I INTRODUCTION - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/21278/8/08_chapter 1.pdf ·...

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Chapter – I

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the history, education is considered as an important

instrument for development in all spears of human and social living.

Education, particularly quality education in any given society reflects the

quality of living of its people. Indian education has undergone many

changes due to several socio-political considerations to meet the emerging

needs of the society particularly during the pre and post-independence

period. It is strange to observe that the changes brought into Indian

education system have failed to respond to its societal needs causing an

unprecedented dissatisfaction regarding the relevance of education among

the cross section of its people. Thus, achieving education for all with

quality has emerged as a need and challenge before educational planners

and practitioners in India.

National Curriculum Framework-2005 (NCF-NCERT) was an

attempt at the national level to provide a roadmap for the quality school

education. The constructivist approach that the national curriculum

framework envisages the quality concerns in school education. The

baseline philosophy of this constructivist approach was to enable each and

every child not only to facilitate them to think but also build a structure of

knowledge. This endeavour will ultimately translate one‟s vision of

creating a knowledge society a reality.

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The quality concerns in school education demand a change in the

teaching activity of the teachers. The change in teaching requires a

paradigm shift from the traditional methods of teaching to the innovative

strategies including the integration of technology, etc. The shift from

traditional methods to new innovations in teaching strategies will

definitely result in achieving quality in education. The advent of

constructivist approach in teaching is a new development in our Indian

classroom context. Though there is lot of material available which

delineates about the constructivist approach as an ef fective teaching

learning strategy. However, not many studies were conducted so far in

this country, how best the constructivism in teaching by the classroom

teacher facilitates effective and accelerated learning among the students.

Keeping this in view, the present researcher made an attempt to observe

transacting the content of social science in a constructivist approach and

its corresponding impact on the learning of the students. The emerging

results of such a study will definitely facilitate the educational planners in

general and more particularly the classroom teachers at secondary level to

use this approach extensively in order to achieve quality in education.

Accordingly, the curriculum planners and the classroom teachers will

have a paradigm shift in their domain of academic activity.

1.1.0. Social Science

The social science encompasses diverse concerns of society and

includes a wide range of content drawn from the disciplines of history,

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geography, political science, economics and sociology. The selection and

organization of material into a meaningful social science curriculum,

enabling students to develop a critical understanding of society, is therefore

a challenging task. The possibilities of including new dimensions and

concerns are having immense impact especially in view of the students‟

own life experiences.

It is important to reiterate the significance of the social sciences by

not only highlighting its increasing relevance for a job in the rapidly

expanding service sector but also by pointing to its indispensability in

laying the foundations for an analytical and creative mindset among the

educates / students.

It is often presumed that the content pertaining to the human sciences

(history, geography, political science, economics, etc) cannot be labeled

as „scientific‟ is the contention of a particular section of people. But it is

necessary to recognize that the social sciences lend themselves to scientific

inquiry just as much as the natural and physical sciences do . However, it

is often observed that the ways in which the methods employed by social

sciences are distinct to those of the natural and physical sciences

(NCF-2005 Position Paper on Teaching of Social Sciences).

The social sciences carry a normative responsibility to create and

widen the popular base for human values namely freedom, trust, mutual

respect, respect for diversity, etc. Thus social science teaching basically

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should be aimed at imbibing in a child a moral and mental strength so as

to provide her with the ability to think independently and deal with the

social forces that threaten these values without losing her individuality.

Social science teaching can achieve this by promoting children ‟s ability to

take initiative to critically reflect on social issues that have a bearing on

the creative coexistence between individual good and collective good.

Critical reflection pre-supposes a comprehensive curriculum in which

both teachers and children – participate in generating the knowledge

without any latent and manifest forces of coercion. It is through this non-

coercive and participatory mode that children and teachers stand the best

chance of making teaching and learning interesting as well as enjoyable.

1.1.1. Approaches to Teaching - Pedagogy and Resources

Social science teaching needs to be revitalized towards helping the

learner to acquire knowledge and skills in an interactive environment.

The teaching of social sciences must adopt methods that promote

creativity, aesthetic sensibility and critical perspectives. Further, it should

enable children to draw relationship between past and present to

understand changes taking place in society. Problem-solving, dramatization

and role-play are some hitherto under explored strategies that could be

employed. Teaching should utilize resources like audio-visual materials,

including photographs, charts, maps and replicas of archaeological

materials reflecting various cultures, so as to make the teaching more

realistic and thought provoking.

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In order to make the process of learning participative, there is a

need to shift from mere imparting of information to debate and discussion

strategies. This approach of learning will keep both the learner and the

teacher alive in the class and make them to be close to the social realities.

Concepts should be clarified to the students through the live

experiences of individuals and communities. It has often been observed

that cultural, social and class differences generate their own biases,

prejudices and attributes in classroom contexts. The approach to teaching

therefore needs to be open-ended. Teachers should discuss different

dimensions of social reality in the class and work towards creating self-

awareness among the learners.

1.1.2. Background

Different curricula have different approaches to the organization of

learning experiences in the social sciences. Although the 1975 national

school curriculum frame argued for identifying essential units in each of the

subjects and then unifying them into an integrated syllabus. The social

science was taught as separate subjects and the NCERT prepared three

separate textbooks for classes VI to X (The Curriculum for the Ten-Year

School: A Framework, 1975). However for the examination purpose, the

three subjects were combined under one paper called social science. The

1988 curricular review introduced no major changes in the syllabi for the

upper primary stage, although it did explicitly stated the importance of

the concepts included in the curriculum. Hence, special care should be

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taken in designing the curriculum in social sciences so as not to overlook

any of the core components (National Curriculum for Elementary and

Secondary Education: A Framework, 1988). At the secondary stage, it had

four books. The National Curriculum Framework for School Education-2000

discussed the need for the social science curriculum to be comprehensive

but not loaded with information. In addition it detailed the need for ideas

to be interrelated through the selection of particular themes or issues,

stating “these themes may be drawn from geography, history, civics,

economics and sociology in a balanced manner and suitably graded simple

to complex and immediate to remote” (NCFSE, 2000). The current social

science textbooks have made an attempt to establish the interrelatedness

among subject areas wherever possible. Accordingly, there is only one

textbook for social science for each class (Classes VI to X).

