I shall alwaysI shall alwaysremember myremember mycool cool psychologypsychologyteacher at OHSteacher at OHS

Memory: Memory: The storage and The storage and retrieval of whatretrieval of whathas been learnedhas been learnedor experiencedor experienced

As a retired officer in As a retired officer in the United States Army, the United States Army, I am, and always have I am, and always have

been, proud of our been, proud of our nation and the symbol nation and the symbol of our nation, our flag. of our nation, our flag. As such, I have always As such, I have always taken pride in reciting taken pride in reciting

the Pledge of the Pledge of Allegiance. However, Allegiance. However, listen now as I recite it listen now as I recite it in an unusual way—a in an unusual way—a

way I first learned way way I first learned way back in September, back in September,

1966.1966.

Why am I able to Why am I able to remember something I remember something I

learned way back in 1966, learned way back in 1966, and only recall once each and only recall once each

year?year?Working as individuals, think back: Working as individuals, think back: what is your what is your earliest earliest memory?memory?

Next, think back and Next, think back and list 3 famous list 3 famous “ “firsts” or significant events firsts” or significant events in your early livesin your early lives..

For example, for me: the JFK assassination For example, for me: the JFK assassination on Nov. 22, 1963; my first 880 win in track on Nov. 22, 1963; my first 880 win in track (April, 1967); my in-car driving test on Jan. (April, 1967); my in-car driving test on Jan.

24, 1967; and getting my Univ. of San 24, 1967; and getting my Univ. of San Francisco acceptance letter in April, 1969.Francisco acceptance letter in April, 1969.

Iiiiiiiit’s time for YOUR chapter project!!!!

Old, Old, bald, bald, jerk!!jerk!!

I’d like I’d like to use to use him as him as

a a tackling tackling dummy dummy

at at practicepractice

..Review one of the topics onReview one of the topics onSimoncini’s Website and write a 1-2page paper about it page paper about it

Human memory takes essentially Human memory takes essentially meaningless sensory information meaningless sensory information (my voice) and changes it into meaningful (my voice) and changes it into meaningful patterns that you can store and use later.patterns that you can store and use later.It is a cognitive understanding of memory. It is a cognitive understanding of memory.

Which one of you can Which one of you can describe for me thedescribe for me the

information processing information processing model.model.

Information is captured through a Information is captured through a person’s senses.person’s senses.

All transformed to impulses All transformed to impulses so the nervous system canso the nervous system canprocess it. This action is process it. This action is called:called: encoding.encoding.

One of 3 basic tasks of memoryOne of 3 basic tasks of memoryModifies information to fit our Modifies information to fit our memory systemsmemory systemsSelect some stimulusSelect some stimulusIdentify distinctive features of input Identify distinctive features of input Mentally label an experience to make it Mentally label an experience to make it meaningfulmeaningfulEncoding can be automaticEncoding can be automaticMemories for concepts: elaboration required—Memories for concepts: elaboration required— a deliberate encoding efforta deliberate encoding effort

EncodingEncodingAs a typical As a typical

bonehead, this bonehead, this part is difficult part is difficult

for me. for me.

Simoncini is clearly Simoncini is clearly my mental superior-my mental superior-I’m sure he encodes I’m sure he encodes

much better than me.much better than me.

EncodingEncodingStorage—retention of Storage—retention of encoded materialencoded materialRetrievalRetrieval

Hey! For smart people Hey! For smart people like us, encoding, like us, encoding,

storing and retrieving storing and retrieving memories is no memories is no

problemo.problemo.Alyssa is Alyssa is SO HOT!SO HOT!

Some childrenSome children,, few few adults,adults, have have eideticeidetic, or , or photographic, imagery.photographic, imagery.

After looking After looking at at Michelangelo’sMichelangelo’sCreationCreation for for 30 seconds, I 30 seconds, I remembered remembered every detail. every detail. And they are. . And they are. . ..

Frankie’Frankie’s kinda s kinda cute.cute.

This is This is SO SO

Boring!Boring!

Memory Memory Storage of inputsStorage of inputs

Hey! My memory is like a Hey! My memory is like a bank vault—it holds bank vault—it holds

everything!everything!

Sensory memorySensory memoryWorking memory (Short term)Working memory (Short term)Long Term memory Long Term memory

Memory Memory Storage of inputsStorage of inputs

Sensory memory Sensory memory holds informationholds informationfor only a second or sofor only a second or so

The George Sperling Experiment The George Sperling Experiment

HH TT X X W W

RR VV AA MM

JJ BB NN PP

The George Sperling Experiment The George Sperling Experiment

HH TT X X W W

RR VV AA MM

JJ BB NN PP

Top row: chimeTop row: chimeMiddle: laserMiddle: laserBottom: drumBottom: drum

The George Sperling Experiment The George Sperling Experiment

HH TT X X W W

RR VV AA MM

JJ BB NN PP

Top row: chimeTop row: chimeMiddle: laserMiddle: laserBottom: drumBottom: drum

The George Sperling Experiment The George Sperling Experiment

Partial report condition Partial report condition

Actual storage capacity Actual storage capacity of sensory memory can of sensory memory can be 12 or more itemsbe 12 or more items—even—eventhoughthough all but 3 or 4 items all but 3 or 4 itemsusually disappear fromusually disappear fromsensory memory sensory memory before before they enter consciousnessthey enter consciousness..

Senses of sight and hearingSenses of sight and hearingHold inputs for fractions ofHold inputs for fractions of seconds before they disappearseconds before they disappear

No narrowing or analysis occurs No narrowing or analysis occurs

The five primary types of sensory The five primary types of sensory memory:memory:

Iconic memory Iconic memory

Echoic memoryEchoic memory

Tactile sensory memoryTactile sensory memory

Olfactory sensory memoryOlfactory sensory memory

Gustatory sensory memory Gustatory sensory memory

There is aThere is a multitude of inputs entering multitude of inputs entering our brains our brains at any one time—how do we at any one time—how do we discriminate into a manageable number?discriminate into a manageable number?

No wonder my No wonder my head always head always

hurts!hurts!

