Mayan Worldviews: An Ethnographic Sketch of the Mam, Achi, Cakchiquel, and Pokomchi of Guatemala

Melanie L. CaseInternational Mission BoardField location: Guatemala

Tel: 852-9621-8452Email: melancho@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

This article is a compilation of ethnographic sketches regarding various Mayan people groups of Guatemala: Mam, Achi, Cakchiquel, and Pokomchi. Living in remote, often mountainous regions, these people groups make up the indigenous population of much of Central America. These sketches help us to better understand the Mayan worldview in the areas of family, social, and religious structures.

I. INTRODUCTION

The general purpose of this series of studies---conducted in the areas of Mam, Achi, Cakchiquel, and Pokomchi of Guatemala---has been to facilitate on both a specific and general level, our understanding of the worldview of Mayans, with the overall goal to know how to best reach these people with the gospel. Here I must define ‘reach them with the gospel’. This means not only allowing them to observe or hear of the gospel in a western format in Spanish; much to the opposite, inquisition has revealed that most Mayans or persons of Mayan descent think in a way that is most definitely not western, and many understand little to no Spanish. This means that to ‘reach them’, we must effectively: a: present the message in a holistic manner in which their minds can grasp and process, and, b: do so in their heart language.

The major queries and quandaries include the following: What exactly is the worldview of the Mayan person; what are the variations on such a generic in given areas? (i.e. How do the people live and act socially? What are general family, social, and religious structure of the varying groups? What does communication look like?) How do we reach the young indigenous person? What do cultural shift and the dynamic nature of culture mean to us as missionaries today, determined to reach a people that run a gamut in means of language, beliefs, and overall worldview? How do we handle bilingualism among Mayans; this involves the issue of those who are, by heritage, Mayans who may or may not converse in their native language(s),…those who are bilingual to some capacity in Spanish and a given dialect, and those who are completely monolingual with possible small knowledge of Spanish. How do we accommodate for such a diverse language pool? What universals and generalities can we make when speaking of the generic Mayan person? What generalities should we be careful not to make? And the ultimate concern is this: how can we effectively introduce and present the gospel in a way that the Mayan people of Guatemala can understand it and thus, have opportunity to accept it and come to know Christ? This is the crux of the matter at hand.

The process of collecting and sorting through such questions as posed above has been a tedious one. Field research was conducted from 2003-2004 in the areas of the western Pokomchi, Todos Santos Mam, Rabinal Achί, and various Cakchiquel areas. General cultural observation and participant-observation were employed as well as various informal interviews. Other methods include mere conversation with locals, interviews with other learned missionaries, and time spent living among the peoples.

II.CASE STUDIES

Todos Santos Mam

Family StructureThe Mam family is monogamous and patriarchal in structure. Family relationships are very important. Many men are polygamous in lifestyle. Divorce is uncommon. Many

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marriages are by common consent and are not legal. Separation does occur, usually because of the husband’s lifestyle or abandonment. Families are involved in marriages with consent on both sides. The father is the “head of the house”. However, the responsibility of raising the children is largely left up to the mother.

The father makes decisions involving expenditure of money and the mother makes household decisions and decisions involving raising children. Discipline in the family is usually carried out by the mother. Usually the child is not disciplined until ages three to four years. Spanking is not uncommon among the Mam.

Permission is granted by the father, and in his absence, by the mother. Boys are allowed to make decisions about work and marriage. However, girls are allowed less freedom in choosing spouses and work. Generally they are expected to be able to weave, cook, wash clothes and care for the family.

Forgiveness within a family usually involves the forgiveness of the parents to the children. Within the family structure forgiveness is usually granted after appropriate punishment.

Mam children learn largely by observing and imitating their parents and their older family members. The father teaches the son how to work in the field or other skills that the father may have. Young girls assist their mothers in the household duties and caring for younger siblings. They learn to weave at a very early age. There is often extended family that live in the home with older parents living in the home and the son’s wife and family living in the home.

The family is supported by the father who is usually a farmer raising potatoes, corn and beans. The largest two cash crops are potatoes and corn. The young girls help their mother with the household chores and weaving. The clothes for the family are made by the mother and daughters. Men also weave handbags. Some men are construction workers that work outside of the Todos Santos area. Some women make clothes which are sold in the local cooperative.

The Mam family usually follows a cycle of newly independent nuclear family to an extended family of parents, sons and their families, then back to the nuclear family as the children move out, then the family will care for their elderly parents when needed. There are tensions within the family at times over land, expenses and household responsibilities and allocation of resources in the family. When one parent dies the other parent usually lives with one of the sons until death. When one member of the family becomes incapacitated the other family members care for them.

The heritage of the family is passed from one generation to the next by oral tradition. The children learn from their parents by observation and imitation. The mothers are usually the ones that pass the heritage of the family on to the next generation.1

1 Taken from Worldview of the Todos Santos Mam of Western Guatemala, compiled by Jim Weedman.

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Importance of InheritancePosing the following question: “Is there information of heritage or history of your family or your village that was passed to you by your parents, or that you passed on to your children?” the surprising response always involved a discussion of land and physical inheritance (as the Spanish word for heritage and inheritance are the same). One finds that land is very important to the people of TS. Personal land possession is important, as is the land of one’s ancestors, simply because of the reality that the land once occupied by ancestors is now the land on which they live and work; it is the land that was left to them by their fathers and that they will pass on to their children. There is no evident interest in certain land for ceremonial purposes; although the surrounding mountains are often mentioned when people relate stories of the past, and how things once were. Again, it is necessary to stress that the land is very important to them and often causes disputes among siblings as there is only so much land to go around. This causes intra-familial problems and various members ‘siding’ with one or the other party.