1.1.3. Prevailing Perceptions of the Social Sciences

The popular perception of social science is that it is a non-utility

subject. As a result low self-esteem governs the classroom-transaction

process with both teachers and students feeling disinterested in

comprehending its contents. From the initial stages of schooling, it is

often suggested to students that the natural sciences are superior to the

social sciences, and are the domain of „bright‟ students. Therefore, there

is a need to emphasize that the social sciences are essential to provide

social, cultural and analytical skills required to adjust to an increasingly

interdependent world and to deal with political and economic realities.

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There is a widespread belief that social science merely transmits

information and thereby it centered on the text which is required to be

memorized for examinations. The content of these textbooks are considered

to be unconnected to daily realities. In addition social science is viewed

as providing unnecessary details about the past. It is also felt that the

examination paper rewards the memorization of these superfluous „facts‟

with the children‟s conceptual understanding being largely ignored. Any

effort to address the information overload in the social sciences will

simultaneously have to review the current examination system.

The social science curriculum has hitherto emphasized on

developmental issues. These are important but not sufficient to understand

the normative dimension like issues of equality, justice, and dignity in

society and polity. Teaching of the social science has thus been linked up

to the role of an individual in contributing to this „development‟. In view

of this gap, there is a need to achieve a shift in focus from utilitarianism

to egalitarianism that would address the normative concerns as mentioned.

There is an urgent need to restore self-esteem to the social sciences by

having themselves to address social and political issues in such a way as

to awaken in the students a real concern for social justice. Courses in

history have often ignored many sections of the society and many regions

of India, and it needs to be corrected. The study of history should enable

the learner to understand the past, which will make them to appreciate the

present and facilitate them to look at the future with a scientific view.

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1.1.4. Teaching the Social Sciences

Studying the social sciences at all levels of acquisition is vital for

many reasons. It enables the children

to understand the society in which they live to learn, how the society

is structured, managed, governed and also about the forces seeking to

transform and redirect society in various ways,

to appreciate the values enshrined in the Indian constitution such as

justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The unity and integrity of the

nation and the building of a socialist, secular and democratic society,

to grow up as active, responsible and reflective members of the society,

to learn to respect differences of opinion, lifestyle and cultural practices,

to question and examine received ideas, institutions and practices,

to acquire pleasure in reading by providing them with enjoyable reading

material, and

to undertake activities that will help them develop social and life skills

and make them understand that these skills are important for social

interaction.

In textbooks and in the classroom interaction, the context, language

and images should be comprehensible, gender-sensitive and critical of

social hierarchies and inequalities of all kinds prevailing in the society.

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1.1.5. Secondary Stage Social Science

The objectives of teaching the social science at the secondary stage

are to develop among the learner analytical and conceptual skills to

enable him/her to

understand the process of economic and social change and development

with examples from modern and contemporary India and other parts of

the world,

critically examine social and economic issues and challenges like

poverty, child-labour, destitution, illiteracy and various other dimensions

of inequality,

understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a democratic

and secular society,

understand the roles and responsibili ties of the state in the fulfillment

of constitutional obligations,

understand the processes of change and development in India in

relation to the world economy and polity, and

appreciate the rights of local community in relation to their environment ,

the judicious utilization of resources as well as the need for the

conservation of the natural environment.

At the secondary stage, the social science comprises elements of

history, geography, political science and economics. The main focus will

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be on contemporary India. Learner will be initiated in to a deeper

understanding of the social and economic challenges facing the nation. In

keeping with epistemic shift proposed, contemporary India will be

discussed from the multiple perspectives including the perspective of the

adivasi, dalit and other neglected populations and efforts should be made

to relate the content as much as possible to the children ‟s everyday lives.

1.1.6. Social Science Curriculum for Class IX

After completion of elementary education, the learner move to

secondary stage of schooling. This is a stage wherein the students will be

exposed to new dimensions of knowledge. The social sciences as a

subject will be taught with a different orientation. At this stage the

student by virtue of studying social sciences is expected to gain

comprehensive knowledge about the socio-cultural environment in which

she lives. The study of social science is vital for the learners to develop

an appreciation of the importance of history, heritage, culture, socio-

economic conditions and geographical environment of their nation. It

provides opportunities that help learners to become conscious citizens

and enable them to take social and economic decisions and inspire others

to perform similar roles. Civic attributes and values are also developed in

the learners. Hence, it was necessitated for the present researcher to

select IX class for the present study.

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1.1.7. Meaning of Social Science

Many people comment on the importance of social sciences vaguely,

without understanding the place of social sciences in one‟s own life and also

in the social context in modern times and how it will influence our future.

Science: The term „science‟ means a systematic study of any

phenomenon. According to Fairchild‟s Dictionary of Sociology.

“Science is a kind of human activity directed towards the systematic

statement of the probability of the hypothetic or actual recurrence of

phenomenon which is and are regarded as identical”.

Beisanz and Biesanz say, “Science goes with the method and not

with the subject matter”.

This means if the method of study is systematic and scientific then

whatever subject it might be it can be called a science.

