ADJECTIVES AND AP

I HOPE YOU ENJOYED YOUR TWO-WEEK SPRING BREAK!OR, IF YOU TOOK AN EXAM OR TWO, I HOPE YOU PASSED WITH FLYING COLORS!

TIME TO GET BACK TO OUR WORK!

REVIEW: what we did last time.ADVERBIALSNOT SO NEW ANY MORE!

CLASS #1: APCLASS #2: AP/AdvPCLASS #3: AdvP, PPCLASS #4: PPCLASS #5: ADVERBIALSCLASS #6: ADVERBIALSCLASS #7: MIDTERM OVERVIEW AND SIMPLE SENTENCE INTROMIDTERM TESTCLASS #8: SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #10: COMPLEX SENTENCECLASS #11: COMPLEX SENTENCECLASS #12: COMPLEX SENTENCE , WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTSSINCE WE ARE SLIGHTLY BEHIND SCHEDULE IN TERMS OF PRACTICE CLASSESTHE MIDTERM EXAM IS RE-SCHEDULED FORMAY 15, 2012 THATS TUESDAY FOUR WEEKS FROM NOW. THE EXACT TIME WILL BE ANNOUNCED SOON, BUT IT WILL BE IN THE AFTERNOON AND IT WILL TAKE PLACE IN THE AUDITORIUM (AMFITEATAR)ADJUNCTSSEMANTIC CLASSIFICATIONSEMANTIC TYPES OF ADJUNCTS1. ADJUNCTS PROCESSThey favor the FINAL position Some can take the MEDIAL positionCo-occurrence possible:She was accidentally struck with a racket by her partner.

2. ADJUNCTS SPACE / PLACE (1/2)Co-occurrence is possible. Relative order is fixed:distance + position: He swam a mile in the open sea.direction + position: He fell into the water near that rock .distance + direction: She walked a few steps towards him.two of the same subtype: position smaller/more specific + position bigger/less specificMany people eat in restaurants in London.goal + source or source + goal (depending on information structure):We flew from Cairo to Istanbul. We flew to Istanbul from Cairo.Only adverbials of same meaning can be coordinated:I drove down Gower Street and into University College /*several miles.

2. ADJUNCTS SPACE / PLACE (2/2)Position of SPACE ADJUNCTS in the sentence:Normally, they take FINAL positionsIf they are clustered, the order is: DISTANCE DIRECTION POSITIONShe walked [a few steps] [towards him] [in the dark]SPACE ADJUNCTS OF POSITION can be moved to INITIAL position:On the top of the building, two men were gesticulating wildly.

Some space adjuncts denoting POSITION AND DIRECTION cause subject-operator inversion (LOCATIVE INVERSION) when they are placed initially:Here he is!There was the book.Down swooped the hawk.3. ADJUNCTS TIME (1/5)They typically favor the FINAL position.However, they can often take the INITIAL position:In 1982, the economy started to recover.For many years, no one wanted to buy the house.Some, especially short adjuncts (such as: always, often, just, recently, already) take the MEDIAL position:She often arrives late.You could then take a train to London.

3. ADJUNCTS TIME (2/5)TIME ADJUNCTS SUBCLASSIFICATION 3. ADJUNCTS TIME (3/5)TIME ADJUNCTS SUBCLASSIFICATION:TIME WHEN/POSITION answers the question WHEN?See you tomorrow / then.Two of the same type: more specific + less specificIll see you [at nine] [on Monday].However, if one of the two adjuncts is very long, the order is: shorter + longerI lived there in the fifties when my first child was born.DURATION (backward/forward span) three subtypes:Duration of specific or indefinite length: answers the question HOW LONG?He walked for 6 hours.He waited from 1 to 5.He worked all day.Duration forward span: answers the question TILL WHEN?He will arrive till / until five oclock.He didnt arrive until 5. (till + negation)Duration backward span: answers the question SINCE WHEN?He will arrive till / until five oclock.He didnt arrive until 5. (till + negation)

3. ADJUNCTS TIME (4/5)TIME ADJUNCTS SUBCLASSIFICATION:FREQUENCYFrequency of occasion: answers the question HOW MANY TIMES?He did it twice.He sent that message three times.Frequency of period: answers the question HOW OFTEN?He is paid daily/monthly.Definite frequency: TWICE, DAILYIndefinite frequency four subsets on the scale:UNIVERSAL FREQUENCY: alwaysHIGH FREQUENCY: often, frequentlyUSUAL OCCURRENCE: usually, generallyLOW FREQUENCY: seldom, hardly ever, neverlow frequency time adjuncts sometimes cause NEGATIVE INVERSION when they are in the initial position:Never have I seen such a play.OTHER TIME RELATIONSHIPS: previously, again, already