Issue of AbandonmentThe issue of abandonment is a real one in the TS area as the exportation of man power seems necessary to sustain the current market economy. However, as many men and older boys leave to find work, they do not return; this leaves many women economically stretched and frustrated. This is currently changing the way ‘the family’ looks in TS. Although the norm is husband, wife, children, and perhaps extended families, …one sees many single moms raising many children with a grandparent figure. This seems to be ever increasingly common.

Social StructureCommunication: cultural presentation/learning preferencesIn discussion of the cultural presentation style, prose and learning preferences, one must first say that Todosanteros are very animated in their presentation; they use many gestures and much inflection in their voices. Also, their facial expressions vary. Accounts are told with much enthusiasm. There is a sense of identification between the person involved in the account and the person retelling the account; there is a sympathizing/empathizing with this character.

Most people seem to prefer learning by watching/observing a said task; however, others like some instruction along side of watching and observing.

To further discuss communication, I will talk a bit of gender. There are specific gender roles within TS. Women work in the home doing the cleaning, washing, cooking, child-rearing, weaving; they also play a major role vending in the market. Men work the land; they sew and harvest. However, these events are family-large. Many men also play small roles in local government and are venders in the market. These dynamics of “what is man” and “what is woman” make for much same-sex communication. ‘Like communicates with like’. Although the norm is women conversing mostly with women, it is not completely uncommon to see a man and woman who know one another well to greet one another and talk. This interaction usually takes place between family members

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or work associates (an example being men and women who work for the health welfare department).

Communication: understanding and reproduction The people of TS most definitely can and do reproduce what they hear; however, unable to understand their language, it is difficult to arrive at exactly how they come to understand and process what they hear in order to retell it. I can say that they are very attentive people and do get caught up in details; details seem important to them. However, simplicity is also key in their telling of past events; they cover all of the high points/main events and include ‘necessary’ elements of detail. In the process of constructing, internalizing, recalling and reproducing information, the following has been observed: when a story/account is related, the listener is very attentive, always interjecting with affirmation and questions…all the while, internalizing this reality which they are hearing and seeing through the telling party’s expression. When they want to tell the story to someone else, they seem to simply go—in their mind, of course--- to the moment in which they were told the story, and take on the role of the person who told them. This reproduction is, thus, very close to the actual account that they were told. However, one will often notice exaggeration from the telling party, depending on the interest held by the receiving party. These exaggerations, however, are most often simply more intonation or gesturing or facial expressiveness and not a stretching of the original truth related. (Of course, this must not be assumed of all people.)

In the eyes of the people, their necessities are varied. Basic needs such as the foods of corn and beans are primary. Many people realize the depletion of firewood, and thus see this as a great need. Still others relate that weaving is important and necessary for them; it is their job, their heredity, and provides their clothing. Other issues seen as important include a paved road to TS, potable water, public electricity (in streets), and drainage systems.

Life vocations are chosen based on resource (monetary resource) availability. When these resources are depleted and/or never actually based in reality, there is a clash within the individual choosing and striving to achieve a certain goal of a vocation. This is currently occurring to an extent in TS among the younger, school-going generation. When a realization sets in that one can only afford primary or at the most secondary schooling, there is a phenomenon of resolution. If the person resolves to reach his goal despite the obstacles, then, there is a mild possibility of reaching this; there is also the opposite response of desperation in the realization that the goal cannot physically be realized. Others simply resolve to accept their fate, realizing that they will not be what they once glimpsed being.-------The positive side to those who resolve to accept their differing fate is a sense of tranquility, a feeling of “it’s alright”. On the other hand, one shrieks at the thought of a generation of youngsters who so easily give in and/or give up.

Currently, there is a stream of rebellion among the young people of TS. There are a few gangs and have been robberies committed by these various groups. These groups

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apparently include both young men and young women, although young men are the most prevalent.

Economy: The people of TS have definitely been influenced by western culture—and this has caused change in some areas which will ultimately demand change in other areas of their lives. To sustain certain cultural makeovers, other alterations must emerge. As TS has become a market economy whose import outweighs her export in the way of needs and wants, she has been forced to export man-power. Men leave TS to earn money in order to sustain the current and growing market economy. This is much of what is currently happening in TS: as modern utilities such as motor-run corn mills, plastic, margarine, outside clothing/shoes, etc. are now an integrated part of life, something (i.e. money) is needed to sustain such new portions of culture. However, jobs to earn this money to pay for these new habits are not to be found locally. With this said, the town of TS is not currently self-sustainable; she relies on tourists and moneys sent in from relatives in the states and elsewhere.

Religious StructureThere are at least seven churches in TS. These include the Catholic Church, CAM, Assembly of God, Pentecostal, United Pentecostal, Mount Sinai, and Charismatic. Many people do attend one of the various churches; however, much of the population is ‘un-churched’.

Church in TS seems to be a very political entity. Among the various evangelical groups it appears that the goal is quantity and not quality. It is somewhat of a competition. With this said, many people relate that they do not attend a church because they wish not to add to their problems. They do not want to have to choose between the ever-competitive congregations and, thus, cause problems for themselves and others. One person described the situation among churches as war or an on-going fight.

Also prevalent among the evangelical churches is legalism. The practice of punishment for one’s sins or ‘wrong-doings’ by the local church is common.

Fear of death: There is an evident and a voiced fear of death in TS. Many speak of their prayers to God and perhaps even a vague communion with Him, but speak also of their uncertainty of death and eternal fate. This is implicative of a faith with no foundation of the true gospel of grace that Christ offers. This is where Catholicism has brought and left them. Their fate after death may well be their greatest insecurity.