I don’t want my Homie’s I don’t want my Homie’s head to hurt so much.head to hurt so much. How are sensory inputs How are sensory inputs

narrowed to a narrowed to a manageable number.manageable number.

Why, that’s easy, Why, that’s easy, Marge. Two Marge. Two

ways: ways: selective selective attention and attention and

feature feature extraction.extraction.

Yeah! Your Yeah! Your ability to ability to choose among the choose among the various available various available inputs is called inputs is called

selective attentionselective attention..

According to According to DonaldDonald Broadbent, we attend to Broadbent, we attend to

only one of the many only one of the many channels channels of informationof information

reaching us at any time. reaching us at any time. Our minds filter out the Our minds filter out the

other inputs other inputs That’s why Bart tuned That’s why Bart tuned out Ms. Krabapple’s out Ms. Krabapple’s teaching and Otto’s teaching and Otto’s

clowning around while clowning around while he thought about Ms. he thought about Ms.

Speers.Speers.

Yeah, kid. But don’t Yeah, kid. But don’t forget: Anneforget: Anne Treisman Treisman

later proposedlater proposed attenuation attenuation theorytheory saying thatsaying that Broadbent’s filter Broadbent’s filter

suppressed but did not suppressed but did not eliminate other channels—eliminate other channels—

so other inputs are not so other inputs are not completely blocked out. A completely blocked out. A lot of it has to do withlot of it has to do with how how

interestedinterested you are in you are in something.something.

All right, then, so what isAll right, then, so what is feature extractionfeature extraction??

Mr. Burns,Mr. Burns, feature feature extraction involves extraction involves

locating the locating the outstanding outstanding

characteristics of characteristics of incoming information.incoming information.

Duh, is that likeDuh, is that like remembering a remembering a

person’s name by person’s name by remembering certain remembering certain things about themthings about them——like their hair color, like their hair color,

eyes or height . . . or eyes or height . . . or that they belch a lot?that they belch a lot?

Exactly, Barney. For Exactly, Barney. For example, I remember Mr. example, I remember Mr.

Simoncini by his great Simoncini by his great physique.physique.

That’s great, That’s great, Lisa. Now, we’ll Lisa. Now, we’ll

have have experiments experiments

about selective about selective attention and attention and

feature feature extraction.extraction.

Working memory Working memory keepskeeps a thought as long as you a thought as long as you repeat it—about 20 seconds repeat it—about 20 seconds

Long-term memory Long-term memory

Man, that date Man, that date with the Sonora with the Sonora cheerleader back cheerleader back in 1965 was awful!in 1965 was awful!

By the time information getsBy the time information getsto the to the short term memoryshort term memory (STM) (STM)it has been analyzed,it has been analyzed,identified, and simplified identified, and simplified for convenient storagefor convenient storageduring a longer time during a longer time period.period.

STM is limited not STM is limited not only in its duration, only in its duration, but in its capacity but in its capacity as well.as well.

Or. . .Or. . .

Wow! This is mind Wow! This is mind boggling: I can boggling: I can only only

hold 7 unrelated hold 7 unrelated items at a timeitems at a time. .

Right now, though, I Right now, though, I can only hold two.can only hold two.

STM: How?STM: How?Oh, this is so hard. Do we Oh, this is so hard. Do we

have math homework? Is the have math homework? Is the government test tomorrow? government test tomorrow?

What time is Meagan’s party? What time is Meagan’s party? Are we TPing Simoncini’s Are we TPing Simoncini’s

house Friday or Saturday? Did house Friday or Saturday? Did Mom say I had to make dinner Mom say I had to make dinner tonight? Aaaarrrgh!! Being tonight? Aaaarrrgh!! Being

blonde is SO HARD!!!blonde is SO HARD!!!

For most, any moreFor most, any morethan 7 items can’tthan 7 items can’tbe stored. be stored. For some,For some,that number is lessthat number is less. .

Let’s do an experiment on Let’s do an experiment on short-term memory!short-term memory!

Take out some scratch paper. Take out some scratch paper. I’ll read 8 groups of number I’ll read 8 groups of number lists. After each one, I’ll say lists. After each one, I’ll say “Go” and you will write the “Go” and you will write the

numbers in the correct numbers in the correct sequence.sequence.

2 8 3 1 2 8 3 1 7 4 1 3 9 7 4 1 3 9 4 9 7 2 1 54 9 7 2 1 5

5 1 8 3 9 2 6 5 1 8 3 9 2 6 1 9 5 6 3 4 7 2 1 9 5 6 3 4 7 2

3 6 2 5 1 9 7 4 8 3 6 2 5 1 9 7 4 8 6 1 5 4 9 8 3 2 8 76 1 5 4 9 8 3 2 8 7

8 9 3 1 6 4 2 7 5 1 3 8 9 3 1 6 4 2 7 5 1 3

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Model of WorkingAtkinson and Shiffrin’s Model of WorkingMemory (Baddeley’s update—2001)Memory (Baddeley’s update—2001)

One good STM techniqueOne good STM technique is called is called chunking chunking

OK, that number was OK, that number was 847-3007. Let’s see, 847-3007. Let’s see, 847, OK, yeah; and 847, OK, yeah; and

then 30 and then 07. then 30 and then 07. Yeah! 847-30, 07; Yeah! 847-30, 07; 847-3007. Got it! 847-3007. Got it!

Peace out!Peace out!Chunk items together as Chunk items together as fast as they come in to fast as they come in to make them easier to make them easier to remember.remember.

Hey, you psych Hey, you psych students. Let’s do students. Let’s do

an experiment an experiment aboutabout

chunking!chunking!No, No,

Blondie. Blondie. I said I said

chunkinchunking! Not g! Not

chunks! chunks! Gee!Gee!

Oh Professor, Oh Professor, please don’t please don’t

make me make me blow chunks.blow chunks.

You have 20 seconds You have 20 seconds toto

memorize this list:memorize this list:

SATCIAVHSMTVNATOVOLOHSSATCIAVHSMTVNATOVOLOHS

Who wants to try?Who wants to try?