3. ADJUNCTS TIME (5/5)When time adjuncts co-occur, their relative order is:

1. DURATION 2. FREQUENCY 3. POSITION

I was there [for a short while] [every day or so] [last year].SO, LETS CONTINUE!THIS IS WHERE WE STOPPED LAST WEEK.4. ADJUNCTS CONTINGENCYMostly occur in the INITIAL and FINAL positions.When they co-occur in the FINAL position, the order is:1. RESPECT 2. PROCESS 3. SPACE 4. TIME 5. CONTINGENCYMany people died [in Africa] [in the 20th century] [from malnutrition].IMPORTANT NOTE: CAUSE vs. REASONCAUSE (no subjects control): She died of cancer.REASON (subjects control): Working hard, she got promoted.

CAUSE = UZROKREASON = RAZLOGPURPOSE = NEMERA

225. ADJUNCTS FOCUSINGThey dont favor any position in particular. The general rule for their position is that they are placed before the focused element:She had also questioned only her patients only the previous week also.If the whole predication is focused, they take medial position: She had only questioned her patients the previous week.HOWEVER, not all focusing expressions are really adjuncts:He [only] wants to help. (ADJUNCT)[Only he] wants to help. (MODIFIER OF NP)

THIS IS AN ADVERB MODIFYING NP, NOT AN ADJUNCT.FOCUSING ADJUNCTS: additional infoRESTRICTIVE FOCUSING ADJUNCTS make it explicit that WHAT IS BEING COMMUNICATED IS RESTRICTED TO THE PART THAT IS FOCUSED:EXCLUSIVES restrict the application of the communication EXCLUSIVELY to the part that is focused:Alone, exactly, exclusively, just, merely, only, precisely, purely, simply, solelyPARTICULARIZERS restrict the application of the communication PARTICULARLY OR MAINLY to the part that is focused:Chiefly, especially, largely, mainly, mostly, notably, particularly, primarily, principally, specifically, at least, in particularADDITIVE FOCUSING ADJUNCTS make it explicit that WHAT IS BEING COMMUNICATED IS AN ADDITION:Again, also, either, equally, even, further, likewise, neither, nor, similarly, too, as well, in addition

6. ADJUNCTS DEGREE/INTENSIFIER

DEGREE/INTENSIFIER ADJUNCTSIntensifiers have in common the heightening or lowering effect on some unit in the sentence.The term INTENSIFIERS is slightly misleading, because they are not restricted to intensification: THEY INDICATE A POINT ON THE INTENSITY SCALE WHICH MAY BE HIGH OR LOW.There are two groups of INTENSIFIER ADJUNCTS:AMPLIFIERS: they scale upwards and are divided into MAXIMIZERS and BOOSTERSDOWNTONERS: they have a lowering effect and are divided into COMPROMISERS, DIMINISHERS, MINIMIZERS and APPROXIMATORSDEGREE/INTENSIFIER ADJUNCTS: AMPLIFIERSMAXIMIZERS denote the upper extreme on the scale.BOOSTERS denote a high degree or a high point on the scale.MAXIMIZERS include: absolutely, altogether, completely, entirely, extremely, fully, perfectly, quite, thoroughly, totally, utterly, most and in all respects.BOOSTERS include: badly, bitterly, deeply, enormously, far, greatly, heartily, highly, intensely, much, severely, so, strongly, terribly, violently, well, a great deal, a good deal, a lot, by far and more.DEGREE/INTENSIFIER ADJUNCTS: DOWNTONERSCOMPROMISERS have a slight lowering effect.Kind of, soft of, quite, rather (I kind of like it.)DIMINISHERS scale the intensity downwards.Mildly, moderately, partially, slighlty (I partly agree with you)MINIMIZERS scale the intensity downwards, but close to the minimumBarely, hardly, little, scarcely (I can scarcely ignore her views)APPROXIMATORS serve to express an approximation to the force of the verb, whine indicating its non-application.Almost, nearly, practically (I almost resigned.)7. ADJUNCTS - MODALITY