There are many todosanteros whom attend the Catholic Church and there are many devout Catholics; however, the father currently residing in the church is not supported by the mass of the town’s people. He has recently built on to the church---a project not widely supported by natives. There is also a lack of trust in him as he does not speak their language and does not seem to try and fit in as ‘one of them’.2

2 The catholic church charges money for various services, duties, ceremonies, and privileges. Moneys are collected for the following: selling on market day on church property; baptisms; house visits; special masses; renting of new buildings for vending; marriages; blessings; special prayers; etc.]----The town’s people seem not to be exceedingly supportive of all of the church’s goings-on for these

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Rabinal Achi

Family StructureThe family is monogamous. A characteristic family includes mother, father, and an average of eight children. Upon marriage, a daughter will move into the house of her spouse’s family. A son will remain in his parents’ home and his new wife will come to live with his family.

Responsibility within families is most usually not evenly distributed. Much more is expected of female children than of their male counterparts. Female siblings have the following household duties: care for younger siblings, prepare tortillas for meals, wash clothing, soak, cook, and grind corn, help prepare meals and deliver them to fathers while working in the field, cleaning house. Male children are generally given a little more growing time or childhood and are expected to gather firewood and help their fathers during planting and harvest seasons

The family is patriarchal in nature as the men are the actual heads of household. This reality is, at times indiscernible as women are very intricate parts of home life and society; however, women claim the father is to whom their children answer and listen. Also, with the prominent role played by the woman of the house, a type of dual-head of household model persists. The men are the primary decision makers in the household; however, this responsibility passes with ease to his wife in the husband’s absence. The woman is, thus ready and willing to take on such responsibility. Also, in the arena of buying, selling, and trading the woman is often more schooled than her counterpart because of mere experience. She then makes primary decisions accordingly.

Families traditionally and contemporarily support themselves by farming their land. This is mainly subsistence farming. For added income, the husband, wife, and sometimes older children will hire themselves out to do odd jobs or day labor.3

The Achi are very accommodating and seemingly flexible people in the area of family structure. Family structure changes when necessary to accommodate affecting incidents such as death, marriage, incapacitation, etc. One example of structural modification occurs with marriage. There are many roles that are changed or re-worked to accommodate added persons or the excision of persons from a household. When a woman marries and becomes a daughter-in-law she moves into her husband’s home. She then begins to take on a new role; she will be expected to provide/prepare food for her husband and herself, and eventually for their children. She will begin to share household responsibilities with her sisters-in-law and mother-in-law. On the reverse, the newly- among other reasons.

3 Labor: (ex. Shelling pumpkin seeds, selling small amounts of produce at market, helping with plant and harvest seasons). In years past and still today it has also been common to travel to the coast during certain times of the year to work as hired hands on plantations for months at a time. Many young men now work in Guatemala as security officers and some are in the military.

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married girl has a nuclear family which she is leaving behind; this family now remains without one of their daughters. This also demands changing of roles on the parts of her mother and siblings; they will each take on more responsibilities to make up for her absence.4

Incapacity of a family member also brings about change and, with that, adjustment. The face which ‘change’ takes in these particular situations greatly depends on who the ill or incapacitated party is. If the father of the household is the ill one, many things will succeed as normal; however, components of life involving planting and harvesting will now be assumed by the mother and oldest children in the family. This may mean that children that once attended school no longer do so; it could mean that daughters, upon marriage remain in the household to help with family matters; it could take on still other faces. The important factor to bear in mind is that of accommodation and that it matters not at what cost it comes, just that it is somehow functional.

The basic gist of familial inheritance is quite simple: if there is something to inherit, the children---most often equally---do inherit/receive something from their parents. Land is a common inheritance, although the lack of lands to distribute amongst one’s children is a common problem. As the average number of children is static at eight, this makes for a large number of families owning increasingly smaller plots of land; which, in turn forces people to purchase or lease land in order to grow even the essentials of corn and beans.

Concerning marriage, sexual relations carried out prior to marriage are frowned upon in most areas. However, in some locales common-law marriage is very prevalent; it is the norm in some regions. A girl of average age fifteen will go to live with her future-groom’s family. At this time, the boy and girl will live just as though they were lawfully and culturally husband and wife; this includes beginning a family of their own. When the two are of legal age, eighteen, they will sometimes legally marry. So, one must note that these relations are occurring before actual, legal marriage; however, the set-up of common-law marriage is a culturally accepted institution that is, in most every way, real marriage.

Childrearing is typically a responsibility of the mother. Other key people in childrearing are the grandmother of the house and older female siblings of the child. However, also interesting is the role of the father; although he is not extremely involved in the hands-on rearing of his children, he has the last word and is to whom the children ultimately listen.

Life vocation is often chosen in keeping with resources available; however, this is not always true. More and more often young people see or are wishing to see and to know life beyond their small villages. This is increasingly true in villages located within proximity to commercial town centers. It is not true of many youth residing in very

4 In general, it can be said that women’s roles are more dynamic than men’s.

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remote areas. The latter seem to be content in their lives while the former get small tastes of change and wish to feed their hunger for more.5

Special days and events for a family include birthdays, Christmas, Holy Week and Easter, Day of the Cross, wedding events, town-specific fairs or holidays, new house dedications, All Saints’ Day and the Day of the Dead. Many families celebrate all of the previously listed days while many others celebrate only some of them. Much of celebration has to do with resources; if a family is wealthy, they will celebrate more often and more lavishly. What constitutes celebrating also varies; it is also income-dependant. Many families celebrate house dedications and birthdays by placing candles in the home and making tamales; house dedications also include the blessing of the local father of the Catholic church. Others have marimba music and invite people outside of the nuclear family to participate. Firecrackers are also common in celebrating. Holy Week is a very important time for the family because it is a time of reunion. Because it is a national holiday and break from work, those family members no longer living in the home-town area with those who remain there. Whether or not the family actually has strong Catholic roots, they come together; in this sense, it is not actually about the real holiday, but is a chance for togetherness.