Oh, Oh, professor, professor, you’re soyou’re so

mean. That mean. That was too hardwas too hard—especially —especially for a blonde for a blonde

like ME!like ME!

Don’t feel bad, Kim. That Don’t feel bad, Kim. That was hard for normal was hard for normal people, so it must be people, so it must be impossible for a blonde.impossible for a blonde.

Now let’s try using Now let’s try using chunking! You chunking! You have have another 20 another 20 seconds. seconds.

SAT CIA VHS MTV NATO VOL OHSSAT CIA VHS MTV NATO VOL OHS

Now who wants to try?Now who wants to try?

Oh, me, Oh, me, me, me, me, me, me!!!me!!!

How does chunking How does chunking helphelpexpand short-term expand short-term memory?memory?

Can any of you Can any of you share share other STM devices other STM devices that you have that you have used?used?

Rehearsal Rehearsal OK, her phone OK, her phone number is 555-number is 555-

1212; that’s 555, 1212; that’s 555, 12, 12.12, 12.

Must Must repeatrepeat things to things to yourself, in your mind or yourself, in your mind or out loud. That out loud. That process isprocess iscalledcalled::

Without rehearsal, STM lasts <20 sec.Without rehearsal, STM lasts <20 sec.

maintenance maintenance rehearsal rehearsal

Elaborative RehearsalElaborative RehearsalOK. I’ve devised a phone OK. I’ve devised a phone

number so simple that even number so simple that even you two girls can remember you two girls can remember it: 1-800-H-O-T-J-A-K-E. Get it: 1-800-H-O-T-J-A-K-E. Get

it? Hot Jake!it? Hot Jake!This is This is sad!sad!

Poor Poor guy! guy! How How

pathetipathetic!c!

Information is actively Information is actively connectedconnectedto knowledge already storedto knowledge already stored

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Model of WorkingAtkinson and Shiffrin’s Model of WorkingMemory (Baddeley’s update—2001)Memory (Baddeley’s update—2001)

Acoustic encodingAcoustic encoding

Information worth holdingInformation worth holdingon to must be rehearsed—with theon to must be rehearsed—with theintent to learn—for it to be intent to learn—for it to be transferred into the long-termtransferred into the long-termmemory.memory. Rehearsal without intentRehearsal without intentto learn yields no transfer.to learn yields no transfer.

LTMLTM RehearsRehears

eeI wannaI wanna

Long-term memory (LTM) Long-term memory (LTM) Where we store information Where we store information for future usefor future useNot like a filing cabinet Not like a filing cabinet Reconstruct what youReconstruct what youmust recall when you must recall when you need it.need it.Involves all previously-Involves all previously-discussed processes discussed processes

Long-term memory (LTM) Long-term memory (LTM)

Keep your cool, Keep your cool, dude! Sara may be dude! Sara may be a whiner, but she is a whiner, but she is

HOT! And I’m a HOT! And I’m a huge football starhuge football star

—I intercepted a —I intercepted a pass and scored pass and scored against Sierra!.against Sierra!.

Wow! It’s cool Wow! It’s cool sitting next to a sitting next to a REAL man, who REAL man, who does his OWN does his OWN

homework. I’m homework. I’m so nervous, I so nervous, I

can’t pay can’t pay attention to the attention to the

speaker. speaker.

Long-term memory (LTM) Long-term memory (LTM)

SelectiveSelectiveattentionattentionscreens screens out other out other soundssounds

Words form in STM Words form in STM & form meaningful& form meaningfulphrases & phrases & sentencessentencesYou will store You will store meanings of lines meanings of lines & & actions in LTMactions in LTM

Feature Feature extraction extraction turns turns sounds intosounds intorecognizablrecognizableewords.words.

Here’s an example of how Here’s an example of how things get into our LTM. I’ve things get into our LTM. I’ve

memorized Rodney memorized Rodney Dangerfield’s monologue Dangerfield’s monologue from ball dinner scene the from ball dinner scene the 1980 movie 1980 movie CaddyshackCaddyshack. .

Listen.Listen.

Now, let’s see how close your Now, let’s see how close your teacher came to what I really teacher came to what I really

said.said.

Some Models of Memory Some Models of Memory Endel Tulving (1972)Endel Tulving (1972)

Procedural (implicit) memory Procedural (implicit) memory Does not require consciousDoes not require consciousrecollection to have past recollection to have past learning or experiences learning or experiences impact our performance impact our performance

Tying a tie or a shoe lace Tying a tie or a shoe lace

= memory of= memory of our own lives our own lives

= our = our knowledge of language: knowledge of language: its words, rules &its words, rules &and meanings.and meanings.

Some Models of Memory Some Models of Memory Endel Tulving (1972)Endel Tulving (1972)Semantic memory Semantic memory

Episodic memoryEpisodic memory

Declarative (explicit) memory Declarative (explicit) memory episodic + semantic memoriesepisodic + semantic memories

Amygdala

Hippocampus

The Limbic The Limbic SystemSystem

Here is a Here is a homework homework assignment about assignment about thethe flashbulb flashbulb memorymemory phenomenonphenomenon Memory Memory

that centersthat centersaround aaround aspecific,specific,

importantimportantor or

surprisingsurprisingevent.event.

Flashbulb Memory Flashbulb Memory phenomenonphenomenon: the memory is so: the memory is sovivid that it represents a mentalvivid that it represents a mentalsnapshot.snapshot. Example: for Baby-Example: for Baby-boomers, theboomers, the J. F. Kennedy J. F. Kennedy Assassination.Assassination.Ask one person about a major historic Ask one person about a major historic event in their lifetimes. . .specifically event in their lifetimes. . .specifically ask them if they can remember ask them if they can remember EXACTLY what they were doing when EXACTLY what they were doing when they heard the news.they heard the news.