They favor THE MEDIAL POSITION. They are very similar to DISJUNCTS, but they do not NECESSARILY CONVERY THE OPINION OF THE SPEAKER > they are more general and are NOT SUBJECTIVE (i.e.FACTUAL).Compare:Certainly, she is a great writer.She is certainly going to sign a publishing deal.DISJUNCTMODALITY ADJUNCT8. ADJUNCTS RESPECT/VIEWPOINT

VIEWPOINT ADJUNCTSAll viewpoint adjuncts can be roughly paraphrased by: if we consider what we are saying from a/an point of view, or if we consider what we are saying from the point of view of .Most viewpoint adjuncts are derived from adjectives using LY suffix.They are SENTENTIAL ADJUNCTS in the sense that their meaning encompasses THE WHOLE SENTENCE.That is why they favor INITIAL POSITION, but can occur in the MEDIAL POSITION.Visually, it was a powerful novel.Morally, politically and economically, it is urgent that the government should act more effectively.To tap a private telephone line is not technically a very difficult operation.Weatherwise, we are going to have a bad spring.

RESPECT ADJUNCTSAll respect adjuncts can provide a frame for the interpretation of the activity denoted by the verb > they, in a way, restrict the meaning of the verb to particular DOMAIN OF THE ACTIVITY.They are PREDICATION ADJUNCTS in the sense that their meaning only modifies THE PREDICATION (the part of the sentence to the right of the verb).That is why they favor FINAL POSITION:She is advising me legally.She is solving the problem from the PR perspective only.The president will accept that phrasing of the justification for the attack just as far as international relations are concerned.

9. ADJUNCTS - SUBJUNCTSVery similar to MANNER adjuncts.They favor the INITIAL position:Nervously, he answered the phone. (SUBJUNCT)He answered the phone nervously. (MANNER ADJUNCT)

THE END OF ADJUNCTSHOWEVER, THERE ARE ALSO DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTSDIGRESSION: frequent wordsThe most frequent words in English are:THEAISAREWASWEREDIDDOHowever, these are just INDIVIDUAL WORDS.We know that language actually operates on UNITS LARGER THAN WORDS: PHRASES and CLAUSESSo, what do you think, what is the most frequent phrase/clause in the English language?

THE MOST FREQUENT PHRASE/CLAUSE IN ENGLISH:YOU KNOW /j nou/Closely followed by:I mean, I suppose, You see, Sort of and similar expressions.IMPORTANT NOTE: THIS REFERS TO SPOKEN ENGLISH YOU KNOW, I MEAN, YOU SEEAN EXAMPLEWhen my sister and I were children, we had a small, ahm, a little, sort of, patch, you know, cunningly a bit tucked away at the back of somewhere at our place and we used to grow tomatoes and the odd vegetable.

I mean, I've always felt that's an important part of , you know, one'sconnection with nature and the soil, and so, I suppose, that was part of it.

But then when I, you know, when I came down here, and I just wanted to get stuck in and I'd always wanted to do a bit of farming - I'm not very good at it but fortunately there are lots of other people around to help.

IS THIS GOOD ENGLISH?OFFICIALLY, THIS IS REALLY BAD ENGLISH!IF YOU WANT TO SOUND LIKE AN EDUCATED PERSON, YOU SHOULDNT TALK LIKE THIS.WHO IS, THEN, THIS PERSON?Who is this person that tortures and abuses the beauty of the language of Shakespeare, Chaucer, Dickens, Joyce, etc?Who is this uneducated scum of the earth who dares ruin the perfection of English as it has evolved over two millennia?What is his walk of life, education and social background?

PRINCE CHARLES > heir to the throne of England

YOU KNOW, YOU SEE, I MEANALL OF THESE THINGS ARE DISJUNCTS, ACTUALLY.DISJUNCTSRELEVANT POINTSDISJUNCTS

DONT FORGET: He was drunk, because he couldnt stand. > NOT A DISJUNCT, EITHER REUSULT ADJUNCT OR (REMOTELY POSSIBLE?) CAUSE ADJUNCT.