The social sciences may thus be defined as those mental or cultural

sciences which deal with the activities of the individual as a member of a group.

Other scholars have defined the social sciences as

Social Sciences are a body of knowledge and thought pertaining to

human affairs as distinguished from sticks, stones, stars and physical

objects” – Charles Beard.

Social sciences, scholarly scientific study of human relationships

through detailed, systematic and logical syllabi in the constituent

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subjects, e.g. economics, psychology, sociology, social administration,

etc” – International Dictionary of Education (Page & Thomas, 1979).

The social sciences which deal with the human behaviour in its social

and cultural aspects include sociology, social and cultural anthropology,

social psychology, social and cultural geography, and those areas of

education that deal with the social context of learning and the relation

of the school to the social order” – The New Encyclopedia Britannica.

It is evident from all these definitions that the social sciences are

those sciences which study social and cultural phenomena of mankind in

a scientific manner.

1.1.8. Development of Social Sciences

On perusal of the historical development of social sciences as a

discipline of knowledge, one can phase into two distinct eras

(i) Older Social Sciences

Perhaps the earliest of the social sciences is politics or political science.

This was the chief concern of the Ancient Greeks.

On a somewhat lower plane, in the purview of the Greeks, stood the second

of the social sciences, economics. When in the 16th

century, the problems

of the requisition of wealth shifted from that of the individual salvation

to national strength and power, the way was advanced for the advent

of modern economics. Wattenille suggested the phrase political economy

and Adam Smith agreed to it. Today we speak of social i.e., economics.

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The third of the older disciplines that one can trace back to the Greeks is

history. Greek scholars Herotodus and Thycidides were deeply interested

in it. The work of Herotodus history was close to the area of literature,

than to any other science. The work of Thycidides was history with

deep interest in state. In the 19th

century, history not only became for

more rigorous in its scientific method but it has extended its scope to

the inclusion of the manifold phenomena of human life, individual and

mass phenomena as well as those of formal political organizations.

The fourth of the older social sciences is jurisprudence. Even in primitive

societies, there were certain customs which hardened into the rigid

coercive relations that one call it law. The Romans primarily cultivated

this science of jurisprudence. Modern jurisprudence abandoning its

earlier claim to complete independence has been definitely recognized

as one of the social sciences.

(ii) New Social Sciences

The first of newer social sciences is anthropology - the study of man

and his works

The second of the newer social sciences is penology. Earlier penology

or criminal law was barbaric. Modern penology has come into intimate

relations with economic and social conditions in general. Now penology

as a social pathology is contributing in full measure to the understanding

of a normal social life.

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The third of the newer social sciences is sociology. The French

philosopher Auguste Comte developed it in 1838. During the 1830‟s

he was engaged in the theoretical study of classification of knowledge

and while doing so he found that although there had then existed a

number of social sciences which situated society in one way or the

other. Yet none of them actually focused on and directly dealt with the

heart or the central point of society - the humans‟ relations. Realizing

this lacuna, he gave birth to sociology. Originally he named it social

physics, as he was keen to make it a science of society modeled on the

model of physics which is exact and based on cause and effect. He

thought of its two parts - social statics and social dynamics. In 1838,

he changed the name of his newly created social physics to sociology -

the scientific study of society. With the passage of time sociology

gained more prominence as a vital aspect of knowledge.

The intelligentsia of these academic circles strived to explore into the

minute details of social science and relate such outcomes for the

individual and social development. The social scientists who intend to

study the social sciences developed and used different approaches.

Each approach has contributed its uniqueness in understanding the

social phenomenon. This enabled the social scientists over a period of

time to understand and relate the social milieu for enrichment of

individual as well as social life. Therefore, it is pertinent in the present

context to look at the different approaches used by the social scientists.

Thus political science, economics, history, jurisprudence, anthropology,

penology and sociology are treated as pure social sciences.

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1.1.9. Scope of Social Sciences

All the social sciences are ultimately concerned with the rational

understanding of society. However each focuses on the specific aspect of

the social phenomena being studied by it. The following recent definitions

of the social sciences provide ample idea of each one‟s scope

Political Science

“………study of the principles, methods and aims of governments”.

– International Dictionary of Education (1979)

Economics

“………study of the nature, production, consumption, distribution and

exchange of wealth”. – International Dictionary of Education (1979)

Jurisprudence

“………study of the principles and knowledge of law”.


Sociology

“………study of the social behaviour and social action of mankind,

examination of social systems and organization”.


Sociology is now considered to be the most developed, comprehensive,

methodologically perfect and highly advanced social science. It is treated

as the “Mother of all Social Sciences” or the “Queen of all the Social

Sciences”. It has the largest number of social concepts and theories to

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explain the entire human society. It has functional relationship with all

the other social sciences. One who does not know sociology cannot

understand any other social sciences properly. Even, the following branches

of knowledge are also having the close inter-relation with sociology.

Ethics

“………branch of philosophy concerned with morals and the

distinction between good and bad”.


Philosophy

“………study of the forms of thought and arguments and grounds of

knowledge in other subjects”.


Education

“………the total process of developing human ability and behaviour,

social process in which one achieves social competence and individual

growth”. – International Dictionary of Education (1979)

“………organized and sustained instruction designed to communicate

a combination of knowledge, skills and understanding valuable for all

the activities of life”. – UNESCO

Social Biology

“………serious study of living things both plants and living creatures”.