InformationInformation

InformationInformation

Daniel Schacter:Daniel Schacter:Implicit memory:Implicit memory: Memory that can affect Memory that can affect your behavior, but which your behavior, but which you did not deliberately you did not deliberately learn or of which you learn or of which you currently have no currently have no awareness awareness

Explicit memory involves awareness Explicit memory involves awareness

George Harrison: George Harrison: ““My Sweet Lord” My Sweet Lord”

The Chiffons: The Chiffons: ““He’s So Fine”He’s So Fine”

Subconscious memory: implicit memorySubconscious memory: implicit memory Priming: procedure of providing cues that Priming: procedure of providing cues that stimulate memories without awareness of stimulate memories without awareness of the the connection between the cue and the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory.retrieved memory.

We must find thousands of items We must find thousands of items stored in our memories whenstored in our memories when we need them.we need them.

The solution toThe solution to retrieval is retrieval is organization oforganization of meaningful meaningful information information

What key point about how What key point about how things get into the long term things get into the long term

memory do my fellow memory do my fellow authors and I want to authors and I want to

underscore?underscore?To store new information in your LTM, you must To store new information in your LTM, you must make it meaningful while it is in working memory.make it meaningful while it is in working memory.Therefore you must associate new information Therefore you must associate new information with things you already know. with things you already know. Important to think of personal examples of Important to think of personal examples of concepts you want to remember from class.concepts you want to remember from class.

I I recall recall that the perpetrator was that the perpetrator was a kind of blonde female, about a kind of blonde female, about 5’7”, 85 pounds, and she drove 5’7”, 85 pounds, and she drove this hecka big pickup. I think this hecka big pickup. I think she is a cheerleader at OHS.she is a cheerleader at OHS.

I’m SO I’m SO ashamed ashamed

of of myself. . .myself. . .NOT!!!!NOT!!!!

Recall is the act of reconstructing Recall is the act of reconstructing information information

Involves knowledge,Involves knowledge, attitudes andattitudes and expectations. expectations.

Seems to result fromSeems to result from an act of an act of reconstructionreconstruction

Bruce, I know the answer Bruce, I know the answer to that zinger question to that zinger question

you just asked. I recall it you just asked. I recall it from Simoncini’s lecture. from Simoncini’s lecture.

Of the three suspects in the line Of the three suspects in the line up, I up, I recognizerecognize the one in the the one in the

middle as the one who got middle as the one who got Simoncini’s house.Simoncini’s house.

The human memory is organizedThe human memory is organized in such a way that makes in such a way that makes recognition easy.recognition easy.

pencilspencils

dogdog

happhappyy

sadsad

Time Time to get to get up.up.

Hottie!Hottie!!!

The process of recognition providesThe process of recognition provides insight into how the memory insight into how the memory stores information.stores information.

““A rose by any otherA rose by any othername would still name would still smell as sweet.”smell as sweet.”

Recognition process: a single itemRecognition process: a single item of information may be “indexed”of information may be “indexed” under several headings. under several headings.

Slender Slender Kind of blonde Kind of blonde About 5’7” About 5’7” Drove a pick-upDrove a pick-upGoes to OHSGoes to OHS

CheerleaderCheerleader

Recognition and recall Recognition and recall are are measures ofmeasures of explicit memory explicit memory Relearning is a measure of Relearning is a measure of implicit memoryimplicit memory—it comes more—it comes more naturally often without conscious naturally often without conscious recollection recollection

Ooooh. Let’s see.Ooooh. Let’s see.I’ve done this I’ve done this before. Do I push before. Do I push the 1 or the area the 1 or the area code first?code first?

Hey Pete. Do you Hey Pete. Do you remember that remember that trick you pulled trick you pulled on Pagano right on Pagano right here sophomore here sophomore

year?year?

Oh yeah! Now that I’m Oh yeah! Now that I’m here I remember—it was here I remember—it was pretty brutal, wasn’t it?pretty brutal, wasn’t it?

The Encoding Specificity The Encoding Specificity Principle: Principle: Involves a situation where Involves a situation where the context affected the the context affected the way a memory was way a memory was encoded and stored—encoded and stored—influencing its retrieval influencing its retrieval at a later time.at a later time.The more closely the The more closely the retrieval cues match the retrieval cues match the form in which the form in which the information was encoded, information was encoded, the better the information the better the information will be rememberedwill be remembered

Students should be given assignments Students should be given assignments that make them come to grips with the that make them come to grips with the material in many different ways material in many different ways rather than just rather than just memorizing the material and parroting it back.memorizing the material and parroting it back.Technique builds more connections into the web Technique builds more connections into the web of associations into which a memory is of associations into which a memory is embedded, and the more connections there are, embedded, and the more connections there are, the easier it becomes to cue a memory.the easier it becomes to cue a memory.

In evaluating your students, it is In evaluating your students, it is best to use a variety of best to use a variety of

assessments.assessments.Robert Bjork: Robert Bjork:

I’ve had a poopie day so I’ve had a poopie day so far!far!

A memory process that selectively A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match (and retrieves memories that match (and are congruent with) one’s mood—the are congruent with) one’s mood—the kind of information we retrieve from kind of information we retrieve from memory heavily depends on our memory heavily depends on our moods moods

Mood congruent memory Mood congruent memory

Tip of the tongue phenomenon Tip of the tongue phenomenon

The inability to recall a word while The inability to recall a word while knowing that it is in memory. knowing that it is in memory. Involves interference: another Involves interference: another memory blocks access or retrievalmemory blocks access or retrieval

What’s that lady’s What’s that lady’s name? Darn! It’s right name? Darn! It’s right

on the tip of my on the tip of my tongue.tongue.

Schacter’s Seven Sins of Memory Schacter’s Seven Sins of Memory TransienceTransienceAbsent-mindednessAbsent-mindednessBlockingBlockingMisattributionMisattributionSuggestibilitySuggestibilityBiasBiasUnwanted Unwanted persistencepersistence

Hermann Ebbinghaus and TransienceHermann Ebbinghaus and Transience or Impermanence or Gradual Fadingor Impermanence or Gradual Fading

Memories seem to weaken over timeMemories seem to weaken over timeNonsense syllablesNonsense syllables

For relativelyFor relativelymeaninglessmeaninglessmaterial, there is a material, there is a rapid initial loss of rapid initial loss of memory, followed by a memory, followed by a declining rate of lossdeclining rate of loss

The Forgetting CurveThe Forgetting Curve

Forgetting Forgetting

Information once Information once stored in LTM thatstored in LTM thatcannot be retrievedcannot be retrieved—may involve—may involvedecay, interference, or repressiondecay, interference, or repression..