NOTE: apparently/perhaps > SIMILAR TO MODALITY ADJUNCTS, HOWEVER THEY ARE DISJUNCTS BECAUSE THEY ARE SUBJECTIVE HERE > it appears to me that the play was written by I think it is somewhat possible (=perhaps) that the play was written by42DISJUNCTS: more infoDisjuncts are typically PPs and CLAUSES.STYLE DISJUNCTS convey either:Speakers assertion of truth (truthfully), orSpeakers indication of generalization (broadly).ATTITUDINAL DISJUNCTS comment on:TRUTH VALUE OF THE SENTENCE (CERTAINTY)General: certainlyGeneral + perception: obviouslyGeneral + comment on reality of content: reallyCONTENT OF COMMUNICATION (EVALUATION)General: understandablyGeneral + comment on clause subject: wisely (similar to subjuncts)I KNOW, YOU SEE, I MEAN > style discjuncts43CONJUNCTRELEVANT POINTSCONJUNCTS (1/2)They have a CONNECTIVE FUNCTION between SENTENCES (sometimes, they are called SENTENCE LINKERS)Most typically, they take the INITIAL POSITION, but they are not restricted to it.Sometimes, they can take the MEDIAL and FINAL position:

CONJUNCTS (2/2)There are many classifications of conjuncts, below there is a list of THE MOST FREQUENT classes of conjuncts (there are many other classes, which are not given here):

CONJUNCTS: add-onAccording to most textbooks there are two more groups:INFERENTIAL CONJUNCTS:They convey an inference from what is implicit in the preceding sentence or sentences:Else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that caseTEMPORAL TRANSITION CONJUNCTS:They convey that the temporal ordering is simultaneous with the previous sentences (similar to TIME ADJUNCTS):In the meantime, in the meanwhile

CONJUNCTS: add-onAlso, according to most textbooks there are four subtypes of CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS:REFORMULATORY CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS:BETTER, RATHER, IN OTHER WORDSREPLACIVE CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS:AGAIN, ALTERNATIVELY, RATHER, BETTER, WORSE, ON THE OTHER HANDANTITHETIC CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS:CONTRARIWISE, CONTRASTINGLY, CONVERSLY, INSTEAD, OPPOSITELY, ON THE CONTRARY, IN CONTRAST, IN COMPARISON, ON THE OTHER HANDCONCESIVE CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS:ANYHOW, ANYWAY, BESIDES, ALSE, HOWEVER, NONTHELESS, NEVERTHELESS, NOTWITHSTANDING, STILL, YET, IN ANY CASE, AT ANY RATE, FOR ALL THAT, ALL THE SAME

MIDTERM TESTWHAT IT REALLY LOOKS LIKE

ITS WORTH TAKING A GOOD LOOK, BECAUSE ITS WORTH 25% (OF YOUR FINAL GRADE)

12345678Identify the word class of the underlined items in the following sentencesUnderline the required phrases in the following sentences and analyze their structure and syntactic function.Arrange the adjectives into the correct order within the NPTransform the following sentences by changing the nouns with adjectives into verbs followed by suitable expressions (AdvP, AdjP, PP):Rephrase the sentences so that they begin with the words in italics (never., scarcely.)Underline the adverbs in each of the following sentences and determine their syntactic functions (1. Adverbial - adjunct, conjunct, disjunct; 2. Modifier of NP, AdjP, AdvP, PP, Det; 3. Complement of P):50

12345678Exercises 7 & 8 deal with ADVERBIALS7. Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences and specify their a. type (adjunct, conjunct, disjunct), and subtype; b. position in sentence (I, M, F):Example: The people upstairs are noisy [in the evening]. type: adjunct (time, time-when); position: F8. Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences and specify their syntactic structure (type of phrase or clause): Example: The people upstairs are noisy [in the evening]. structure: PP

YOU WILL ALL DO THIS KIND OF EXERCISE DURING YOUR FIRST PRACTICE CLASSES IN APRIL, SOWE WILL NOT DO THEM NOW, AS WE WANT IT TO BE FRESH IN YOU MEMORY FOR THE TEST!NOW, LETS DO (ALMOST) EVERY OTHER TASKSO THAT YOU CAN BE FULLY PREPARED

11. Identify the word class of the underlined items in the following sentences:He was the last person to hear the news.__________He finished last. __________She thinks highly of her teachers. __________Ive been feeling under stress lately. __________It may be many years before the situation improves. __________The task before us is a difficult one. __________We drove up to Inverness to see my father. __________In case of emergency, take the up escalator. __________You should have told me so before. __________The travel agent recommended a cruise up the Neva. __________Dont you ever give up! __________

