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Political IdeologiesSystematic belief systems that

mobilize people into actionPragmatic applications of normative

theoriesAn ideology is a more or less

consistent set of beliefs about the nature of the society in which individuals live, and about the proper role of the state in establishing and maintaining that society

Ideologies“An ideology may be—but need not necessarily be—

coherent, systematic, and rational. If it is fairly persistent and pervasive, in the sense that a particular point of view or orientation occurs whenever an individual, group, or organization engages in action or discussion on any given subject, the bias takes on the shape of an ideology” (Groth, 1971:1)

An ideology is a value or belief system accepted as fact or truth by some group.

Ideologies mobilize people into action, transcending differences in class, race, ethnicity, and culture

The Birth of IdeologiesClassical Liberalism was first systematic ideology;

opposed the existence and dominance of elites in societyAimed to overthrow/replace the Organic Hierarchy of

Medieval Society1. Organic Hierarchy: structure of society is marked by unequal resources and power; it is organic in that the various components were linked by mutual obligation and duty2. Feudal Society: very rigid, not reflective of social mobility. Social positions—high or low—were inherited, and with it a set of obligations and rights specific to the rank3. Transformation of Feudalism varied; Britain: end of 17th century; France: 1789; Germany: mid-19th centuryKey Question: How and Why was the System of Feudalism Dismantled?

The ReformationAttack on natural law and divine rightAttack on intellectual unity and hegemony of Roman

Catholic Church prevalent in the Middle AgesInitiated moral revolution: poverty was no longer seen

as virtuous; accumulation of wealth become widely viewed as manifestation of upright character

Weakness of Church allowed other socio-political changes to develop; move from Christian pluralism to secularism

Rulers used religion as a useful pretense, or the basis of a duty, to make war against rulers of the opposite conviction

Challenge to the religious and theological status quo took political form—Revolution against the traditional (Catholic Church)

The Enlightenment: The Age of Reason

Its central premise: human experience—whether in the natural world or social life, is accessible to human reason and explicable in rational terms.

Introduced processes of manufacturing and reorganization of social labor around the production for the market

individuals have the ability to reason: popular sovereignty and individual rights

constitutionalism and introduction of liberal democracy

age of skepticism: disposition to take nothing for granted; to question and challenge existing ways of thought

adoption of scientific methodologyRevolution against traditional philosophy and science

The Market EconomyThe exchange of goods, services, and labor in

transactions between individuals.Prompted decline of feudal order: immediate

consumption or authoritative transfer of goods and services

Number of buyers and sellers grew Development of merchant middle classEconomic production for the purpose of exchange:

move from use to exchange productionIndividuals obtain the goods for consumption in market

placeMarket economy moves beyond producing basic

utensils, tools, and luxury itemsOrdinary individuals became concerned with the

acquisition of wealth

The Politics of IdeologiesThe transformative role of the Reformation, the

Enlightenment, and the Market Economy required new beliefs to justify the new and undermine the traditional

An ideology is a comprehensive set of beliefs and attitudes about social and economic institutions and processes

Ideologies are used to defend or alter a political system or order; it can provide a defense or critique

Ideologies address a variety of issues, among the we can usually find the following:

Beliefs about Society and the Place of Individuals

A.Human natureB.Relationship of individual to

societyC.The role of God/the Church in

societyD.Hierarchy versus Equality

Beliefs about the State and about the Nature and Structure of PowerThe purpose of governmentForm of government (structure of

power), f.ex. absolute monarchy, representative democracy

Idea of Justice, i.e. the rule of law, rights, equality

Beliefs about Specific Areas of Governmental Policy

Economic policy—private versus public ownership, regulation of the market, redistribution of wealth

Social policy—education, welfare, health carePublic morality/social order—crime and

punishment, firearms control, sexuality, gender, and race

Foreign policy—interventionism versus isolationism, nationalism versus internationalism/globalism

Means of TransitionPeaceful transitionEducationRevolutionMilitary overthrow; coup d'état

Weber’s Classification of AuthorityType Basis Example

Traditional Custom and Monarchyestablished way ofdoing things

 Charismatic intense commitment Many

to the leader and his messagerevolutionary  leaders

Legal-Rational rules and proceduresbureaucracy; merit not connections

representative the office, not the person democracy

Classical LiberalismThe individual is more important than the state and

becomes a citizen of the state only through consentThe individual is rational and capable of making his or her

own decisions; this makes the individual capable of autonomy and self-government

Progress and social mobility is possible; change is not to be feared

State power should be limitedEconomic inequality is not necessarily badEconomic freedom (freedom to make economic choices) is

more important than economic equalityAdvocates free trade based on comparative advantage: the

principle that says states should specialize in trading those goods that they produce with the greatest relative efficiency and at the lowest relative cost (relative, that is, to other goods produced by the same state)

Key Assumptions of Classical Liberalism

1. Valorization of the individual2. Role of government should be minimal; popular

sovereignty3. Emphasis on individual rights and constitutionalism4. Individual political liberty is seen as important as

economic libertyLaissez-faire: doctrine of minimal governmental intervention in the market