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Geography

“………study of the science and characteristics of the earthy surface

and its inhabitations”. – International Dictionary of Education (1979)

Linguistics

“………study of language in its widest sense rather than simply as a means

of communication”. – International Dictionary of Education (1979)

1.1.10. Importance of Social Sciences

The study of social sciences is of great importance as they enlighten

the learners about the global human society, their national society and

culture. Further, it also delineates the natural relationships or linkages –

in the past as well as in the present and also help them in knowing the

futuristic trends. This knowledge helps them in understanding the various

problems and issues intellectually in a dispassionate and critical manner .

The study of social science enables the learners to know, understand,

appreciate and internalize functional human and social values and develop

proper and progressive attitudes.

1.1.11. Five Main Developments in the Approach of Social Science

Social Surveys / Social Research Tradition: Social surveys done by

Charles Booth in England, surveys done by the Chicago School in

USA and social surveys done by Fredrick Leplay in Germany.

Theoretical Social Science Approach: The notion of natural science

being theoretical influenced at least two social scientists – the French

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social anthropologist and sociologist Emile Durkheim and the Italian

sociologist Vilfredo Pareto. While Durkheim laid stress on „social

facts‟, Pareto laid stress on meta-theoretical insights and specific

theories in social sciences.

The German School of Thought Introduced a Different Approach: That

of Vertehen i.e., empathy and understanding, the great German

economist, political scientist and sociologist Max Weber introduced

the „hermerenic‟ or phenomenological approach.

All the above three scholars were most closely associated with

sociology and its history. Economics soon began to go its own way

Max Weber also gave another approach to make distinction between

knowledge and values prescription and description. This was explosive at

that time and it still continues to be that although political theory, moral

philosophy and jurisprudence have gone their ways. The study of social

philosophy has shifted from prescriptive to the analytical approach.

In addition to the above approaches, the present day social

scientists are also making use of the following methodological orientation

to understand the minute details of the social process

Empirical orientation of social science

Descriptive study of social phenomena

Use of sophisticated techniques

Consistent attempts at developing social theories

Developing social theories with political substance and intent

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1.1.12. Aims of Social Science

An awareness of their land, people, resources, social and cultural

heritage and religious harmony

Creative ability to solve problems through acquisition of required

qualities of life such as the sense of right and wrong, justice, civic

rights and responsibilities, self-employment, healthy life pattern,

environmental awareness and personal accountability in the context of

global fraternity, human rights and democratic feeling.

1.1.13. Role of Social Scientists in India

Social scientists in the western countries have conducted many

researches and through them contributed most of the theoretical concepts,

hypotheses, theories and paradigms in the social sciences . Therefore,

they have been influencing and dominating the minds, researches and

writings in other countries including India for the last 150 years or so.

The pioneering Indian Sociologists have pointed out in their writings that

many of the concepts, theories and research paradigms of the western

(primarily American, British and German) social scientists are actually

unsuitable for a proper study of the Indian society.

Thus, for example, several western social scientists (like Talcott

Parsons) treat individual to be a free person who can take all responsibilities

and decisions by himself. But in the Indian society, an individual is not

free. He/she is placed in the social and cultural web of relationships,

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traditions, duties, responsibilities and norms. Prof. Saran has mentioned

that the concepts of swadharma still appeals, guides and motivate the

impulses of many individuals in the Indian society.

Therefore, the western social science perspective and analytical

paradigm of the individual and society relationship do not actually apply

to the Indian society and culture. Many such examples are there still

unfortunately most of the Indian sociologists and other social scientists

have been uncritically accepting, adopting and using those foreign concepts ,

theories and analytical frames or paradigms. The same is reiterated by

Prof. Yogendra Singh, Emeritus Professor of Sociology of the Jawahar

Lal Nehru University, New Delhi, had voiced this very concern many

years ago in his paper “The Role of Social Science in India”.

The world renowned American sociologist and futurologist Alvin

Toffler in his revolutionary book “Future Shock (1970)” and many

subsequent writings has very emphatically stressed that social scientists

must be futuristic also in their perspective. They must anticipate the

trends of change and what kind of future societies – global and national

are going to be.

Globalization, global threats of religious fundamentalism, terrorism,

widening poverty, unemployment, sense of insecurity and natural hazards,

environmental pollution and moral crisis are forcing all social scientists

to focus their attention on these emergent problems of our planet Earth.

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All those teachers who will be teaching as well as those who are

now teaching social sciences must know and understand all these aspects

of the social sciences and the emerging challenges facing social sciences.

This scenario will demand for new and innovative teaching

strategies to be followed by our school teachers to make the study of

social science more realistic and life enriching one.

In view of perplexing situation in teaching social science due to its

wider canvas of the subject matter and its relevance to emerging socio-

political concerns, the educational planners and practitioners were

compelled to search for new approaches in teaching social science at

school level. In this direction NCF-2005 mooted the idea of constructivism

and its application to classroom teaching. Accordingly, the textbooks in

social sciences were developed, teachers were given orientation to teach

the content through constructivist approach. Hence, it is felt appropriate

to study the effectiveness of constructivist approach in teaching social

science at secondary level.

Constructivism though emerged as most needed approach in

teaching it is pertinent to note that the constructivism as a teaching

strategy emerged itself out of the development of various theories of

learning. Therefore, it is appropriate to study the relevant theories of

learning so as to locate the base line philosophy of constructivism.

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1.2.0. Various Theories of Learning

Before looking into the various theories of learning, it is pertinent

to know what a theory is. In simple parlance, a theory provides a general

explanation for observations made over a period of time. A theory explains

and predicts behavior and a theory can never be established beyond all

doubt. A theory may be modified and theories seldom have to be thrown

out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely

accepted for a long time and later disproved.

1.3.0. Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism – The Basics

Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses

on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes au tomatic.

Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes

in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening

inside the learner‟s mind.