ADJADVADVPCONJ.PADVADJADVPADVERB PARTICLE OF A PHRASAL VERB

122. Underline the required phrases in the following sentences and analyze their structure and syntactic function. Examples:2.1. APs Adjective phrasesa) This is a very interesting book. S: _____________________ F: ______________________b) She isnt old enough to get married. S: _____________________ F: _____________________c) We are delighted that you have made it. S: _____________________ F: ____________________d) He found her prettier than her sister. S: _____________________ F: _____________________

She is [very happy] S: AdjP=Adv+Adj; F: CsHe speaks [fluently enough]. S: AdvP=Adv+Adv; F: AShe has [a house in the woods] S: PP=P+NP; F: complement of NP

AP=Adv + ADJpremodication in an NPAP=Adv + ADJ +Cl (n.f.)CsAP=ADJ +Cl (f.)CsAP=ADJ +PPCo2. Underline the required phrases in the following sentences and analyze their structure and syntactic function. Examples:2.2. AdvPs Adverb phrasese) He plays the piano surprisingly well S: ___________________ F: ___________________f) I hope to meet him soon enough. S: ____________________ F:___________________g) He spoke too fast for us to take notes. S: _________________ F: _____________________

She is [very happy] S: AdjP=Adv+Adj; F: CsHe speaks [fluently enough]. S: AdvP=Adv+Adv; F: AShe has [a house in the woods] S: PP=P+NP; F: complement of NP

AdvP=Adv + ADVA(dverbial)AdvP=Adv + ADVA(dverbial)AdvP=Adv + ADV+ Cl(non-f.)A(dverbial)2. Underline the required phrases in the following sentences and analyze their structure and syntactic function. Examples:2.3. PPs Prepositional phrasesh) An extra 10 million will be sent to the flooded region.S: ___________________________ F: _________i) For certain personal reasons I shall not be able to attend.S: ___________________________ F: _________j) Were very sorry about the damage we caused. S: ___________________________ F: ______________k) From what I heard, the companys in deep trouble. S: ___________________________ F: _____________ S: ___________________________ F: _____________

She is [very happy] S: AdjP=Adv+Adj; F: CsHe speaks [fluently enough]. S: AdvP=Adv+Adv; F: AShe has [a house in the woods] S: PP=P+NP; F: complement of NP

PP=P +NPobligatory ADVERBIALPP= P + NPcomplement of APPP=P +NPoptional ADVERBIALPP=P +Cl (finite, wh)obligatory ADVERBIALoptional ADVERBIALPP=P +NP

1233. Arrange the adjectives into the correct order within the NP:dress (silk/ long/ extravagant/ red) _____________________________________________________dog (brown/ friendly/ large) _____________________________________________________biscuits (home-made/ delicious/ chocolate) _____________________________________________________skirt (striped / tight / silk) _____________________________________________________woman (thirty-year old / attractive / tall / blonde) _____________________________________________________

an extravagant long red silk dressa friendly large brown dogdelicious home-made chocolate biscuitsa tight striped silk skirtan attractive tall thirty-year old blonde womanSUBJECTIVE MEASURE + OBJECTIVE MEASURE (general, size, shape, age, color, participle, origin, material) + NOUN61

12344. Transform the following sentences by changing the nouns with adjectives into verbs followed by suitable expressions (AdvP, AdjP, PP):There has been a drastic fall in the dollar. _________________________________________________________Why did she give me such a stern look? _________________________________________________________Tom is a good cook. _________________________________________________________I gave her a fatherly talk. _________________________________________________________The flowers had a fragrant smell. _________________________________________________________The dollar has fallen drastically.Why did she look at me so sternly?Tom cooks well.I talked to her in a fatherly way/manner.The flowers smelt/smelled fragrant.

123545. Rephrase the sentences so that they begin with the words in italics:I have never met such a man. _______________________________________________You should not sign the document on any account. ____________________________________I realized what happened only when they left. _________________________________________A truer word has seldom been spoken. ______________________________________________Never have I met such a man.On no account should you sign the document.Only when they left did I realize what happened.Seldom has a truer word been spoken.

1234566. Underline the adverbs in each of the following sentences and determine their syntactic functions (1. Adverbial - adjunct, conjunct, disjunct; 2. Modifier of NP, AdjP, AdvP, PP, Det; 3. Complement of P):Understandably, the project was a success. She has an awfully bad temper.He showed us straight to our seats.Mary works very hard.He is quite a nice man. Yet, she could never forgive him.Over twenty people came to the party.This letter came from abroad.

