cycle. It is desira%le to ha$e the piston8s cycles uniformly spaced(this is calledeven firing ) especially in forced induction enginesG this reduces tor6ue pulsations3//4 and makesinline engines with more than : cylinders statically %alanced in its primary forces. 9owe$er, someengine configurations re6uire odd firing to achie$e %etter %alance than what is possi%le with e$en firing. For instance, a strokeI5 engine has %etter %alance when the angle %etween the crankpins is /0A %ecause the pistons mo$e in oppositedirections and inertial forces partially cancel, %ut this gi$es an odd firing pattern where one

    cylinder fires /0A of crankshaft rotation after the other, then no cylinder fires for 1 A . Withan e$en firing pattern the pistons would mo$e in unison and the associated forces would add.

    ultiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need acylinder head at all %ecause theycan instead ha$e a piston at each end of the cylinder called anopposed piston design.

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    >+$ Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. he cycle follows the num%ers / in clockwisedirection.

    ost truck and automoti$e diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four+stroke cycle, %utwith a compression heating ignition system, rather than needing a separate ignition system.

    his $ariation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle,diesel fuel is in&ected directly intothe cylinder so that com%ustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston mo$es.

    ,tto cycle Btto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal com%ustion engines,that work using gasoline as a fuel. Btto cycle is e#actly the same one that was descri%ed forthe four+stroke engine. It consists of the same four ma&or steps! Intake, compression, ignitionand e#haust.

    >V diagram for Btto cycle Bn the >V+diagram, / 5! Intake! suction stroke 5 :! IsentropicCompression stroke : ! 9eat addition stroke 1! E#haust stroke (Isentropic e#pansion) 1 5! 9eat re&ection he distance %etween points / 5 is the stroke of the engine. h.D., pags! 0@+2 , 7'E, /22@), and in the 5/stcentury,I B; designed and successfully tested a 1+stroke dou%le e#pansion internalcom%ustion engine, with high power output and low 7FC (7pecific Fuel Consumption)3/4. 354

    Si%-stroke engine

    hesi#+stroke engine was in$ented in /00:. Four kinds of si#+stroke use a regular piston in aregular cylinder (=riffin si#+stroke,

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    here$ious split+cycle engines ha$e had two ma&or pro%lems poor %reathing ($olumetricefficiency) and low thermal efficiency. 9owe$er, new designs are %eing introduced that seekto address these pro%lems.

    he 7cuderi Engine addresses the %reathing pro%lem %y reducing the clearance %etween the piston and the cylinder head through $arious tur%o charging techni6ues. he 7cuderi designre6uires the use of outwardly opening $al$es that ena%le the piston to mo$e $ery close to thecylinder head without the interference of the $al$es. 7cuderi addresses the low thermal

    efficiency $ia firing ' DC.Firing ' DC can %e accomplished %y using high+pressure air in the transfer passage to createsonic flow and high tur%ulence in the power cylinder.

    Combustion turbines

    )as turbines

    ain article!gas tur%ine

    ' gas tur%ine is called a gas tur%ine %ecause it compresses a gas, usually air. here are threestages to a tur%ine! /) air is drawn through a compressor where the temperature rises due tocompression, 5) fuel is added in the com%uster, and :) hot air is e#hausted through tur%ines %lades which rotate a shaft connected to the compressor.

    ' gas tur%ine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam tur%ine and it consists ofthree main components! a compressor, a com%ustion cham%er, and a tur%ine. he air, after %eing compressed in the compressor, is heated %y %urning fuel in it. '%out N of the heatedair, com%ined with the products of com%ustion, e#pands in a tur%ine, producing work outputthat dri$es the compressor. he rest (a%out O) is a$aila%le as useful work output.

    /et engine

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beare_Headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposed-piston_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beare_Headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposed-piston_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbine
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    ain article! et engine

    he &et engine takes a large $olume of hot gas from a com%ustion process (typically a gastur%ine, %ut rocket forms of &et propulsion often use solid or li6uid propellants, andram&et forms also lack the gas tur%ine) and feeds it through a no**le that accelerates the &et to highspeed. 's the &et accelerates through the no**le, this creates thrust and in turn does usefulwork.

    (rayton cycle

    ain article!