Constructivism: Based on the premises that one will construct his / her

own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema.

Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in

ambiguous situations.

1.3.1. Behaviorism

Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle,

whose essay “Memory” focused on associations being made between

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Behaviorism

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events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed

Aristotle‟s thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain

(1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995).

The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt

behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). It

views the mind as a “black box” in the sense that response to stimulus can

be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought

processes occurring in the mind. Some key players in the development of

the behaviorist theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

1.3.2. Cognitivism

Behaviorism denies or ignores mental activity as the basis for

learning. Learning for behaviorists is determined by external environmental

structures that lead to reinforcement of behavior, rather than to mental

processing or conscious thought on the part of the learner. Cognitivists,

though, insist that there are mental processes “internal and conscious

representations of the world” that are essential for human learning.

Fontana (1981) summarizes the cognitive approach as follows:

“The cognitive approach holds that if one is to understand learning

one cannot confine oneself to observable behavior, but must also concern

oneself with the learner‟s ability/mentally to reorganize his psychological

field in response to his own experiences. This latter approach therefore

lays stress not only on the environment, but upon the way in which the

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individual interprets and tries to make sense of the environment. It sees

the individual not as the mechanical product of his environment, but as an

active agent in the learning process, deliberately trying to process and

categorize the stream of information fed into him by the external world.”

Thus, the search for rules, principles, or relationships in processing

new information, and the search for meaning and consistency in reconciling

new information with previous knowledge, is key concepts in cognitive

psychology. Cognitive psychology is concerned with identifying and

describing mental processes. In some ways, basic mental processes are

often considered genetic or hard-wired but can be programmed or modified

by external factors, such as experience.

Cognitive approaches to learning cover a very wide range. On the

one hand, attempts have been made through areas such as artificial

intelligence to provide mechanical, electronic, and physical representations

of mental processes, reflecting very much as objectivist epistemological

position. On the other hand, teachers who place a strong emphasis on

learners‟ developing personal meaning through reflection, analysis, and

construction of knowledge through conscious mental processing would

indicate much more of a constructivist epistemological position. Cognitive

approaches to learning “with their focus on abstraction, generalization,

and creative thinking” seem to fit much better in higher education.

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1.3.3. Concept and Perspectives of Constructivism

A sound theory of education ultimately rest upon a sound philosophy.

The theory and practice of education reflect the philosophical tenants of a

philosophy with which the system of education is conceived. As education

being ever progressive system and aim at meeting the learners and societal

needs always the system is subjected to scrutiny not only to ensure its

relevance but also see that it develops along with other subsystems of the

society. Accordingly the educational thinkers and planners put forth their

efforts and wisdom in modifying the existing practices and to add new

strategies to make education relevant to the life. A cursory look at the

changes taken place in education during the modern period enable us to

identify few significant events which were emphasized. They are

behaviorism, Cognitivism and constructivism. When we review the

theoretical bases of these approaches one will come across a contending

views for example, behaviorism focused more on the learner as an end

product of behavioural modification. Education instead of leading the

learning process, it should also focus on the source of the knowledge and

its acquisition process etc. Further the cognitivist approach ultimately

aimed at individual learners‟ acquisition of knowledge instead of

enabling them to know about the nature of the knowledge, the source of

knowledge and validity of the knowledge. This approach in education

emphasized more upon stuffing the mind of the child with some information

without making them how to make use that knowledge for life situations.

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The cognitivist orientation to education ultimately resulted in making the

individual like a Robot instead of making them a complete being.

In such a perplexing situation the educational planners in the

country opted for constructivist approach in education. In this process ,

over a period of time, lot of intellectual discourses took place across the

country and ultimately realized that the constructivist approach is a

panacea to many of the ills that the present day Indian Education is suffering

with. The purpose of education today is not just to make the student well

informed but it is the responsibility of the system to prepare the individual

to face the challenges of the 21st

century more particularly in the context

of LPG. This can be attended to a greater extent by way of making the

individual learner to think and to construct the images of reality in the

context of their own abilities and socio-cultural backdrop. This approach

ultimately focused on the popular concept of “Individualized” education.

Therefore, it is necessitated to look into the historical backdrop of

constructivism along with its philosophical bases and their implications

to education.

Constructivism though a recent focal point of discussion in education

in our country, it has a long history beginning from early Greek thought

and has its traces in our ancient Indian Philosophy. However keeping in

view the scope of the study it is restricted to the recent definitions and

expressions of constructivism so as to understand its educational implications

more particularly their relevance in the Indian context.

27

The review of available literature on constructivism indicates that

there are multiple perspectives on this concept. In educational context it

is not fair to accept any one perspective leaving others views on

constructivism. However an attempt has been made here to identify some

of the important and relevant definitions in the context of education.

Constructivism can be defined as that philosophical positions

which holds that any so called reality is, in the most immediate and

concrete sense, the mental construction of those who believe they have

discovered and investigated it. Constructivism is a wholistic – realistic

philosophy. It is an epistemology, a learning or meaning making theory

by itself. Further it also explains the nature of knowledge and how

human beings learn. The tenants of constructivist philosophy include the

need to situate learning and problem solving in real life context where the

environment is very rich in information (Mathew‟s 2002).

The constructivist perspectives be summarized deriving from a

philosophical position that the human being have no access to objective

reality, that is a reality independent of one‟s way of knowing. In

constructivism experience is the Central Point around which learning and

knowledge are generally interpreted (Simon 1995).