ADVERBIAL - disjunctMODIFIER - APMODIFIER - PP1:MODIFIER - AdvP2:ADVERBIAL- adjunctMODIFIER - NP1: ADVERBIAL - conjunct2: ADVERBIAL- adjunctMODIFIER - DeterminerComplement of PTHE SIMPLE SENTENCELECTURE #1 2012-04-18Basic concepts of a science are notoriously difficult to define, e.g. atom, number, society, etc.WHAT IS A SENTENCE?SENTENCEIn the traditional view, a sentence is defined:A sequence of words that is complete in itself, conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command, typically containing a subject and predicate. (OED)A group of words that usually contains a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete idea (LDOCE)A grammatical unit that is syntactically independent and has a subject that is expressed or, as in imperative sentences, understood and a predicate that contains at least one finite verb. (MWED)

SENTENCEIn computational linguistics, a sentence is defined:A sequence of words that begins with capital letter and ends in ., ! or ?. (Manning and Schutze)

SENTENCE: some examplesA dog sleeps.A friendly dog in the kennel next to our house sleeps like a baby.Yes.No!Good.Aaaargh, a dog!The more, the merrier!To hell with Skyrim!SENTENCE: some examplesA dog sleeps [wherever it finds a suitable place].I know [that a friendly dog in the kennel next to our house sleeps like a baby].Stop [doing that]!Stop that!Stop!Wow!A-ha.

SENTENCE: what examples tell usNot all sentences contain a subject and a verb:Structures such as Wow!, Yes., Aaaah, a dog!, The more, the marrier., which do not contain a subject and a verb, are called SENTENCE FRAGMENTS or MINOR SENTENCES.Structures such as A dog sleeps. and I bought a book yesterday in a nice bookstore somewhere on the West Side., which do contain both a subject and a verb, are called FULL SENTENCES or MAJOR SENTENCES.SENTENCE: what examples tell usNot all sentences contain just one subject and one verb:Structures such as A dog sleeps. and I bought a book yesterday in a nice bookstore somewhere on the West Side., which contain just one subject and one verb, are called SIMPLE SENTENCES.Structures such as A dog sleeps [wherever it finds a suitable place]. and I know [that a friendly dog in the kennel next to our house sleeps like a baby]., which contain more than one subject and a verb (i.e. which contain more than one clause), are called COMPLEX SENTENCES.SENTENCE vs. CLAUSEWHAT IS A CLAUSE?

SENTENCECLAUSECLAUSEIn the traditional view, a clause is defined:A unit of grammatical organization next below the sentence in rank, and in traditional grammar said to consist of a subject and predicate. (OED)A group of words that contains a subject and a verb, but which is usually only part of a sentence. (LDOCE)A group of words containing a subject and a predicate and forming part of a compound or complex sentence. (MWED)

SENTENCE vs. CLAUSECLAUSE a syntactic unit which is larger than a phrase and which consists of ONE PREDICATION. Clauses can be both FINITE and NON-FINITE, and DEPENDENT and INDEPENDENT.SENTENCE the biggest syntactic unit. It consists of at least one clause. Sentences are always FINITE. Sentences are always INDEPENDENT.E.g.

To be happy means to be in love.clause (non-finite), function: S, structure: VCsclause (non-finite), function: Od, structure: VAclause (finite) = sentence, structure: S(clause) V Od(clause)EVERY SENTENCE IS A CLAUSE.NOT ALL CLAUSES ARE SENTENCES.SENTENCE vs. CLAUSESome other examples:I am happy.

I want to be happy.

I know that he wants to be happy.clause (finite) = sentence, structure: S V Csclause (finite) = sentence, structure: S V Od(clause)clause (non-finite), function: Od, structure: V Csclause (finite) = sentence, structure: S V Od(clause)clause (finite), function: Od, structure: S V Od (clause)clause (non-finite), function: Od, structure: VCsSENTENCE vs. CLAUSEThe previous example showed us an important feature of all human languages including English:LANGUAGES ARE RECURSIVEIN OTHER WORDS, YOU CAN EMBED A CLAUSE INTO ANOTHER CLAUSE AND THEN EMBED YET ANOTHER CLAUSE INTO THAT CLASUE, AND THEN DO IT AGAINMary is telling the truth.I know [that Mary is telling the truth].I know [that John knows [that Mary is telling the truth]].I know [that John knows [ that Bill knows [that Mary is telling the truth]]].I know [that John knows [ that Bill knows [ that the police believe [that Mary is telling the truth]]]].