The family unit is changing in varying ways. As mentioned earlier, the younger generation is becoming more innovative, which in turn, begins to change the makeup of the family. The extended family is more so affected by this than is the nuclear. For example, as various nuclear families move out of proximity with their extended family members, the extended family suffers, becoming segmented. Another source of change involves the job shortage in small villages; this forces men to leave town in search of work, and, thus a distinct change in the family dynamic and allocation of familial responsibilities. Ultimately, the current trend in family change is that of traditional, close-knit, extended families becoming increasingly nominal in their networks and decreasing in interdependency.

Social Structure

Society revolves around resources and access to those resources. Buying, selling, trading, and working with one’s resources are all elements of this system of resource exchange (around which general economy and society revolve.)

Homogonous facets of society include language, dress, and tradition. Religion, ethnicity, and economic status make for both homogenous and heterogeneous elements; heterogeneous because select groups of people comprise them…..homogenous for the exact same reason, only the flip-side of the coin this time. The homogonous elements are those that yield security and cohesion within the community.

5 Generally, male youth do have a say in their life vocation. However, one must keep in mind that farming the land given you is also inherent. Therefore, anything within scope is considerable for a young man. Many do carry on the trades of their fathers; however, others are also being educated and looking to very different jobs. For young women the future is plainly set my tradition: marriage, children, domestic work; nevertheless, there are also changes in this facet as young women with the opportunities are also choosing different vocations for themselves (ex. Teaching).

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Relationship networks are most often built along family lines. Families also tend to build close relations with their near neighbors.

In order to address the issue of meeting and making friends, one must define what friendship is. A friend seems to be someone to whom you talk often; a friend is helpful; a friend is giving and not greedy; a friend is someone with whom you spend a great deal of time. However, it is understood that family comes before friendship in all cases. The distinction between adulthood and childhood is ambiguous at best. Upon marriage one becomes an adult, if they weren’t before treated as such. However, many older siblings find themselves in a state of limbo between childhood and adulthood most of their young lives; this period of ambiguity is prolonged if the son or daughter is not married at a normal, young age. For young girls, the fifteenth birthday is special and is a small step into womanhood.

Societal values include unselfishness, sharing/giving, talking with and being open to people, and loving one another.

Religious StructureThe predominant religious system in Achi society is Catholicism in-so-much as one can viably say that it is the religion with which the majority claims affiliation or some level of devotion. This devotion ranges from that of devout, mass-attending adherents, to homes bearing altars to saints and Mary, to a very nominal Catholicism which involves nothing more than being born into a Catholic family.6 The Catholicism existent among the Rabinal Achi people does express belief in one god,---the God of the Bible. However, the respect given and honor paid to Mary and various saints gives way to a pluralism of deities that is very real. Much of the time Mary, the mother of Jesus is juxtapose Jesus. Still other times, Mary is placed above Jesus in a hierarchy of sorts. To compound these realities within Catholicism, Mayan beliefs incorporate praising and appeasing the mountains, among other earthly entities. They believe in a world god (dios mundo) as well. All of the listed entities---dios mundo, the mountains, Mary, saints,--- are objects of worship. Thus, in the syncretic hybrid of Catholicism and Mayan traditional religion pluralism is present.

Along with Catholicism, Mayan religion still has her roots deeply ingrained among the Achi people of Baja Verapaz. When discussing Mayan religion, one must speak of two varying forms: the old-traditional and the new-reinstituted. The former, traditional religion is directly derived from the ancestors of the Mayan civilization; it is no more than a continuation of years of tradition and beliefs propagated by simply sharing culture over time, generation to generation. Remnants of this once intricate religious system are all that now persist. (However, they are important remnants; it is imperative that we come to understand them.) This tradition involves some animism (objects in and of nature

6 There is a general consensus among Catholics that they are basically the same as evangelicals.

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indwelled by souls/spirits), worship, praise and alms-giving to the surrounding mountains and planting fields; this can include special ceremonies, offerings of candles, incense, copal, eggs, sacrifice of birds (chickens and turkeys are characteristic) and fire.

When we speak of the second category of Mayan religion, we are discussing the new Grupo Maya. This is, more than anything, a resurgence of old traditions mixed with a new-age cast. This is actually more than a resurgence; it is a reinstitution pushed and promoted by the government of Guatemala—Derechos Humanos---as a ‘return to Mayan roots’ campaign. This new push to old traditions is in fact flavored with a new-age taste. The goal is not simply to take-up old beliefs; it is a push to throw off all facets of culture that have been brought in from the outside or forced on the natives in centuries past up to present. It involves informing the natives that only certain Mayan beliefs and practices are of them and that neither Catholicism nor Evangelicalism nor any other outside influence is of or for the Mayan peoples. In essence, this instruction, given in dialect (Achi) teaches the people to embrace every ounce of their heritage while rejecting all things Spanish or European. So, as you see this implementation of the Grupo Maya religion is coupled to a thrust in the direction of regaining ethnic identity ( clothing, language, religion, etc.), and, in doing so, attaining ethnic pride.

God is described by most as provider. He is also seen as the giver of life. It is understood by many that everything they possess comes from God. However, many times God is viewed as capricious; he is thus feared, as it is understood that He is very powerful. To some, God is always present. He is near. He is among us humans. He is everywhere. However, to others God is very distant and seemingly untouchable. Both of the prior extremes exist with little to no middle ground on this belief. Most persons relate that God can be worshipped wherever one is (i.e. that place, while it may hold importance, is not an unchangeable element in worship).

The fate of the dead is an entity to which most people claim ignorance. What happens after burial is a mystery and seems to be something that one cannot know with assuredness. Many maintain that God knows where people go after death while it is an impossibility for a mere person to know his or her fate. Many people claim that they have no hope or that their hope is in the things that they have/their possessions. Few claim that their hope is in religion and still fewer in God.