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    he Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not ha$e piston strokes. It operates with the sameseparation of phases as the four+stroke engine with the phases taking place in separatelocations in the engine. Inthermodynamic terms it follows the Btto engine cycle, so may %ethought of as a "four+phase" engine. While it is true that three power strokes typically occur per rotor re$olution, due to the :!/ re$olution ratio of the rotor to the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per shaft re$olution actually occurs. he dri$e (eccentric) shaft rotates onceduring e$ery power stroke instead of twice (crankshaft), as in the Btto cycle, gi$ing it agreater power+to+weight ratio than piston engines. his type of engine was most nota%ly usedin the a*da ;L+0, the earlier ;L+@, and other models.

    .orce# in#uction

    ain article!Forced induction

    Forced induction is the process of deli$ering compressed air to the intake of an internal

    com%ustion engine. ' forced induction engine uses agas compressor to increase the pressure,temperature anddensity of the air . 'n engine without forced induction is considered anaturally aspirated engine.

    Forced induction is used in the automoti$e and a$iation industry to increase engine powerand efficiency. It particularly helps a$iation engines, as they need to operate at high altitude.

    Forced induction is achie$ed %y a supercharger , where the compressor is directly poweredfrom the engine shaft or, in thetur%ocharger , from a tur%ine powered %y the engine e#haust.

    .uels an# o%i#i0ers'll internal combustion engines depend oncom%ustion of achemical fuel, typically witho#ygen from the air (though it is possi%le to in&ectnitrous o#ide to do more of the same thingand gain a power %oost). he com%ustion process typically results in the production of a great6uantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and car%on dio#ide and other chemicals at$ery high temperatureG the temperature reached is determined %y the chemical make up of thefuel and o#idisers (seestoichiometry), as well as %y the compression and other factors.

    .uels

    he most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocar%ons and are deri$ed mostly fromfossil fuels ( petroleum). Fossil fuels includediesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and therarer use of propane. E#cept for the fuel deli$ery components, most internal com%ustionengines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or li6uefied petroleum gaseswithout ma&or modifications. arge diesels can run with air mi#ed with gases and a pilotdiesel fuel ignition in&ection. i6uid and gaseous %iofuels, such asethanol and %iodiesel (aform of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yieldtriglycerides such assoy%ean oil),can also %e used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run onhydrogen gas,woodgas, orcharcoal gas, as well as from so+called producer gas made from other con$enient %iomass. E#periments ha$e also %een conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as themagnesium in&ection cycle.

    >resently, fuels used include!

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_RX-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_RX-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_RX-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_RX-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_RX-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_compressorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_of_airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturally_aspirated_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superchargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superchargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbochargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel#Chemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel#Chemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_injection_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_RX-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda_RX-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_compressorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_of_airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturally_aspirated_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superchargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbochargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel#Chemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_injection_cycle
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    >etroleum!o >etroleum spirit ( orth 'merican term!gasoline, etroleum diesel.

    o 'utogas (li6uified petroleum gas).

    o Compressed natural gas.

    o et fuel (a$iation fuel)

    o ;esidual fuel

    Coal!

    o =asoline can %e made from car%on (coal) using theFischer+ ropsch process

    o Diesel fuel can %e made from car%on using theFischer+ ropsch process

    eanut oil and other $egoils.

    o

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    /22As. here are also engines that run onhydrogen, methanol, ethanol, li6uefied petroleumgas ( >=), %iodiesel, paraffin andtractor $apori*ing oil ( VB).

    Hy#rogen

    ain article!9ydrogen internal com%ustion engine $ehicle9ydrogen could e$entuallyreplace con$entional fossil fuels in traditional internalcom%ustion engines. 'lternati$elyfuel cell technology may come to deli$er its promise andthe use of the internal com%ustion engines could e$en %e phased out.