Jonassen (1991) observed “The mind is instrumental and essential

in interpreting events, objects and perspectives on the bases that is personal

and individualized”. It is construed from the above expressions that

28

constructivism is a philosophy of learning and knowledge founded on the

premise that by reflecting on one‟s own experiences and construct their

own understanding of the World in which they live in. In such a context

one generates their own rules and mental models which they use to make

sense to their own experience. Learning therefore is simply the process

of adjusting one‟s own mental model to accommodate some new experiences.

The fundamental distinction in constructivism is that while

behaviourist view, knowledge as something that happens in response to

some external factors and cognitivist view knowledge as abstract and

symbolic representation inside the learners head, constructivist view

knowledge as constructed internally by each individual. Here the view of

knowledge differs from the “Knowledge as given and absolute” as

perceived by behaviourist. Constructivist focuses on knowledge

construction but not on “Knowledge Reproduction”.

1.3.4. Constructivism

Just as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the

predominant Behavioural Psychology in the 1970‟s, Constructivist Learning

Psychology has been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990 ‟s.

Constructivism can be seen as a philosophy as well as a set of

instructional practices. As a philosophy, constructivism suggests that

although there is a real world out there, there is no meaning inherent in it.

Thus, meaning is imposed by people and cultures. As a set of instructional

29

practices, constructivism favors processes over end products; guided

discovery over expository learning; authentic, embedded learning situations

over abstracted, artificial ones; portfolio assessments over multiple-choice

exams, and so on. This distinction may suggest that one can be a constructivist

in philosophy without always using constructivist teaching methods.

Constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on

the premise that cognition (learning) is the result of mental construction.

Knowledge is not received from outside, but by reflecting on our

experiences, by fitting new information together with what we already

know we construct knowledge in our head. Thus, we construct our own

understanding of the world we live in. Learning is the process of adjusting

our mental models to accommodate new experiences. Constructivist

theorists support that people learn best when they actively construct their

own understanding.

In the Constructivist theory the emphasis is placed on the learner

rather than the teacher. It is the learner who interacts with objects and

events and thereby gains an understanding of the features held by such

objects or events. The learners individually discover and transform

complex information constructing their own conceptualizations and

solutions to problems. In constructivist thinking learning is also affected

by the context, beliefs and attitudes of the learner.

There are two major stands of the constructivist perspective Cognitive

constructivism and Social constructivism; although different in emphasis

30

they share the same basic assumption about learning. Jonassen (1994)

proposed that there are eight characteristics that differentiate constructivist

learning environments. These eight characteristics would be supported by

both social and cognitive constructivists

1) Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations

of reality.

2) Multiple representations avoid over simplification and represent the

complexity of the real world.

3) Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction

instead of knowledge reproduction.

4) Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a

meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context.

5) Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments

such as real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined

sequences of instruction.

6) Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection

on experience.

7) Constructivist learning environments enable context and content

dependent knowledge construction.

8) Constructivist learning environments support collaborative construction

of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among

learners for recognition.

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1.4.0. Principles of Learning

What are the guiding principles of constructivist thinking that one

must keep in mind when one consider his role as an educator. The

principle of constructivism is based on the belief that learning consists of

individuals‟ constructed meanings and then indicates how they influence

the process of education.

1) Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input

and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of

this idea involves the terminology of the active learner (Dewey‟s

term) stressing that the learner needs to do something; that learning is

not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exists “out there” but

that learning involves the learners engaging with the world.

2) Pupils learn to learn as they learn: Learning consists both of

constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For

example, if one learns the chronology of dates of a series of historical

events, simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology. Each

meaning one construct makes better able to give meaning to other

sensations which can fit a similar pattern.

3) The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental : It happens in

the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for

learning, especially for children, but it is not sufficient, one needs to

provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands (Dewey

called this reflective activity).

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4) Learning involves language: The language one use influences learning.

On the empirical level, researchers have noted that people talk to

themselves as they learn. On a more general level, there is a collection

of arguments, presented most forcefully by Vygotsky, that language

and learning are inextricably intertwined. This point was clearly

emphasized in Elaine Gurain‟s reference to the need to honor native

language in developing North American exhibits. The desire to have

material and programs in their own language was an important

request by many members of various Native American communities.

5) Learning is a social activity: Our learning is intimately associated

with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our peers,

our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the people

before us or next to us at the exhibit. One is more likely to be

successful in his efforts to educate if he recognizes this principle

rather than try to avoid it. Much of traditional education, as Dewey

pointed out, is directed towards isolating the learner from all social

interaction, and towards seeing education as a one-on-one

relationship between the learner and the objective material to be

learned. In contrast, progressive education (to continue to use

Dewey‟s formulation) recognizes the social aspect of learning and

uses conversation, interaction with others, and the application of

knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.

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6) Learning is contextual: One do not learn isolated facts and theories in

some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of

lives; One learn in relationship to what else one know, what one

believe, prejudices and fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that this

point is actually a corollary of the idea that learning is active and

social. One cannot divorce learning from the lives.

7) One needs knowledge to learn: It is not possible to assimilate new

knowledge without having some structure developed from previous

knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we can learn.

Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the

learner must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on

that learner‟s previous knowledge.

8) It takes time to learn: Learning is not instantaneous. For significant

learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with

them and use them. This cannot happen in the 5-10 minutes usually

spent in a gallery (and certainly not in the few seconds usually spent

contemplating a single museum object). If you reflect on anything

you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated

exposure and thought. Even, or especially, moments of profound

insight, can be traced back to longer periods of preparation.

9) Motivation is a key component in learning : Not only is it the case that

motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning. This idea of

motivation as described here is broadly conceived to include an

34

understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unless

we know “the reasons why”, we may not be very involved in using

the knowledge that may be instilled in us. Even by the most severe

and direct teaching.