The people are subject to various superstitions. The color red is thought to protect; for this reason, many children wear red beaded bracelets and necklaces. Many adult women also wear red-beaded necklaces; however, they claim that this symbolizes that they are either catholic or Mayan. There are also many beliefs pertaining to the moon and sun.7

7 During eclipses it is dangerous to leave one’s home. It is extremely risky for a pregnant woman to leave the home during this time as she could harm her baby or herself; she is also to abstain from bathing until one or two days after such an event. This practice is directly related to language; the Achi word for eclipse literally means that the moon or sun is ‘taking a bath’. Another belief of the eclipse is that the sun has gone to bed and must be awakened or it might die; for this reason, the common practice is to make a great deal of noise in order to wake her up.

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Cakchiquel---Santa Maria de Jesus, Sacatepequez

Family StructureTraditionally, inheritance involves mothers passing on land or other entities to their daughters and fathers passing such on to their sons. Also, it is tradition for women to own corn planting property and men to own black bean planting property.

On the subject of punishment, isolation or ignoring is severe punishment as children are brought up very near to their mothers. A strong bond exists between the mother and child; this bond is being blatantly denied when children are disregarded. This type of punishment often continues throughout life, although subtle, as a means of social control in the face of misconduct or insurgence. [One form of this punishment in adult life is discipline in the church. Discipline involves disallowing participation in church activities with mandatory attendance to these activities; this amounts to ignoring and isolating those being disciplined.] Children are expected to and typically do begin to obey at age six (on average) without any apparent discipline administered prior to this time.

Discipline is administered by both mother and father. Many times verbal scolding is carried out in Spanish; one theory on this is that Spanish is something that the people don’t really feel as it is not their first language. They feel in Cakchiquel, not Spanish.

Kinship terms are used to depict various elements of nature. Our grandmother is the moon; father often portrays rain or the sun; mother describes maize. The moon and the fetus are somehow intricately connected. They use positioning of the moon to recall times and to recount events; there are hand signals to go along with the positions of the moon.

Family responsibility is given on an ability basis. The more capable of a given task, the more likely responsibility will be given in that area. Children and young adults tend to play real life and they go with and are given responsibility bit by bit. At six years of age a child is held responsible for his own behavior. One responsibility given to children is the care of their younger siblings; this is viewed as a privilege. There is generally a distinct division of labor: men are responsible for income, farming the land, and provision of firewood while women generally carry water, care for children, make foods and tortillas, and wash. Many tasks are conducted by both parties, merely in different ways by men and women.

Problem-solving: When presented with problems, the outside or listening party is not to try and fix things but rather will sympathize and help the other party to see what they can do in their situation. It is, thus not the listening party’s job or responsibility to do any more than listen…leading to a self-lead and resolved solution.

Once married, having had a child says you are a man or woman; in other words, this is the trait that marks one as an adult.

Social Structure

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The general learning preferences are copying or mimicking; you copy as a child. As children mimic they are commended and positive feedback fuels their efforts to learn This is the same in church or in the cofradia: observe it”play” at it…try it add corrections do it. There is thus very little verbal instruction in any realm of life. Correction often comes in the form of mockery; one is made fun of for mistakes which indirectly supports conformity.

Various colors---as the color red mentioned earlier---have varying significance. Also, a compass of directions is accompanied by colors: north is white, east is red, south is yellow and west is black. Red is protection and is the color of life. The colors white and yellow when used in a blouse signify that the wearer is rich. Certain colors are also thought of as hot or cold; this ties in with the Hippocratic system/approach to medicine that remains very predominate in Santa Maria as the people think often in terms of hot and cold illnesses and remedies. This traditional theory of health has caused many outside approaches to medicine and bettering of community health to fail. This leaves Santa Maria in dire need of a culturally adequate healthcare.

Thought patterns go from effect to cause. This is contrary to our western thought process that sees first cause and then effect.

A true legend of Santa Maria seems to be that of Tecunuman, an ancient Mayan ruler. It is said that he buried something in the cerro de oro (hill of gold) but that there is a dragon-like monster guarding it. The people do tell other stories; oftentimes this is done sitting around the fire.

Some places that are important to the people are: the Cruz San Antonio (now a pyramid), and three different crosses located at each entrance to town. The people continue to decorate these crosses for various occasions. To add to the discussion of place, it should be noted that the main community pila was constructed at the important part of town; some might argue that because of the pila this became the important part of town.

Decision making: When a group has a decision to make the following will often take place: one person from within the group who has an opinion may speak individually to several different members of a group, convincing them of or ‘selling’ them on his idea. Then, when the group comes together, the initiator will speak up with confidence and everyone will unanimously agree with him! This illustrates the following: both the individual and the group opinion are valued. The group opinion is obviously highly valued as no one wants to go against the majority and what the group says goes. The individual opinion of this one initiator is very important as he is the one who actually made the decision; his opinion was valued by the individuals in the group, so that as a group the opinion was unanimous.

There is a lack of overt power or authority in Santa Maria. However, social pressure is administered and utilized to exert power; this is a very real pressure within the community. The mayor has power in enforcing of certain laws pertaining to water

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consumption and cleanliness. His stick or staff is a symbol of his power. The catholic priest has power within his own church; an example of such would be order of mass. Elected officials have power; more so than power, there is a prevalent influence which leaders possess. Getting people to follow you or to back you is important in this subject of power be it in the mode of authority or influence. Influence is important in the evangelical church as well; here, the elders carry the weight or influence. There is also a sense of ‘working your way up’ within the church, as well as in other factions of society. Also, ownership yields authority. Town perception of things is important, meaning group, not individual. Rumors and gossip could also be said to be sources of power; they are used as a social control.

Forgiveness is virtually nonexistent. The word is one that, in their language, they do not utilize.