    'lthough there are multiple ways of producing free hydrogen, those methods re6uirecon$erting com%usti%le molecules into hydrogen or consuming electric energy. Jnless thatelectricity is produced from a renewa%le source and is not re6uired for other purposeshydrogen does not sol$e anyenergy crisis. In many situations the disad$antage of hydrogen,relati$e to car%on fuels, isits storage. i6uid hydrogen has e#tremely low density (/ timeslower than water) and re6uires e#tensi$e insulation whilst gaseous hydrogen re6uires hea$ytankage. E$en when li6uefied, hydrogen has a higher specific energy %ut the $olumetricenergetic storage is still roughly fi$e times lower than gasoline. 9owe$er, the energy densityof hydrogen is considera%ly higher than that of electric %atteries, making it a seriouscontender as an energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. he 89ydrogen on Demand8 process (seedirect %orohydride fuel cell) creates hydrogen as needed, %ut has other issues, such as thehigh price of thesodium %orohydride that is the raw material.

    ,%i#i0ers

    Bne+cylinder gasoline engine, c. /2/Ahis section#oes not cite any references or sources . >lease help impro$e this

    section %yadding citations to relia%le sources. Jnsourced material may %echallenged and remo$ed. (July 2010)

    7ince air is plentiful at the surface of the earth, the o#idi*er is typically atmospheric o#ygen,which has the ad$antage of not %eing stored within the $ehicle. his increases the power+to+weight and power+to+$olume ratios. Bther materials are used for special purposes, often to

    increase power output or to allow operation under water or in space.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_carhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor_vaporizing_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_economy#Storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_economy#Storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_borohydride_fuel_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_borohydridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moore-single-cylinder-gasoline-engine.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_carhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor_vaporizing_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_economy#Storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_borohydride_fuel_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_borohydridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence
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    Compressed air has %een commonly used intorpedoes. Compressedo#ygen, as well as some compressed air, was used in the apaneseype

    2: torpedo. 7ome su%marines carry pure o#ygen. ;ockets $ery often use li6uido#ygen.

    itromethane is added to some racing and model fuels to increase power and controlcom%ustion. itrous o#ide has %een used with e#tra gasoline in tactical aircraft, and in

    specially e6uipped cars to allow short %ursts of added power from engines thatotherwise run on gasoline and air. It is also used in the

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    thrust to weight ratio

    or6ue cur$es (for shaft engines)thrust lapse (&et engines)

    Compression ratio for piston engines,o$erall pressure ratio for &et engines and gastur%ines

    Energy efficiency

    Bnce ignited and %urnt, thecom%ustion products hot gases ha$e more a$aila%lethermalenergy than the original compressed fuel+air mi#ture (which had higherchemical energy).

    he a$aila%le energy is manifested as hightemperature and pressure that can %e translatedintowork %y the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high+pressure gases inside thecylinders dri$e the engine8s pistons.

    Bnce the a$aila%le energy has %een remo$ed, the remaining hot gases are $ented (often %y

    opening a$al$e or e#posing the e#haust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its pre$ious position (top dead center, or DC). he piston can then proceed to the ne#t phase ofits cycle, which $aries %etween engines. 'nyheat that is not translated into work is normallyconsidered a waste product and is remo$ed from the engine either %y an air or li6uid coolingsystem.

    Internal com%ustion engines are primarilyheat engines, and as such their theoreticalefficiency can %e calculated %y ideali*edthermodynamic cycles. he efficiency of atheoretical cycle cannot e#ceed that of theCarnot cycle, whose efficiency is determined %ythe difference %etween the lower and upperoperating temperatures of the engine. he upperoperating temperature of a terrestrial engine is limited %y the thermal sta%ility of the materialsused to construct it. 'llmetals andalloys e$entually melt or decompose, and there issignificant researching into ceramic materials that can %e made with greater thermal sta%ilityand desira%le structural properties. 9igher thermal sta%ility allows for greater temperaturedifference %etween the lower and upper operating temperatures, hence greaterthermodynamic efficiency.

    hethermodynamic limits assume that the engine is operating under ideal conditions! africtionless world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation for infinite time. ;eal worldapplications introduce comple#ities that reduce efficiency. For e#ample, a real engine runs %est at a specific load, termed its power %and. he engine in a car cruising on a highway isusually operating significantly %elow its ideal load, %ecause it is designed for the higher loadsre6uired for rapid acceleration.3citation needed 4 In addition, factors such aswind resistance reduceo$erall system efficiency. Engine fuel economy is measured in miles per gallon or in liters per /AA kilometres. he $olume of hydrocar%on assumes a standard energy content.

    ost steel engines ha$e athermodynamic limit of :@H. E$en when aided with tur%ochargersand stock efficiency aids, most engines retain anaverage efficiency of a%out /0H+5AH.3/54 ;ocket engine efficiencies are much %etter, up to @AH, %ecause they operate at $ery hightemperatures and pressures and can ha$e $ery high e#pansion ratios.3/:4 Electric motors are %etter still, at around 01+2AH efficiency or more, %ut they rely on an e#ternal power source(often another heat engine at a power plant su%&ect to similar thermodynamic efficiency

    limits).