5. upholds principles of equality before the law and equality of opportunity

6. assumes that government, politics, and social life in general will avoid any types of extreme excessesexamples: Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, John Locke

Advent of Modern LiberalismEmerged in the early 20th century; took off with

added impetus with FDR’s New Deal in the 1930sUnfettered economic system exploited the poor

and protected the richDevelopment of concentration of capital;

interfered with the “invisible hand” (Adam Smith)J.M. Keynes—government was right to correct

certain market inadequacies1. fiscal policies: economic policies that involve gov’t

spending and taxing2. monetary policies: economic policies that involve

control of and changes in the supply of money in a state economy

Keynesian TheoryMaintains that the government can stabilize

the economy—i.e. can smooth out business cycles—by controlling the level of aggregate demand.

Aggregate demand: the money available to be spent on goods and services by consumers, businesses, and government;

Aggregate demand can be manipulated through monetary and fiscal policies

Modern LiberalismGovernment intervention into individual and social life is often

necessary to prevent some individuals from denying freedom to others

Liberty should be understood in broad, expansive, positive terms; as the liberty to seek out ways to develop human potential and contribute in a meaningful way to society1. negative freedom/liberty: freedom from interference by other people; freedom of restraint; freedom to be left alone2. positive freedom/liberty: power and resources to fulfill one’s potential; let to the development of social or welfare liberalism

Economic inequality is to be regarded with suspicion, as a condition likely to undermine the welfare of those who have lower incomes and thus to erode their chances of being free (freedom being defined as expansive liberty)1. Redistribution of Resources: a narrowing of material inequalities brought about through a combination of progressive taxation and welfare provisions.

LibertarianismOff-shot of classical liberalismThe belief that the realm of individual liberty should be

maximized. This is commonly associated with limiting the influence of public authority (state, gov’t) in the lives of individuals.

Use of civil society and market to maintain social order and advance economic prosperity

Libertarians tend to support the following policies:1. Legalization of drugs2. Prohibition of censorship of books and movies3. Support for gun ownership4. Support for abortion rights5. Support for gay rights

Libertarians: William Belsham, David Nolan, Ron Paul

Conservatism Disposition to preserve what exists; support for the existing order/status

quo Human nature: humans are different in terms of intelligence; humans are

prone to irrationality and thus need guidance by traditional authorities Some are born to rule; have paternalistic obligation to those less

fortunate. Noblesse oblige: the obligations of the nobility toward the less fortunate (responsibility of power); to protect them from severe or unduly hardship

Values community over individual; organic society: various components are linked by mutual obligations and duties

Social hierarchy –structure of unequal resources and power is natural and inevitable

Tend to emphasize religion, high standards of morality; moral teachings should be transmitted through the family, religious, and governmental institutions

Examples: Plato, Edmund Burke, Benjamin Disraeli

Edmund Burke Rejects government’s role to protect natural rights Government should not stress the natural rights of individuals

because it engenders expectations in people Rights are too easily confused with promises of power Government should safeguard human needs rather than natural

rights Humans have natural urge toward order and control Humans need moral guidance to make social existence meaningful Ethics cannot and should not be deduced from reason because reason

can be used to justify good or bad moral behavior Reason cannot be adequate for individual decision making and self-

guidance Traditional values need to replace reason; the workability of ethical

norms should be derived from history Traditional values provide foundation for moral absolutism (not moral

relativism) and thus are basis for ethical certainty Pursuit of social morality takes precedence over pursuit of individual

freedom; freedom needs to be bound by common moral standards

The New RightCounter-revolutionary movement against the post-

1945 culture of interventionism and the spread of liberal, progressive social values. Rose to prominence in the 1970s as a result of failure of Keynesian social democracy

Thatcherism and Reaganism in 1980sSeeks marriage of neoliberalism (return to classical

economic liberalism) and neo-conservatism; objective: strong but minimal stateneoliberalism: free-market economics (Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman)Nanny state: a state with extensive social responsibilities; the term implies that welfare programs are unwarranted and demeaning to the individual

New Right ContinuedReligious Right (1988): Pat Robertson and Ralph Reed

of Christian Coalition; Family Research Council (FRC) monitors political candidates for pro-family positions

Public Policy Positions:1.Antiabortion policy2.Opposition to legalization of gay rights (extreme: gay

marriage)3.Support for school prayer4.Opposition to sex education in public schools5.Opposition to pornography and its commercialization6.Social problems are caused by rampant social

immorality

New Right Continued Neoconservatives: 1. Embraces 19th century conservative social values2. Restore hierarchical, authoritative social order emphasizing family,

religion, and the nation-state3. supports using American economic and military power to bring

liberalism, democracy, and human rights to other countries (Bush Doctrine)

4. Authoritative structures basis for social stability, discipline, and respect5. Minimal bureaucratic welfare state acceptable6. Economic protectionism may be necessary to preserve national interest7. Worried about emphasis on multicultural and multireligious societies—

lead to domestic conflict and instability8. Disdain for international and supranational institutions such as the UN

and the EU