When speaking of life and creation, it is important to address the thoughts and practices surrounding pregnancy and birth. Pregnancy is hidden from children; after giving birth, the siblings are told that the child was bought. Generally it is said that children and young people are not to know about child-bearing; they are not to know anything of the reality of childbirth until marriage, at which time it is the mother-in-law’s responsibility to inform the new bride. This has been changing over the years as young, single people have married friends who inform them on the goings-on of marriage and associated truths. However, pregnancy is thought of as a sickness. Also, the euphemism used to discuss sexual relations is that they were “caught talking with one another”. This says something about the lack of direct speech in this and other areas of the culture. There is a common thought that children ‘eat teeth’ (as translated from dialect) as the number of teeth a woman has lost over the years generally correlates to the number of children she has.

Generally, outsiders are greeted with suspicion. The people have a strong local town identity; they are proud and protective of their culture. People do not confront those whom they consider ‘above them’; however, they will readily confront and even insult someone considered to be ‘below them’.

The youth are currently going through a sense of language loss. Currently there is a change among the youth as there is a new daringness and a simultaneous disregard for cultural homogeneity; this rebellion is though to have resulted because of outside/city exposure and influx. There are some groups of youth that would be termed ‘gangs’; however, these are, for the most part, no more than groups of youth that maintain a status symbol as a ‘gang’.

Kids do have their own way; they have a lot of say in who they want to marry and push and perpetuate fashion trends. The frustration of the parents of these youth is that of the dynamism of culture. The cultural ideal is forever changing and this inconsistency makes for disagreement between parents and children. With the former in mind, parents

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generally teach their children to keep level and not ‘rock the boat’. The theory is to keep your head down because if it is held high it can be cut off.

Religious StructureThere are twenty-one evangelical churches in the municipality of Santa Maria de Jesus. The average church size is twenty members or less; however, there are a few congregations that have numbers such as fifty regularly. Every member has to have a job or role within the church; for this reasoning, larger congregations sometimes cause problems because everyone cannot have such a position. Because of the prior explanation, many times churches will split to accommodate all parties involved. Church, however, is a ‘form’ that involves appeasing God. For example, a group of people looks for a pastor who prays good and keeps God happy. The first New Testament translation was done in 1937. In the 1940s the Mount of Olives church was founded; it is a CAM (Central American Mission) church. This was the first evangelical church presence. It is common thinking to “consult the experts” if you want something done right. The experts are simply those in their appropriate fields whom have the most expertise; here, it is important to note that expertise is measured by the visible, quantifiable evidence that the townspeople have observed. [By this, it is inferred that the most credible shaman, the physician with the best reputation among the people, the catholic priest from whom the most visibly positive outcomes have been noted, or the evangelical pastor who seems to say all the right prayers and do all the right things would each qualify as experts.] This thinking process has carried over with every new thing that comes into town (i.e. this holds true for Catholicism and Evangelicalism. Therefore, if the priest is not doing and saying things to arrive at the desired outcome, one might visit another medium. (The desired outcome varies; however, in general one could say that with the sick it is wellness and in many other cases if is simply a less cumbersome life for which one is searching.) Church, thus, generally results in a ‘form’ of sorts where certain duties must be carried out. Within the four walls of the church it is thought that things need to take on this certain form to be done ‘right’. This makes for exclusivity and religiosity in all church situations.

Services of evangelical groups are generally conducted on Sunday, Monday, Thursday, and Saturday. It is expected that one will attend church each time the doors are open; this is central to the life of a good evangelical.

Discipline is a distinct element within the church. It seems to be a discouraging process as the one being disciplined is normally ostracized and not corrected in a Godly manner. Discipline often creates church-floaters who, when disciplined by their church simply say “I’ll just go to another church”. Also, the culture is one in which shame is a very delicate issue and is used to shame. The church wants a ‘handle’ on her members and discipline seems to be the common approach. Currently, then, it can be said that the issue of discipline is handled in quite a negative way.

The Catholicism that exists is merely a veneer or overlay on the prior Mayan belief system. This seems to be a trend with each new system of beliefs that comes to Santa Maria: the new belief is not accepted in place of the old; it is merely adapted to fit in

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with the old. This is also thought to have happened and is currently happening with Evangelicalism. Examples of this are certain superstitions that prevail and legalism. Former beliefs in multiplicity of gods still seem prevalent, propagated by the carry over into the saints of the Catholic Church. Within Catholicism the thought is that everything has to be done just right; this means that the townspeople look for a priest who can do just that: conduct everything just the way that they see it needs to be done. Most praying is done to Mary and the saints. The concept of God as Lord is practically non-existent. There is a yin-yang conceptualization of God in which a dualism of good and bad co-exist in the being of god. The people are usually living to pacify rather than glorify God.

Superstitions are prevalent. Wearing safety pins on the outside of clothing is thought to keep the bad away from the wearer of the pin by receiving and deflecting this badness. The badness often comes from the moon. Kite flying has a certain season. Flying a kite too early can defer the rain from falling. Full moons, haloed moons, and eclipses are accompanied by risks. For example a pregnant woman should not be exposed to such phenomena concerning the moon as she might get sick or cause complications with pregnancy or deformities to her unborn child. Red is a color thought to protect; for this reason, many children wear red bracelets, necklaces and earrings. The people also believe in ojo. The people also warn against leaving one’s things out at night as there is common belief that some mysterious being will take them.

Divination exists as well. The use of beans, stars, days, and eggs to see into the future is common among diviners. Shamans play interesting roles in conflict resolution; they covertly know of everything that is going on among the townspeople so that when someone comes to them for treatment or counsel whom they know is feuding with another, they prescribe that the patient make amends with the other party and promise that this will be his cure. This subtly acts to resolve many conflicts. There are also priests who make use of divining sticks and water in blessing or healing.