Some inputs decay over time--transience Some inputs decay over time--transience

A case in pointA case in point

Interference orInterference or blocking: memory being blocking: memory being blocked or erased by previousblocked or erased by previous or subsequent memories.or subsequent memories.

That was a That was a real real bonehead bonehead remark Pete remark Pete made last made last week.week.

What What remark?remark?

The onlyThe onlything I thing I recall recall about about last weeklast weekwas that was that party.party.

Proactive interference—earlier Proactive interference—earlier memory does blocking memory does blocking

Duh, I can’t recall Duh, I can’t recall anything about anything about the Manteca the Manteca game; but I game; but I remember that remember that blow to the head I blow to the head I took against took against Turlock.Turlock.

Retroactive interference—a later Retroactive interference—a later memory does the blocking memory does the blocking

The coach said The coach said that Logan was that Logan was open two plays open two plays ago; but I only ago; but I only remember last remember last play. play.

Here is another Here is another experiment. You experiment. You

have 10-seconds to have 10-seconds to memorize this list:memorize this list:

CerealCerealCoffeeCoffeeEggsEggsBeetsBeetsMilkMilkTri-tip roastTri-tip roastApplesApplesBananasBananasHenweighHenweighShampooShampoo

Who would Who would like to try?like to try?

The Serial Position effectThe Serial Position effectDiminished memory for the Diminished memory for the middle; We aremiddle; We are better able better able to recall information to recall information presented at the beginning presented at the beginning and end of a list.and end of a list.

CerealCerealCoffeeCoffeeEggsEggsBeetsBeetsMilkMilkTri-tip roastTri-tip roastApplesApplesBananasBananasHenweighHenweighShampooShampoo

Remember first 4-5 items Remember first 4-5 items because had because had more time to more time to rehearse them (primacy rehearse them (primacy effect);effect); recall last 3-4 items recall last 3-4 items because they were because they were still still accessible in STM (recency accessible in STM (recency effect)effect)

Oh, Kevin, IOh, Kevin, Iknow I heardknow I heardBrittney say Brittney say she went outshe went outwith a with a college guycollege guy..

Reconstructive processesReconstructive processes: : the the alteration (or misattribution) of a alteration (or misattribution) of a recalledrecalled memory memory that may be that may be simplified, enriched, or distorted, simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on our experiences and depending on our experiences and attitudes attitudes

ConfabulationConfabulation:: someonesomeone “ “remembers”remembers” information information that was that was never stored never stored in memory. in memory.

Confabulation: if our Confabulation: if our reconstruction of an event is reconstruction of an event is incomplete, we fill the gaps byincomplete, we fill the gaps bymaking up what is missing. making up what is missing. Sometimes, we may Sometimes, we may be wrong. be wrong.

AAAARGH!! AAAARGH!! I goofed!I goofed!

Schemas: conceptual frameworks a Schemas: conceptual frameworks a person uses to make sense of the person uses to make sense of the worldworld—sets of expectations about —sets of expectations about something that is based on our past something that is based on our past experiences.experiences.Elizabeth Loftus studyElizabeth Loftus study (1974) (1974) tested schemas by tested schemas by suggestingsuggesting different verbs to different verbs to different people as they different people as they described a car crash. Those described a car crash. Those schemasschemas (how they (how they interpreted the verbs) interpreted the verbs) affected the way they affected the way they constructed the crashconstructed the crash. . Misinformation effect Misinformation effect

My name is Kyle and I’m a My name is Kyle and I’m a defense attorney. What are defense attorney. What are

some some accuracy pitfallsaccuracy pitfalls I should I should be aware of as I prepare to be aware of as I prepare to cross-examine a witness?cross-examine a witness?People’s recollections are less People’s recollections are less

influenced by leading questions if influenced by leading questions if they are forewarned that interro-they are forewarned that interro- gations can create memory biasgations can create memory biasWhen the passage of time allowsWhen the passage of time allows the original memory to fade, peoplethe original memory to fade, people are more likely to misremember are more likely to misremember informationinformation

Each time a memory is retrieved, it is reconstructed Each time a memory is retrieved, it is reconstructed then stored, increasing the chances of errorthen stored, increasing the chances of errorThe age of the witness mattersThe age of the witness mattersConfidence in a memory is not a sign of accuracyConfidence in a memory is not a sign of accuracy

Class of 2009 Class of 2009

10-Year 10-Year ReunionReunion

Repression: a person subcon-Repression: a person subcon- sciously blocks memories of sciously blocks memories of embarrassing or frighteningembarrassing or frightening experiences.experiences.

You don’t You don’t remember remember tripping in tripping in thatthatroutine routine duringduringthe Turlockthe Turlockgame ourgame our senior senior year?year?

I I honestlhonestly y don’t.don’t.

Becca McDonnell Becca McDonnell Joanna Blain Joanna Blain

Schacter’s Seven Sins of Memory Schacter’s Seven Sins of Memory TransienceTransienceAbsent-Absent-mindednessmindednessBlockingBlockingMisattributionMisattributionSuggestibilitySuggestibilityBiasBiasUnwanted Unwanted persistencepersistence

Bias: the influence of personal beliefs, Bias: the influence of personal beliefs, attitudes, and experiences on memory attitudes, and experiences on memory

Expectancy Bias Expectancy Bias A tendency to distort A tendency to distort recalled events to recalled events to make them fit one’s make them fit one’s expectationsexpectations

I’m going to vote for I’m going to vote for this candidate—I this candidate—I

remember how he remember how he handled that crisis handled that crisis

really well.really well.

I don’t remember it I don’t remember it that way. I think you that way. I think you

just want another just want another person from that person from that

party elected.party elected.

Self-consistency biasSelf-consistency bias

You’re conveniently You’re conveniently forgetting all those forgetting all those elections in the ’70s elections in the ’70s

when you were when you were trying to impress trying to impress those liberal girls.those liberal girls.