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_to_weight_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque#Machine_torquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_lapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overall_pressure_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppet_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_per_gallonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_per_gallonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_to_weight_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque#Machine_torquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_lapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overall_pressure_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppet_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_per_gallonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor
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    here are many in$entions aimed at increasing the efficiency of IC engines. In general, practical engines are always compromised %y trade+offs %etween different properties such asefficiency, weight, power, heat, response, e#haust emissions, or noise. 7ometimes economyalso plays a role in not only the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, %ut alsomanufacturing and distri%uting the fuel. Increasing the engine8s efficiency %rings %etter fueleconomy %ut only if the fuel cost per energy content is the same.

    1easures of fuel efficiency an# propellant efficiency

    For stationary and shaft engines including propeller engines, fuel consumption is measured %y calculating the %rake specific fuel consumption, which measures the mass flow rate of fuelconsumption di$ided %y the power produced.

    For internal com%ustion engines in the form of &et engines, the power output $aries drasticallywith airspeed and a less $aria%le measure is used!thrust specific fuel consumption ( 7FC),which is the mass of propellant needed to generate impulses that is measured in either poundforce+hour or the grams of propellant needed to generate an impulse that measures onekilonewton+second.

    For rockets, 7FC can %e used, %ut typically other e6ui$alent measures are traditionally used,such asspecific impulse andeffecti$e e#haust $elocity.

    Air an# noise pollution

    Air pollution

    Internal com%ustion engines such as reciprocating internal com%ustion engines produceair pollution emissions, due to incomplete com%ustion ofcar%onaceous fuel. he mainderi$ati$es of the process arecar%on dio#ide CB5, water and somesoot also called particulate matter (> ). he effects of inhaling particulate matter ha$e %een studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer,cardio$ascular issues, and premature death. here are, howe$er, some additional products ofthe com%ustion process that includenitrogen o#ides and sulfur and some uncom%ustedhydrocar%ons, depending on the operating conditions and the fuel+air ratio.

    ot all of the fuel is completely consumed %y the com%ustion processG a small amount of fuel

    is present after com%ustion, and some of it reacts to form o#ygenates, such as formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocar%ons not originally present in the input fuel mi#ture. Incompletecom%ustion usually results from insufficiento#ygen to achie$e the perfectstoichiometric ratio. he flame is "6uenched" %y the relati$ely cool cylinder walls, lea$ing %ehind unreactedfuel that is e#pelled with the e#haust. When running at lower speeds, 6uenching is commonlyo%ser$ed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that run on natural gas. Puenching reducesefficiency and increases knocking, sometimes causing the engine to stall. Incompletecom%ustion also leads to the production ofcar%on mono#ide (CB). Further chemicalsreleased are %en*ene and /,:+%utadiene that are alsoha*ardous air pollutants.

    Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete com%ustion

    products, %ut also promotes reaction %etween o#ygen andnitrogen in the air to producenitrogen o#ides ( B ). B is ha*ardous to %oth plant and animal health, and leads to the

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brake_specific_fuel_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_impulsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_impulsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_exhaust_velocityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehydehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehydehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehydehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehydehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-butadienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-butadienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-butadienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_air_pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brake_specific_fuel_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_impulsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_exhaust_velocityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehydehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehydehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-butadienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_air_pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide
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    production ofo*one (B: ). B*one is not emitted directlyG rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere %y the reaction of B"#" and$olatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. =round+le$el o*one is harmful to human health and the en$ironment.

    hough the same chemical su%stance, ground+le$el o*one should not %e confused withstratospheric o*one, or the o*one layer , which protects the earth from harmful ultra$ioletrays.Car%on fuels contain sulfur and impurities that e$entually produce sulfur mono#ides (7B)andsulfur dio#ide (7B5) in the e#haust, which promotesacid rain.