Ancestors appear to be of great importance; they are spoken of with much respect. The language used in discussing ancestors portrays much as---in Cakchiquel of Santa Maria--- they are talked of as ‘his soul’ or ‘her soul’ in a sort of reverence for the deceased. There is also a prevalent celebration of All Saints’ Day; a story is tied to the traditions of food giving to one’s dead relatives: Someone who was once in need of food and so asked this of someone else was, in turn given a rock. Then, the person who gave the rock was in need of food, but was also given a rock. The analogy is that one is given rocks for rocks, and food for food. So, one would automatically want to give their ancestors food as those same ancestors are responsible for the return the people get on their crops. There also seems to be a degree of fear among people concerning the ancestors. And, on the subject of obligation, evangelical conversion leaves ancestors stuck in purgatory; this is utterly viewed as an abandonment of your obligations to your ancestors.

Dying out of town poses a problem as this leaves open the possibility of the spirit of the person being in a state of eternal unrest. The Catholic priest blesses the cross that lies at the front of town after each recent death; the people of town see this as an act to appease the spirit of the cross---expressing their animistic beliefs.

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Western Pokomchi—Alta Verapaz

Family StructureExtended families most usually live together. The women are humble and respectful of their spouses; the men seem to be the heads of household. The women are, however responsible for all household duties and appear to be real servants. The family as a whole works together to complete tasks; this involves even very young children up to the eldest in the family. Resources are also collective and labor is divided.

Children are valued by their mothers. Many women cherish their children merely because they are theirs. Others value their children as companions to whom they can talk and do things for; this expresses both their need to love and to be loved and the fulfillment motherhood thus presents. The former is also telling of the interpersonal relation deficit of these village women.8 Their older children thus taking on the role of companion and contemporary with which to share verbally and emotionally; many times these older siblings will also act to help bear the burdens of life.

Generally, extended families live together. There is one room that is central and most vital to a home; in fact many families only have one such edifice that makes up their home. This structure is most often constructed of a combination of wood and mud/clay bricks. This is where all food preparation takes place, meals are eaten, the fire is maintained, the beds are located, and is where most all family interaction occurs. The women spend most of their time in this room. It is also where other family members spend the majority of their time when at home. This room is also that in which visitors are welcomed and entertained; it is where food, words, and time are shared between people. If women are visiting, many times they will join in with whatever task is being done upon their arrival. Menial tasks such as de-graining corn and shelling beans, among others are communal tasks amongst women; they often enjoy conversation while completing these necessary chores.

Social StructureThere is unity among the people of the community. Oftentimes the residents of a given locale are of blood relation. Many of the more remote villages among the Pokomchi appear to be majority monolingual, speaking only Pokomchi. These are facets of homogeneity among the people and are accompanied by common dress, subsistence and religion(s).

In general, the people are truly simple and seem not to practice many customs. It is tradition for the wife to stay at home taking care of children, cooking, cleaning, and up-keeping the home while the husband goes out in the field to farm the land, cardamom, and coffee. Another custom is for the mam (grandfather) of the village to waive incense over the corn and bean seed before planting in order to insure a good harvest. Some of the people take flowers and candles to the land on which they are going to plant their

8 Here it is noteworthy to say that these women rarely leave the villages in which they live.

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seed as a sort of offering. Other customs include childhood baptism and marriage classes performed by the catechists.

Crops planted and harvested in some areas include corn, beans, and sugar cane while coffee and cardamom are main exports in many areas. Women tend to work in the home and with maguey while men concern themselves with the general planting and harvest, and that of coffee and cardamom where the environment allows.

Communication within the family is many times interesting. It is common for someone to be communicating verbally while completing tasks and not really paying attention to his listeners. Hence, many times the speaker will be facing a direction opposing that of his listener(s). However, many times when someone due respect is speaking, greater attention is given. This could be out of respect, or mere curiosity at what this person will relay. Apparent problems and indulgences include alcoholism among men, gangs, although not a strong presence, and pride. This element of pride is positive in that the people take pride in their culture and heritage; however, it is negative as they see themselves as self-sufficient.9

An interesting fact about women is that they maintain themselves in groups outside of the household. If in route to a given place they will group together, separate from men and children. If one woman pauses to speak with someone, the group halts. They are not bothered by such pauses along the way, but instead enjoy the delays as a time of socialization and becoming aware of village affairs; they very much enjoy being ‘clued-in’ to the goings-on of the community. Time is not an issue to them; people are far more important. They are generally curious people. Generally, the affairs of one person are the affairs of the family unit, and many times others outside of the family; this is not viewed as an invasion of privacy.

Marriage: The age for a young woman to marry is 15-19 yrs. The age for a young man to marry is most usually from 18 to 20 years of age; the male party is always older than the female. Close blood relation of the people within a village means, for young girls, that they must marry outside of the village and move outside the village to construct their own families. This amounts to continual influx and simultaneous removal of women from a given community. The paternal line will thus remain within the village. There are a few different manners in which a marriage is arranged between two people: in general catechists arrange the union or the mothers of the two arrange things. However, exceptions are found as women and men sometimes simply begin living together and, after a time, they have a wedding. The couple may then receive classes from the catechist.10 In the case where the mothers arrange the joining of the their children, the mother of the boy is the one who goes to meet with the family of the girl to ask for her hand.11 Past tradition called for a gift of liquor; however, as not all people indulge in

9 Such pride also makes it difficult to offer any type of physical aid, and thus poses difficulty in getting into the communities as Christian missionaries.10 The subject matter of these classes is money and how to responsibly handle money as a family; family roles were also discussed.11 In some areas marriage arrangements are initiated by the mother of the girl. She will go to the mother of the desired boy and talk with her of the boy at least two times; these visits involve the same offerings of food and drink. The bride and groom to be are present

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drinking of alcohol, they opt for gifts of coca-cola, bread, cacao to name the most common. The parents of the boy may go anywhere from 3-5 times to visit with the family of the girl before a promise is made. After such a promise is established, normally the two are married within a month.