The idea that we areThe idea that we aremore consistent in ourmore consistent in ourattitudes, opinions, andattitudes, opinions, andbeliefs than we actually beliefs than we actually are.are.

I’ve always been a I’ve always been a conservative in conservative in

voting.voting.

Improving Memory Improving Memory Organizing what you learn plus Organizing what you learn plus chunking. chunking.

How meaningful How meaningful what you what you learned is to you learned is to you also plays a role also plays a role in memoryin memory..

Elaborative rehearsal: you relate new Elaborative rehearsal: you relate new information to what you already know .information to what you already know .

Look, I really want to do well, so I Look, I really want to do well, so I memorized the entire report by memorized the entire report by

chunking key points and rehearsing for chunking key points and rehearsing for 3 hours, and I am now ready to present 3 hours, and I am now ready to present

it.it.

Improving Improving Memory Memory Mnemonic devices—techniques Mnemonic devices—techniques for learning based on usingfor learning based on using associations. associations.

In science you have kingdom,In science you have kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. Use this genus and species. Use this mnemonic device: “mnemonic device: “KKingsings pplaylay ccardsards oonn ffatat ggreenreen sstools.” Then there is the tools.” Then there is the spectrum of colors: spectrum of colors: Roy G. BivRoy G. Biv ((rred-ed-oorange-range-yyellow-ellow-ggreen-reen-bblue-lue-iindigo-ndigo-vviolet.)iolet.)

Improving Memory Improving Memory Mnemonic devices Mnemonic devices

Here is a great way Here is a great way to remember the to remember the planets:planets: MMyy vveryery eexcitedxcited mmotherother jjust ust sservederved uuss nnoodles.oodles.

Improving Memory Improving Memory

Association, or method of loci Association, or method of loci

I’ll always remember I’ll always remember the people in the people in Simoncini’s AP US Simoncini’s AP US history class by how history class by how they sat. Kami, Evan they sat. Kami, Evan and Sara sat in the front and Sara sat in the front by the door, Luke and by the door, Luke and Trevor sat right in front Trevor sat right in front of Simoncini, Nick sat of Simoncini, Nick sat behind Luke and behind Luke and Kara sat next to Kara sat next to him . .him . .

Associate items on a list with a sequence of familiar Associate items on a list with a sequence of familiar Locations—Locations—first used by Cicerofirst used by Cicero

Synesthesia: Synesthesia: the stimulation of one sense triggers a the stimulation of one sense triggers a secondary response in another sense secondary response in another sense

Improving Memory Improving Memory

Ugh! Every time I Ugh! Every time I seesee a a hospital, I think I hospital, I think I smellsmell

alcohol.alcohol.

Improving Memory Improving Memory

Lack of interference Lack of interference

I’ll always I’ll always remember this remember this idea because it idea because it is is so peaceful so peaceful here today.here today.

Improving Memory Improving Memory Degree of original learning Degree of original learning

I’ll always I’ll always remember remember how to block on how to block on this play this play because the because the coach made us coach made us practice it so practice it so many times.many times.

Innateness theory of languageInnateness theory of languageChildren acquire language not merely by Children acquire language not merely by imitating but also by following an inborn imitating but also by following an inborn program of steps to acquire the vocabulary program of steps to acquire the vocabulary and grammar of the language in their and grammar of the language in their environment.environment.

Noam Chomsky Noam Chomsky (cognitive psychologist) (cognitive psychologist)

Children are born with mental Children are born with mental structures, built into the brain,structures, built into the brain,that make it possible to that make it possible to comprehend and produce speechcomprehend and produce speech

Language Language Acquisition Acquisition Device (LAD)Device (LAD)Foundations Foundations of language are of language are genetic—Broca’s genetic—Broca’s area in the area in the cerebral cerebral cortexcortex

Wernicke’s Area Wernicke’s Area Particularly involved in the Particularly involved in the comprehension of comprehension of spoken language.spoken language.

Babbling: A foundation for language Babbling: A foundation for language

Speech-like sounds and Speech-like sounds and syllables syllables

Babies make nearly all Babies make nearly all sounds made in all sounds made in all languages languages

First year: average childFirst year: average childmakes many sounds. makes many sounds.

Late first year: Late first year: sounds sounds begin to sound more begin to sound more like language the child hearslike language the child hears

Imitate speech they hear Imitate speech they hear React to praiseReact to praiseUsually says first word Usually says first word

Step 1: One must learn to make Step 1: One must learn to make signs—hand or mouth signs—hand or mouth

Step 2: Learn to give Step 2: Learn to give signs meaning signs meaning

Step 3: Learn grammar Step 3: Learn grammar

Children learn steps at Children learn steps at own speed own speed

During 2During 2ndnd year: leap in language year: leap in language development—using sounds as development—using sounds as symbolssymbols

Early words often Early words often pertain to things the pertain to things the child can see or touch child can see or touch

Primitive, incomplete Primitive, incomplete words words

Age 2: at least 1000 word vocabulary Age 2: at least 1000 word vocabulary

Join words into 2-word phrasesJoin words into 2-word phrases

18 months-5 years: children add18 months-5 years: children add 5-10 words per day5-10 words per day to their vocabulary to their vocabulary

4-5 years, vocabulary 4-5 years, vocabulary of several thousand words;of several thousand words; 10,000 by age 6. 10,000 by age 6.

The Naming Explosion The Naming Explosion

18 months 18 months

BabaBaba

24 months24 months

Niki get down.Niki get down.

the ability to arrange the ability to arrange symbols in new combinations to symbols in new combinations to produce new meanings.produce new meanings.

Language and thought are closely Language and thought are closely intertwined intertwined

Grammar:Grammar:

Especially well developed in the Especially well developed in the human brain.human brain.

Grammar at 2: Grammar at 2: telegraphic speechtelegraphic speech::words left out, but meanings usually words left out, but meanings usually clear clear

““Where my ball?” Where my ball?” ““Daddy fall down”Daddy fall down”

Understand some rules—Understand some rules—such as keeping words in such as keeping words in same order as adults.same order as adults.