    In the Jnited 7tates, nitrogen o#ides, > , car%on mono#ide, sulphur dio#ide, and o*one, areregulated ascriteria air pollutants under the Clean 'ir 'ct to le$els where human health andwelfare are protected. Bther pollutants, such as %en*ene and /,:+%utadiene, are regulated asha*ardous air pollutants whose emissions must %e lowered as much as possi%le depending ontechnological and practical considerations.

    2on-roa# engines

    ain article! on+road engine Q Emission standards

    he emission standards used %y many countries ha$e special re6uirements fornon+roadengines which are used %y e6uipment and $ehicles that are not operated on the pu%licroadways. he standards are separated from the road $ehicles.3/ 4

    2oise pollution

    7ignificant contri%utions tonoise pollution are made %y internal com%ustion engines.'utomo%ile and truck traffic operating on highways and street systems produce noise, as doaircraft flights due to &et noise, particularly supersonic+capa%le aircraft. ;ocket engines createthe most intense noise.

    I#ling

    Internal com%ustion engines continue to consume fuel and emit pollutants when idling so it isdesira%le to keep periods of idling to a minimum. any %us companies now instruct dri$ersto switch off the engine when the %us is waiting at a terminal.

    In the JR (%ut only in England), the ;oad rafficVehicle Emissions Fi#ed >enalty;egulations 5AA5 (7tatutory Instrument 5AA5 o. /0A0)3/14 introduced the concept of a" stationary idling offence ". his means that a dri$er can %e ordered "by an authorised

    person !!! upon production of evidence of his authorisation" re#uire him to stop the running of the engine of that vehicle " and a " person who fails to comply !!! shall be guilty of an offenceand be liable on summary conviction to a fine not e ceeding level $ on the standard scale ".Bnly a few local authorities ha$e implemented the regulations, one of them %eing B#ford City Council.3/?4

    See also

    Energy portal

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospheric_ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criteria_air_pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_air_pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-road_engine#Emission_standardshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-road_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-road_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_Emissionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospheric_ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criteria_air_pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_air_pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-road_engine#Emission_standardshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-road_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-road_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_Emissionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Energy
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    'dia%atic flame temperature 'ir+fuel ratio

    iston engine

    >etrofuel ;eciprocating engine

    7troke

    ur%ocharger

    Varia%le displacement

    References

    /.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_flame_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-fuel_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bore_(engine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component_parts_of_internal_combustion_engineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stroke_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deglazing_(engine_mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieselisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injection#Direct_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_test_standhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_Combustion_Enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pumphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_injection_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrofuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke_(engine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbochargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_displacementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_flame_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-fuel_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bore_(engine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component_parts_of_internal_combustion_engineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stroke_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deglazing_(engine_mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieselisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injection#Direct_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_test_standhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_Combustion_Enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pumphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_injection_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrofuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke_(engine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbochargerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_displacement
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    S "9istory of echnology! Internal Com%ustion engines". %ncyclop&dia 'ritannica .ulkra%ek, Willard W. (/22@). %ngineering undamentals of the nternal *ombustion

    %ngine. >rentice 9all. p. 5.I7< 2@0A/:1@A01 1.S S 7tone /225, pp. /+5.S S unney 5AA@, p. 1.S S ow 7peed Engines, ' Diesel. 3dead link 4 S S "CFL aids design of worldTs most efficient steam tur%ine" (>DF). ;etrie$ed 5A/A+A0+50.S S " ew ower Engineering".>epei.pennnet.com. 5A/A+A0+5 . ;etrie$ed 5A/A+A0+50.S S akaishi, atsuoG umata, 'kiraG akano, ;you&iG 7akaguchi, Ratsuhiko ( arch 5AA0)."'pproach to 9igh Efficiency Diesel and =as Engines" (>DF). +itsubishi ,eavy ndustries

    echnical .eview 43 (/). ;etrie$ed 5A//+A5+A .S S " aser sparks re$olution in internal com%ustion engines". Physorg!com . 5A//+A +5A.;etrie$ed 5A/:+/5+5?.S S "=asifier 'ids otor 7tarting Jnder 'rctic Conditions". Popular +echanics ! / 2.