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONCLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCESSTRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONSentences and clauses are structurally classified according to two different criteria:THE NUMBER AND TYPE OF CLAUSES IN A SENTENCE > THE BASIS FOR SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION

THE TYPE OF VERB IN A SENTENCE > THE BASIS FOR CLAUSE CLASSIFICATION

SENTENCES - CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER AND TYPE OF CLAUSESSTRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION = based on the NUMBER AND TYPE of clauses in a sentence:SIMPLE SENTENCE consists of a SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE.[The students] [didnt know] [the answer to that question] = SVOCOMPLEX SENTENCE consists of a MAIN/SUPERORDINATE CLAUSE and AT LEAST one DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.[The students] [know] [that the project deadline is difficult to meet] = SVO (O realized as a clause)SIMPLE SENTENCE consists of a SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE.[The students] [didnt know] [the answer to that question] = SVOCOMPUND SENTENCE consists of a at least TWO MAIN CLAUSES.[She] [took] [the test] [in June] and [she] [passed] [it] [with flying colors]. S V O (A) Conj. S V O (A)SENTENCES IMPORTANT NOTECOMPOUND SENTENCES ARE REALIZED BY MEANS OF THE GRAMMATICAL REALITIONSHIP OF COORDINATION.COORDINATION IS LEXICALLY REALIZED THROUGH COORDINATORS (AND, OR & BUT)HOWEVER, EVERYTHING CAN BE COORDINATED, SO THE EXISTANCE OF A COORDINATOR DOES NOT AUTOMATICALLY INDICATE THAT THE SENTENCE IS A COMPOUND SENTENCE.SENTENCES IMPORTANT NOTEJohn kissed Mary and Bill kissed Angelina.COMPOUND SENTENCE (SIMPLE SENTENCE + SIMPLE SENTENCE)John kissed Marry when he invited her to a candlelight dinner but Bill kissed Angelina when they went to a football match.COMPOUND SENTECE (COMPLEX SENTENCE + COMPLEX SENTENCE)John kissed and embraced Mary.SIMPLE SENTENCE (COORDINATED VERB)John kissed Mary and embraced Mandy.COMPLEX SENTENCE (SIMPLE SENTENCE + SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH ELIDED SUBJECT)CLAUSES- CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER AND VERB VALENCYOne of the properties of verbs is VALENCY.VALENCY is the number of obligatory elements that a particular verb takes.On the basis of VALENCY verbs can be divided into five types.VERB CLASSESINTENSIVE VERBS = also known as COPULAR or LINKING VERBS = verbs which are always followed by Cs or an obligatory A(dverbial):

Mary seems happy. => happy is a subject complement = SVCsJohn is in his room. He lives in Paris. => in his room and in Paris are obligatory adverbials = SVAINTRANSITIVE VERBS require no obligatory complement , e.g. disappear, run, sleep, vanish, etc.The sun is shining. That piece of evidence disappeared. The baby is sleeping. = SVTRANSITIVE VERBS they require at least one obligatory element, depending on the number and type of obligatory elements that they take, they can be divided into three subgroups.MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS they require the DIRECT OBJECT

I wrote two letters. I own a small boat. She broke the statue. = SVODITRANSITIVE VERBS they require both the DIRECT OBJECT and the INDIRECT OBJECT:

I gave her two letters. I showed the lady her new car. She sent me the statue. = SVOiOdCOMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS they require the DIRECT OBJECT and either the OBLIGATORY ADVERBIAL or the OBJECT COMPLEMENT:

I put the book on the desk. = SVOAI elected him chairman. = SVOCoSometimes one verb can belong to more than one class. If one verb belongs to more than one class we talk of MULTIPLE CLASS MEMBERSHIP. e.g. MAKE can be DITRANSITIVE, MONOTRANSITIVE and COMPLEX TRANSITIVE

She made her children a chocolate cake. = DITRANSITIVEShe made a chocolate cake. = MONOTRANSITIVEShe made them extremely happy. = COMPLEX TRANSITIVE

Verbs which can belong to more than one class, can sometimes cause AMBIGUITY:I called her a doctor. => two possible interpretations:DITRANSITIVE: She is sick. I called a doctor to help her.COMPLEX TRANSITIVE: She is a doctor. I addressed her as a doctor. ON THE BASIS OF VERB CLASSESCLAUSE TYPESCLAUSE TYPESVERBSCLAUSE TYPESINTENSIVE/LINKING VERBS1. SVCs2. SVAEXTENSIVEINTRANSITIVE3. SVTRANSITIVEMONOTRANSITIVE4. SVODITRANSITIVE5. SVOiOdCOMPLEX TRANSITIVE6. SVOCo7. SVOATHE SINGLE VERB ELEMENT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS ALWAYS A FINITE VP.