Example: “Daddy went yesterday.” Example: “Daddy went yesterday.”

At first, use correct form of verb.At first, use correct form of verb.

LaterLater, after learning grammar , after learning grammar rule for forming past tenses, rule for forming past tenses, they they replace correct form with replace correct form with a combination of the rule & a combination of the rule & what they hearwhat they hear: “Daddy goed : “Daddy goed yesterday.” (yesterday.” (over-regularizationover-regularization))

Now, we are Now, we are going to discuss going to discuss

another aspect of another aspect of memory: the memory: the

units of thought.units of thought.

Storage & retrieval—basic processes Storage & retrieval—basic processes

Thinking & problem solving—much Thinking & problem solving—much more complex processes more complex processes

Thinking: Thinking: changing & changing & reorganizing reorganizing information information stored in memory stored in memory to to create new create new information.information.

The processes of thought depend The processes of thought depend on four key on four key Units of ThoughtUnits of Thought

ImageImage: (most : (most primitive) primitive) mental mental representation representation of a specific of a specific event or object event or object Remember only Remember only

a few detailsa few details

Symbol: (more abstract)—a sound Symbol: (more abstract)—a sound or design that represents an or design that represents an object or qualityobject or quality

Most common: Most common: words words (symbols (symbols that stand for that stand for something something other other than than themselves.)themselves.)

Joint Joint

5 G ? 5 G ?

ConceptConcept: when a symbol is used : when a symbol is used as a label for a class of objectsas a label for a class of objectsor events with certain common or events with certain common attributes, or for the attributes attributes, or for the attributes themselves, based on experiencethemselves, based on experience

Animals Animals Music Music

Another example of concept: Bonehead Another example of concept: Bonehead

Animals and music are “concepts” Animals and music are “concepts” that have common attributes of that have common attributes of the objects involvedthe objects involved

Concepts allow us to Concepts allow us to chunkchunk large amounts of information—large amounts of information—we can add on to certain classes we can add on to certain classes of information rather than treating of information rather than treating every new input as unique. every new input as unique.

There are two types of conceptsThere are two types of conceptsNatural concepts: mental representationsNatural concepts: mental representations of objects and events drawn from our of objects and events drawn from our direct experience.direct experience.

Artificial concepts: defined by rules, such as Artificial concepts: defined by rules, such as word definitions and mathematical formulasword definitions and mathematical formulasPrecisely defined ideas or abstractions, rather Precisely defined ideas or abstractions, rather than actual objects n the worldthan actual objects n the world

One form of natural concept is the prototype One form of natural concept is the prototype

When we think of a When we think of a concept, we often think of concept, we often think of a representative example a representative example

of it. of it. For example. . .For example. . .

Picture the concept of a vehicle, Picture the concept of a vehicle, Nick.Nick.

For Nick, a limousine is aFor Nick, a limousine is arepresentative example of a representative example of a vehicle, or vehicle, or a prototypea prototype. .

Rule—fourth & most complex Rule—fourth & most complex of the units of thoughtof the units of thought

Rules are statements of relationsRules are statements of relationsbetween two concepts between two concepts

The same animal cannot be both The same animal cannot be both a reptile and a mammal. a reptile and a mammal.

Concept Hierarchy Concept Hierarchy AbstractAbstract

Specific/concrete Specific/concrete

Cognitive Maps Cognitive Maps A cognitive representation of physical space A cognitive representation of physical space is a special form of visual concept called a is a special form of visual concept called a cognitive map. (Tolman)cognitive map. (Tolman) Nick, my challenge Nick, my challenge

right now is how to right now is how to beat Sara to Beyer beat Sara to Beyer

High School.High School.

Determinations from PET Scans and MRIsDeterminations from PET Scans and MRIs

No single “thinking center”No single “thinking center”The brain is a community of highly specialized The brain is a community of highly specialized modules, each of which deals with different modules, each of which deals with different components (units) of thought components (units) of thought

Role of the frontal lobes Role of the frontal lobes

Especially important in coordinating mental Especially important in coordinating mental activity when we think, making decisions, and activity when we think, making decisions, and solving problemssolving problems

Prefrontal Cortex Prefrontal Cortex 1.1. Keeping track of an episodeKeeping track of an episode2.2. Understanding the context of an episodeUnderstanding the context of an episode3.3. Responding to a specific stimulus Responding to a specific stimulus

Schemas: conceptual frameworks a Schemas: conceptual frameworks a person uses to make sense of the person uses to make sense of the worldworld—sets of expectations about —sets of expectations about something that is based on our past something that is based on our past experiences.experiences.

Example: Example: wedding wedding

Schemas: provide contexts and Schemas: provide contexts and expectations about the features likely to expectations about the features likely to be found when you encounter familiar be found when you encounter familiar people, situations, images people, situations, images and ideas and ideas

HotHotIt’s so It’s so

hot hot today. today.

I’m I’m miserablmiserabl

e.e.Becky, I Becky, I just met just met

a a hothot guy!guy!

The situation on the The situation on the Korean peninsula is a Korean peninsula is a hot hot

topic.topic.

Norman and Rumelhart’s findings on schemas Norman and Rumelhart’s findings on schemas

Schemas are the primary units of meaning in the Schemas are the primary units of meaning in the human information-processing system. You human information-processing system. You comprehend new information by integrating comprehend new information by integrating new input with what you already knownew input with what you already knowExample: a new type of pizza introduced by Example: a new type of pizza introduced by your favorite establishment your favorite establishment

Script: Thanksgiving Dinner Script: Thanksgiving Dinner

Kinds of thinking Kinds of thinking Directed thinking: a systematic Directed thinking: a systematic and logical attempt to reach a and logical attempt to reach a specific goal.specific goal.

How can I get those How can I get those students to learn students to learn this this material? What material? What must I do? OK. If I must I do? OK. If I slow down my slow down my lectures, and then lectures, and then ask questions. . .ask questions. . .

Kinds of thinking Kinds of thinking Non-directed, or divergent, Non-directed, or divergent, thinking consists of a free flow thinking consists of a free flow of thoughts with no particular of thoughts with no particular goal or plan, and depends moregoal or plan, and depends moreon images. on images.