1.4.1. Constructivist Portrait of a Teacher

Constructivist teacher creates a context for learning, in which

students become engaged in activities which are interested to them and

facilitates learning. In the constructivist context the teacher is not

passive rather watch children and their activities explore and discover

new contexts. Further teacher also guide the students as they approach

problems and encourage them to work in groups to think about issues

and questions. Teachers thus facilitate cognitive growth and learning as

do peers and other members of the Child‟s Community. This stand by the

teacher provides the learners ever broadening tools to keep learning with

a planned classroom environment there by the students learn how to

learn. Ultimately the purpose of a constructivist teacher just opposite to

that of a traditional teacher is to make the students think for themselves

and not to wait for the teacher to tell them what to think.

It is obvious that a constructivist teacher must have positive

expectations. It implies that the teacher should believe that each student

can learn and be successful. It is often observed that the students usually

learn as much as teacher expect. Teachers who set high expectations for

35

their student will receive higher achievements from their students. The

main aspiration as a teacher is to help students to meet their fullest

potential by creating a congenial environment. Where in their students

feel safe, comfortable in taking risks with new learning and presents

them with opportunities to share their thoughts and ideas. In a constructivist

context the teacher should train and encourage the students to discover

principles by themselves. Further the teacher should also provide an

opportunity to their students to have a dialogue among themselves, their

peer and with their teachers. The main task of a teacher should be to

present the information in the classroom to be learnt by the student that

matches or close to the students‟ current level of learning. To make

constructivist teaching effective for better learning the curriculum should

be organized in a spiral manner so that the students continuously build

upon what they have already learned. Further the teachers should also

try to modify their teaching strategies so as to make them compatible to

the students‟ responses and to encourage the students to analyze, interpret

and predict information in the course of their learning.

1.5.0. Significance of the Study

Schools are expected to transmit knowledge to younger generations.

They are however, also criticized for providing so called inert knowledge.

The traditional classroom sometimes resembles one-person-show with

often uninvolved audience. Classes are usually dominated by the teachers,

whose instructions are often rely on textbooks for the content of the

36

course. The teachers seek to transfer their thought and meanings to the

passive students. There is little room for student initiated questions,

independent thought or interaction between the teacher and the students

or among the students. The goal of the learners is to regurgitate the

accepted explanation expostulated by the teacher. To improvise the

interaction, various strategies like discovery learning, joyful learning and

experimental learning were introduced.

The experimental learning is valuable and has shown to improve

motivation for learning, but it does not guarantee the construction of

knowledge that is required in the real world. Hence it requires a shift

from teachers-centered education to learners-centered education and now

it is towards learning-centered education. Here the emphasis is on the

process of learning rather than the individual, one proposed solution to

such a paradigm shift in teaching is „constructivism‟.

In constructivist approach, child constructs his own ideas from the

constructivist perspective, as Piaget stressed, knowing is an adaptive

activity. This means that one should think of knowledge as a kind of

compendium of concepts and actions that one has found to be successful

given the purpose one has in the mind. The importance lies in the fact

that mere book reading and rote memorization do not lead to meaningful

learning. The idea that we construct in our cognition and its application is

the true learning. This constructivist approach is said to improve the

students‟ achievement and certain cognitive skills.

37

1.6.0. Need of the Study

In the passing era, needs and desires of people and society are

changing. The old and traditional approaches are not enough for one‟s

new needs, so it is necessary that one should adopt some new paradigm to

teach and learn.

Since the late 1980‟s, there has been increased interest in non-

traditional teaching and learning paradigm, one such paradigm views

learning as an active construction of concepts and teaching as a supporting

role for this construction. This cognitive perspective of learning is called

„constructivism‟. Every child is a potential learner, it is the duty of

teacher that he provides them opportunities to learn more effectively.

Children are not blank slates. They have their own views and

concepts regarding everything. In constructivism, students construct

his/her knowledge based on his/her prior knowledge. They remain active

throughout the learning and follow pluralistic approach, and sharing of

thoughts. Teachers adapt the transformation approach.

This theory is being popular in European countries, but now the

efforts of adopting use of constructivism in teaching are made by

educational policies and National Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005

throws light on constructivism. All children are naturally motivated and

capable of learning. They can construct their own knowledge. NCF has

suggested that curriculum should be reorganized in constructivist manner

38

and school administration and teacher should adopt it as soon as possible

according to the need of the country and the society. So it is appropriate

time to focus on re-engineering the educational technology and to

anticipate the need of the day that would decide the tools of tomorrow.

Hence, the researcher has taken up the present study.

1.7.0. Statement of the Problem

The present investigation was undertaken with an objective that the

findings will help to highlight the importance of constructivist approach

in classroom teaching, especially in social science. Wherein the attempts

for strengthening its teaching-learning process, constructivist approach

can be viewed as indispensable necessity.

The problem undertaken for the present study was stated as

“Constructivism and its Approach of Teaching Social Science at

Secondary Level – A Critical Survey in Telangana Region”

1.8.0. Operational Definitions of the Terms Used

The terms used are operationally defined as follows

Constructivism: Constructivist learning is based on students active

participation where they are „constructing‟ their own knowledge by

testing ideas and approaches based on their prior knowledge and

experience, applying these to new situations and integrating the new

knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual constructs.

39

Constructivist Teaching: Teachers provide an environment in which students

are actively engaged in their own learning, and build their own knowledge

structures by investigating and discovering (Marlowe & Page, 1998).

Social Sciences: Social science is, in its broadest sense, the study of

society and the manner in which people behave and influence the world

around us. Further, it is the branch of science that studies society and the

relationships of individual within a society.