    anuary /21:.S S unney 5AA@, p. /1.S S "Impro$ing IC Engine Efficiency". Courses.washington.edu. ;etrie$ed 5A/A+A0+50.S S ;ocket propulsion elements @th edition+=eorge 7utton, Bscar u%lications. ;etrie$ed 5A/:+/5+5?.S S " he ;oad raffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fi#ed >enalty) (England) ;egulations 5AA5"./21.22./.@A. 5A/A+A@+/?. ;etrie$ed 5A/A+A0+50.

    16. S "CI DEVE B> E + Fees U Charges 5A/A+//". B#ford CityCouncil. o$em%er 5A//. ;etrie$ed 5A//+A5+A .

    (ibliograp&y unney, alcom . (5AA@). /ight and ,eavy ehicle echnology ( th ed.). Else$ier

    erfeccionamientos en otores de E#plosion,con Cinco iem+>os y Do%le E#pansion", pu%lished /2@?+//+A/

    http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1350805/history-of-technology/10451/Internal-combustion-enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780135708545http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780135708545http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#CITEREFStone1992http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#CITEREFNunney2007http://www.manbw.com/engines/TwoStrokeLowSpeedPropMEEngines.asp?model=S80ME-C7.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://www.ansys.com/assets/testimonials/siemens.pdfhttp://pepei.pennnet.com/display_article/152601/6/ARTCL/none/none/1/New-Benchmarks-for-Steam-Turbine-Efficiency/https://www.mhi.co.jp/technology/review/pdf/e451/e451021.pdfhttp://www.physorg.com/news/2011-04-laser-revolution-internal-combustion.htmlhttp://books.google.com.au/books?id=zdwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA149http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#CITEREFNunney2007http://courses.washington.edu/me341/oct22v2.htmhttp://www.gsgnet.net/gsgpdfs/EmissionsStandards.pdfhttp://195.99.1.70/si/si2002/20021808.htm#13http://www.oxford.gov.uk/Direct/2_Item%205.6.pdfhttp://www.oxford.gov.uk/Direct/2_Item%205.6.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_City_Councilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_City_Councilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8037-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-55083-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-55083-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5014-214-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5014-214-1http://es.scribd.com/doc/40610101/The-High-Speed-Internal-Combustion-Engine-by-Sir-Harry-Ricardohttp://es.scribd.com/doc/40610101/The-High-Speed-Internal-Combustion-Engine-by-Sir-Harry-Ricardohttp://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=ES156621http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=ES433850http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1350805/history-of-technology/10451/Internal-combustion-enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780135708545http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#CITEREFStone1992http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#CITEREFNunney2007http://www.manbw.com/engines/TwoStrokeLowSpeedPropMEEngines.asp?model=S80ME-C7.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://www.ansys.com/assets/testimonials/siemens.pdfhttp://pepei.pennnet.com/display_article/152601/6/ARTCL/none/none/1/New-Benchmarks-for-Steam-Turbine-Efficiency/https://www.mhi.co.jp/technology/review/pdf/e451/e451021.pdfhttp://www.physorg.com/news/2011-04-laser-revolution-internal-combustion.htmlhttp://books.google.com.au/books?id=zdwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA149http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#CITEREFNunney2007http://courses.washington.edu/me341/oct22v2.htmhttp://www.gsgnet.net/gsgpdfs/EmissionsStandards.pdfhttp://195.99.1.70/si/si2002/20021808.htm#13http://www.oxford.gov.uk/Direct/2_Item%205.6.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_City_Councilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_City_Councilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8037-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-55083-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5014-214-1http://es.scribd.com/doc/40610101/The-High-Speed-Internal-Combustion-Engine-by-Sir-Harry-Ricardohttp://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=ES156621http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=ES433850
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    o E7 5:A11/, Brtuno =arcia ose, "Jn ue$o otor de E#plosion", pu%lished/21@+A:+A/

    o E7 5 25 @, Brtuno =arcia ose, " otor de Carreras Distintas", pu%lished/212+A2+A/

    .urt&er rea#ing 7inger, Charles osephG ;aper, ;ichard (/2@0). Charles, 7ingerG et al, eds. ,istory

    of echnology4 he nternal *ombustion %ngine . Clarendon >ress. pp. /1@ /@?.3deadlink 4

    7etright, R (/2@1).3ome unusual engines . ondon! he Institution of echanicalEngineers.I7< A+01520+5A0+2.