In some areas there is a presence of witches and curers; however, many of the witches are young in age and it is thought that they are in such a profession only for money. They are not esteemed highly by all in the community.

Religious StructureThe primary religion among the Pokomchi people is Catholicism. This ranges from nominal to devout Catholicism. In some areas there is surprisingly little apparent syncretism in religion. There are communities that are wholly Catholic without any evangelical presence. In some more remote areas there is little knowledge of evangelicalism; for this reason, there exist no real positive feelings, nor negative sentiment in regard to evangelicals. Many of the people claim that it must be the same as Catholicism because “there is only one God to serve”. Others assert that they are sure it is good, as anything about or of God is good.

In villages where there is an evangelical presence, there is a norm of two services per week with Sunday’s service being the key day of attendance. In some villages there are various churches; however, in the midst of such an evangelical presence, the assurance of salvation is very low.

III. UNIVERSALS (What follows is a listing of evident universals, drawn from the present study, that hold true across the gamut of Mayan peoples.)

Education and literacy: The extreme inequity between rural and urban areas is a central problem throughout Latin America. Living in a rural area generally means lower wages, fewer job opportunities and inferior education.12 This is what has been the norm in all of the areas studied: an education system that teaches and applauds rote memorization and a deductive reasoning system while not schooling students in applicability or inductive reasoning and analytical/critical thinking skills. Creative thinking or problem solving are rarely encouraged by educators.

USAID cites that while “adult literacy is estimated at 65%, literacy among Mayan women is estimated as low as 30%”.13

for the third meeting and preparations are then made for the wedding.

12 Current Issues in Comparative Education 2(2)—article (April 30, 2000)13 USAID…http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/cbj2002/lac/gt/

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Learning styles: Most Mayan people seem to prefer learning by watching or observing a said task. This is to say that one generally observes a task (such as grinding corn, weaving, cutting firewood, making tortillas, etc.) mimics the actions they see, experiments with that and eventually perfects the task. Sometimes minimal instruction is given to facilitate understanding; however, such verbal instruction is not always characteristic.

Poverty: Most of the Indian people of rural Guatemala live in poverty. The extent of this poverty among the varying Mayan people groups, and even within people groups runs a great gamut. However, as a whole one can say that poverty is widespread. Poverty affects both urban and rural Guatemalans, but rural residents, including most of the Maya population, generally live under harsher conditions. “More than 70 percent of rural residents are classified as living in extreme poverty, compared to 36 percent of urban inhabitants.”14

Reciprocity: Mayan peoples live in a reciprocal society. One gives in expectancy and actual confidence that the recipient will give back; this is not always an equal giving. Actually, the amount or size of the substance or favor is irrelevant; the mere fact that something was given merits something reciprocal, at some moment in time. It is simply known that when one does something for someone, the recipient is then indebted to the giver; this is most often a reciprocity that is unceasing throughout one’s lifetime and so, continues over lengths of time.

Holistic worldview: Central to the Mayan culture and way of life is a centralizing of all life elements. By this, we understand that all of life is connected in a great circle or network that involves neither beginning nor ending. There is no compartmentalizing of varying areas of life; the general Mayan person does not separate religious life from social life from family life from work life: all of these areas are intricately related and inseparable. Trying to segregate such entities would be irrational. In short, this means that any one aspect of life affects the varying other life facets and vice versa. Disparity among the connectedness of life’s various elements results in an overall unhealthy being. This central truth leads to many beliefs surrounding the body, health, healing and illness.

Group Precedence over Individual: In the Mayan mind, the group is the important entity. The family unit, town committee, and association of teachers are units in which they think. Groups of people make up viable entities in society while the individual is disregarded as a valid social entity. This is to say that the opinion of the group is legitimate while that of a single person (i.e. individual) is illegitimate by general consensus. This cultural fact affects many if not all areas of life. Decisions are made largely by group consensus and the group always has the authority and influence. This also means that individuals who have varying opinions that fail to match those of the group and fail to have their own group will normally not voice such a minority opinion; their voice will most always go unheard. In essence, a group must be present to voice an opinion; seldom do individuals voice opinions without prior and present support.

14 “Guatemala” Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2004; contributed by Ralph Lee Woodward, A.B., M.A., Ph.D

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People over Time: Mayans prioritize in the following order: 1. people, 2. time. People and time spent with people is valuable to them while set times, dates, and arranged hours of meeting will sometimes go unfulfilled. This is not to say that they fail to fulfill what they commit to; much to the opposite, they are faithful to their word. This does, however, mean that if one has a visit in the home, they will not rush or leave such to attend a time-scheduled meeting or something of the like because the time spent in relating with the person at hand is more valuable.

Fear of Shame: Shame is in many cases the worst fate that can befall a person. To be put to shame is, thus, avoided at all cost. One can not only be put to shame for one’s personal actions, but for the actions of family members (or other associated group). One individual who is affiliated with a given group can bring shame upon the group because of an incident in which only he or she is involved. The fear of being put to shame reinforces the entity of the group and the importance of the group in this culture. This fear also acts to solicit conformity and thus, is a form of social pressure; this pressure is then used as a source of power and authority which controls society and maintains equilibrium and strives to keep culture static. And, although culture is indefinitely dynamic, this does indeed slow the process of change.

IV. CONCLUDING STATEMENTS

The above comments on the Mayan peoples of Guatemala, although not comprehensive, do begin to reveal to us more about the people with whom and among we are working. Again, it is not an easy issue but a complicated and multi-faceted theme. The universals listed above should serve to help us in shaping our ministry to the Mayans with whom we work.

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