Social Studies: Is the title for the school subject that provides for a

systematic study of the social sciences in a coordinated, integrated fashion

Geography: The study of people and places, the natural environment,

and the capacity of the earth to support life

History: The systematic research, analysis, and interpretation of the past.

Civics (Political Science): The study of the origin, development, and

operation of political systems and public policy

Anthropology: The study of people to find out about their physical,

social, and cultural development

Sociology: The study of society and social behavior by examining

groups and social institutions such as the family, government,

religion, business, or school

Economics: The study of the production, distribution and

consumption of goods and services

40

Key Differentiators between Social Studies and Social Science

Social studies is the study of all phases of societies whereas social

science is the inference of those studies with the intention of solving

problems within a society, which may lead to the ultimate

development of the society as a whole.

Social studies is the incorporated study of social science and

humanities to endorse efficient citizenry.

Secondary Education

Secondary school education comprises of four years duration, two

years of lower secondary and two years of senior secondary school

education. In most of the states, the lower secondary starts at the age of

14 years and ends at the 17th

year of the child. Admission requirement is

the completion of upper primary school education. Instruction is more

organized along subject-specifics. At the secondary level, a student has a

choice for particular subjects/vocations.

1.9.0. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The present study has been taken up with the following objectives

1) To study the place of constructivist approach in teaching social

science at secondary level.

2) To study the relationship, if there is any, between the various

demographic factors of the teachers and the students of social science

using constructivist approach in their teaching-learning respectively.

41

3) To study the perception of social science teachers on the use of

constructivism in their subject of teaching.

4) To study the extent of classroom management on the perception of

teachers in using constructivist approach in teaching social sciences at

secondary level.

5) To study the extent, the use of constructivist approach by the teachers

in their teaching learning activities at secondary level.

6) To study the extent of constructivist approach followed by the teachers

in assessing the performance of their students.

7) To assess the perceptions of secondary school students on the use of

constructivist approach in social science teaching and their learning.

8) To study the perceptions of secondary school students about the

teaching-learning materials used by their teachers while teaching

social sciences by following constructivist approach.

1.10.0. HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

1) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of

male and female secondary school teachers with respect to classroom

management in the context of constructivist approach.


secondary school senior teachers and junior teachers with respect to

classroom management in constructivist approach.

42


government and private secondary school teachers teaching social

sciences with respect to classroom management in constructivist

environment.


rural and urban secondary school teachers teaching social sciences

with respect to classroom management in constructivist classroom.

5) There is no statistically significant difference among secondary

school teachers who participated in orientation programme and

secondary school teachers who did not participate in orientation

programme with respect to classroom management where constructivist

approach is followed.


other caste, backward caste, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe social

science teachers with respect to classroom management in

constructivist classroom.


male and female secondary school teachers with respect to their

teaching learning activities in constructivist classroom.



teaching learning activities in constructivist classroom.

43



sciences with respect to teaching learning activities in constructivist

classroom.



with respect to teaching learning activities in constructivist classroom.




programme with respect to teaching learning activities in constructivist

classroom.



science teachers with respect to teaching learning activities in

constructivist classroom.


male and female secondary school teachers with respect to student

assessment in constructivist classroom.



assessment in constructivist context.

44



sciences with respect to assessment in constructivist approach.



with respect to assessment in constructivist approach.




programme with respect to assessment in constructivist classroom.


other caste, backward caste, scheduled caste and scheduled tribe social

science teachers with respect to assessment in constructivist approach.


male and female secondary school students with respect to

constructivist social science teaching / learning.


government and private secondary school students with respect to



rural and urban secondary school students with respect to


45



science students with respect to constructivist social science teaching

/ learning.


male and female secondary school students with respect to

constructivist social science teaching material .


government and private secondary school students with respect to

constructivist social science teaching material .


rural and urban secondary school students with respect to

constructivist social science teaching material.



science students with respect to constructivist social science teaching

material.

46

1.11.0. Delimitations of the Study

As stated earlier, the present research was aimed at to investigate

the impact of constructivist approach on teaching social sciences. Hence,

this study too had certain constraints of space, time and resources as may

be the case in any such similar studies.

1) The area of investigation was restricted to study the perceptions of

teachers of social sciences only in the Telangana region of Andhra

Pradesh.

2) Owing to paucity of time, the study was confined to the cognitive

constructivism in teaching social sciences at the secondary level in

the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh.

3) The study is confined only to the secondary schools following the

CBSE curriculum.

4) The perceptions of teachers teaching social sciences alone were taken

into consideration.

5) The perceptions of students studying in the CBSE secondary schools

only were considered for the present investigation.

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Chapter – II

Introduction

One of the most indispensable parts of any research work is

reviewing the literature. This implies synthesizing and going into the

works or researches that have already been carried in the field over a

period of time. This helps an investigator in many ways like knowing

quantum of work done, knowing how to tackle the problem on hand and

avoiding the risk involved in duplication. Besides, it gives an

understanding of the problem related to the field, essentially, review

economizes time and resources of the investigator.

In order to prepare a base for defining the problem precisely, for

making interpretation of data meaningfully and for making comparisons

among similar studies, the investigator reviewed the available literature

extensively. The review provides an insight into various dimensions of

the problem and related issues at different stages. In this attempt, the

investigator was selective and reviewed researches, which have direct

bearing on the present study.

The prime purpose of the following paragraphs is to provide a

comprehensive and explicit picture of the related studies and show how

the present study contributes in extending the outcome of constructivism

equip the teachers in teaching social sciences at the secondary level.

Further, it also helps to identify the gaps, if any, in the research and

serves as a backdrop to interpret the results of the study.

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