    7u*uki, akashi (/22@).he .omance of %ngines . J7! 7ociety of 'utomoti$eEngineers.I7< /+1?A2/+2//+?.

    9arden%erg, 9orst B. (/222).he +iddle ges of the nternal *ombustion %ngine .J7! 7ociety of 'utomoti$e Engineers.

    =unston, 7 .I7< 2@0+/+015?A+?/2+A.

    E%ternal links

    Wikimedia Commons has media related to Internal combustion engines . Com%ustion $ideo + in+cylinder com%ustion in an optically accessi%le, 5+stroke engine 'nimated Engines + e#plains a $ariety of types

    Intro to Car Engines + Cut+away images and a good o$er$iew of the internalcom%ustion engine

    Walter E. ay 'uto a% + ;esearch at he Jni$ersity of ichigan

    youtu%e + 'nimation of the components and %uilt+up of a +cylinder engine

    youtu%e + 'nimation of the internal mo$ing parts of a +cylinder engine

    e#t generation engine technologies retrie$ed ay 2, 5AA2

    I B$er$iew + >resent U Future Internal Com%ustion Engines! >erformance,Efficiency, Emissions, and Fuels

    Engine Com%ustion etwork + Bpen forum for international colla%oration amonge#perimental and computational researchers in engine com%ustion.

    'utomakers 7how Interest in ffan Jnusual Engine Design

    9ow Car Engines Work

    ' file on unusual engines3:4

    http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=ES230551http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=ES249247http://proxy.bib.uottawa.ca:2398/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls&cc=acls&idno=heb02191.0005.001&q1=bicycle&frm=frameset&seq=5http://proxy.bib.uottawa.ca:2398/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls&cc=acls&idno=heb02191.0005.001&q1=bicycle&frm=frameset&seq=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85298-208-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85298-208-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56091-911-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56091-911-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85260-619-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85260-619-0http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internal_combustion_engineshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ObmAOJA__1khttp://www.animatedengines.com/http://www.autoeducation.com/rm_preview/engine_intro.htmhttp://me.engin.umich.edu/autolab/Projects/index.htmlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2eILCrW53M&NRhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2QB7XPMeLnAhttp://www.popularmechanics.com/automotive/new_cars/4261289.html?series=19http://web.mit.edu/professional/short-programs/courses/internal_combustion_engines.htmlhttp://www.sandia.gov/ecnhttp://www.technologyreview.com/energy/27124/page1/?a=fhttp://www.howstuffworks.com/engine1.htmhttp://www.douglas-self.com/MUSEUM/POWER/unusualICeng/unusualICeng.htmhttp://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=ES230551http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=ES249247http://proxy.bib.uottawa.ca:2398/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls&cc=acls&idno=heb02191.0005.001&q1=bicycle&frm=frameset&seq=5http://proxy.bib.uottawa.ca:2398/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls&cc=acls&idno=heb02191.0005.001&q1=bicycle&frm=frameset&seq=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85298-208-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56091-911-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85260-619-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85260-619-0http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internal_combustion_engineshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ObmAOJA__1khttp://www.animatedengines.com/http://www.autoeducation.com/rm_preview/engine_intro.htmhttp://me.engin.umich.edu/autolab/Projects/index.htmlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2eILCrW53M&NRhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2QB7XPMeLnAhttp://www.popularmechanics.com/automotive/new_cars/4261289.html?series=19http://web.mit.edu/professional/short-programs/courses/internal_combustion_engines.htmlhttp://www.sandia.gov/ecnhttp://www.technologyreview.com/energy/27124/page1/?a=fhttp://www.howstuffworks.com/engine1.htmhttp://www.douglas-self.com/MUSEUM/POWER/unusualICeng/unusualICeng.htm
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    'ircraft Engine 9istorical 7ociety +'E973 4

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