What time is that What time is that meet-meet-ing? I can’t wait for ing? I can’t wait for the the weekend. What weekend. What shouldshould I wear on I wear on Thursday?Thursday? We need dog We need dog food.food.

Kinds of thinking Kinds of thinking Metacognition—thinking aboutMetacognition—thinking about thinking thinking

OK, I haven’t been OK, I haven’t been able to solve that able to solve that problem. So problem. So maybe if I used a maybe if I used a different version of different version of the problem-the problem-solving solving process. . .process. . .

The characteristics of a good problem solver The characteristics of a good problem solver Possess requisite knowledge for Possess requisite knowledge for solving the problemsolving the problemSkilled at identifying the problem Skilled at identifying the problem and selecting a strategy to attack and selecting a strategy to attack the problemthe problem

Problem Solving Problem Solving Directed thinking to bridge the Directed thinking to bridge the gap between the presentgap between the present situation and a desired goal situation and a desired goal

Available funds Available funds BillsBillsHow to budgetHow to budget

Identify the problem Identify the problem Consider all relevant possibilities, without Consider all relevant possibilities, without leaping to conclusions leaping to conclusions

Why is Sara being Why is Sara being such a pain recently? such a pain recently?

Maybe there’s a Maybe there’s a problem at home. problem at home.

Maybe it’s a boyfriend Maybe it’s a boyfriend problem. Perhaps problem. Perhaps

she’s having difficulty she’s having difficulty in another class. in another class.

Maybe as a blonde she Maybe as a blonde she is overwhelmed. It is overwhelmed. It

could also be a could also be a character flaw.character flaw.

Selecting strategies Selecting strategies More complex problems: step-by-step formulasMore complex problems: step-by-step formulas called algorithmscalled algorithms

OK. When the OK. When the microphones don’t microphones don’t work properly we work properly we

follow the following follow the following algorithm: 1) check to algorithm: 1) check to

see if everything is see if everything is plugged in; 2) check plugged in; 2) check

the battery in the the battery in the control box; 3) check control box; 3) check

the control the control adjustments.adjustments.

Heuristics Heuristics Rules of thumb—basic Rules of thumb—basic rules that help us cut rules that help us cut through the confusion through the confusion of complicated situationsof complicated situations

There are several There are several tried and true tried and true

heuristics to address heuristics to address this situation. Let’s this situation. Let’s

review some.review some.

Problem Solving StrategiesProblem Solving StrategiesResearch various solutions to Research various solutions to achieve a goal achieve a goal

OK. I have to be in L. A. OK. I have to be in L. A. by Friday. If I drive, it by Friday. If I drive, it will take 7 hours and will take 7 hours and cost $45.00. If I take cost $45.00. If I take Amtrack, it will cost Amtrack, it will cost $70.00 and take 5 $70.00 and take 5 hours. If I take hours. If I take Greyhound, it will Greyhound, it will cost $35.00 and take 10 cost $35.00 and take 10 hours. The most hours. The most efficient efficient way is. . .way is. . .

Problem Solving Strategies Problem Solving Strategies

1. Means-End Analysis (Reverse planning) 1. Means-End Analysis (Reverse planning)

My goal is a good My goal is a good class. Before class. Before class, I’ll class, I’ll rehearse. Before rehearse. Before rehearsing, I’ll rehearsing, I’ll write write a good lesson a good lesson plan. Before I plan. Before I write my lesson write my lesson plan, I’ll do a lot of plan, I’ll do a lot of research. research.

Problem Solving Strategies Problem Solving Strategies 2. Most people analyze problems to 2. Most people analyze problems to see if it resembles a situationsee if it resembles a situationwe have experienced in the past—we have experienced in the past—search for analogies.search for analogies.

The last 3 The last 3 times,times,Lauren fell to Lauren fell to the left a bit. the left a bit. So I need to So I need to cheat a little cheat a little to the left this to the left this time.time.

Problem Solving Problem Solving Strategies Strategies Specific methodsSpecific methods

3. Break down a complex3. Break down a complex problems into several problems into several smaller, more easily smaller, more easily

solvedsolved problems. problems.

Problem Solving Strategies Problem Solving Strategies A mental set: is a useful strategy that A mental set: is a useful strategy that has become cemented into ahas become cemented into aperson’s problem-solving process.person’s problem-solving process.

When I’m When I’m guarded this guarded this way, I always way, I always fake left and go fake left and go right. So I’ll do right. So I’ll do it it again.again.

No No prob. prob. She’ll She’ll fake fake left left & & go go right.right.

Set leads to rigiditySet leads to rigidity

Functional fixednessFunctional fixednessThe inability to perceive a new use for an objectThe inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose associated with a different purpose

Oh, gee. Oh, gee. The only The only

way to get way to get there is to there is to turn left turn left

here.here.

Meagan is Meagan is such a dweeb. such a dweeb.

She also She also could have could have

gone straight gone straight or turned or turned

right.right.

Bias Bias

Confirmation Confirmation

HindsightHindsight

AnchoringAnchoring

Representative Representative

Availability Availability

I disagree with I disagree with that solution, that solution,

so it is no so it is no good.good.

I heard planes I heard planes crash so I crash so I

refuse to fly.refuse to fly.

I hate I hate how how

SimoncinSimoncini makes i makes fun of fun of

blondesblondes

Problem Solving Strategies Problem Solving Strategies Creativity: a way to use informationCreativity: a way to use information in such a way that the result is in such a way that the result is something new, original and something new, original and meaningful. meaningful.

All problem All problem solving involves solving involves some creativity some creativity

Problem Solving Strategies Problem Solving Strategies Flexibility: the ability to overcome Flexibility: the ability to overcome rigidity.rigidity.

Problem Solving Strategies Problem Solving Strategies Recombination: a new mental Recombination: a new mental arrangement of elements. arrangement of elements.

After a basketballAfter a basketball player learns player learns basic moves, shebasic moves, she then simplythen simply recombines thoserecombines those skills as situationsskills as situations arise. arise.