SO, THESE ARE THE 7 TYPES OF SIMPLE SENTENCES IN ENGLISHCLAUSE TYPESNaturally, OPTIONAL ADVERBIAL may be added to sentences of any type:(Luckily) the sun is (already) shining.I (definitely) must send her a birthday card (tomorrow).The S, V, O and C are OBLIGATORY sentence elements, whereas the A can be either OBLIGATORY or OPTIONAL. The A is obligatory in the SVA and SVOA clause types:John often goes to the cinema. S(A)VA She kept the children in bed during the storm. SVOA(A) SYNTACTICALLY DEFINEDSENTENCE ELEMENTSSYNTACTIC CONSTITUENTS (S, V, O, C, A) can be realized in different forms: PHRASES and CLAUSESSENTENCE ELEMENTS syntactically defined

PPIn the state of nirvana is how I want to feel.AdvPHere is the latest report from Tripoli.Tomorrow is Thursday.APBeautiful beyond words is how I would describe it.SENTENCE ELEMENTS syntactically defined

SENTENCE ELEMENTS syntactically defined

SENTENCE ELEMENTS syntactically defined

SEMANTICALLYSENTENCE ELEMENTSDEFINED

SENTENCE ELEMENTSsemantically definedLets take a simple sentence as an example: Eric Cartman killed Kenny with a knife.SUBJECTVERBOBJECTADVERBIALA syntactic analysis of the sentence would yield the following syntactic structure: SVOAHowever, there is another way to analyze the sentence from the semantic point of view.SENTENCE ELEMENTSsemantically definedSemantically speaking, every verb describes a SITUATION in which one or more PARTICIPANTS are involved.If we look at the sentence Eric Cartman killed Kenny with a knife. we can say that the verb KILL describes a situation which involves three different participants:

1 = THE PERSON WHO PERFORMED THE ACTIVITY

2 = THE PERSON WHO WAS KILLED3 = THE INSTRUMENT USED FOR KILLINGSemantically, these participants are said to have specific SEMANTIC ROLES: 1. is THE AGENT, 2. is THE THEME/PATIENT, and3. is the INSTRUMENTSENTENCE ELEMENTSsemantically definedOne SYNTACTIC ELEMENT/CONSTITUENT can have VARIOUS SEMANTIC ROLES.For example, the SUBJECT can have three different semantic roles:John opened the door. (SUBJECT is the AGENT)The key opened the door. (SUBJECT is the INSTRUMENT)The door opened. (SUBJECT is the THEME/PATIENT)Actually, this is just the tip of the iceberg: the subject can have as many as THIRTEEN (13!!!) different semantic roles.SUBJECT semantically defined

DIRECT OBJECT semantically defined

INDIRECT OBJECT semantically defined

COMPLEMENTS semantically defined

NOWSOMETHING COMPLETELY DIFFERENTCONCORD

BUT THIS IS NOT CONCORD!THIS IS CONCORDE.UNLIKE CONCORDE, CONCORD IS A GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY.CONCORDConcord is AGREEMENT between two sentence elements with respect to certain grammatical features. Officially: CONCORD (sometimes termed AGREEMENT) is the relationship between TWO GRAMMATICAL UNITS such that one of them DISPLAYS A PARTICULAR FEATURE (e.g. plurality) that ACCORDS WITH A DISPLAYED (or semantically implicit) FEATURE in the other unit.

There are several types of concord. Even in English! But more about it later.WHERE CAN WE SEE CONCORD?*Mary were in London yesterday. S-V concord (gender, person , number)*John cut herself. S-O concord (gender, person, number)*John cut themselves. S-O concord (gender, person, number)*John is an actress. S-Cs concord (gender, person, number)*John considers Bill an actress. S-Co concord (gender, person, number)*John considers them an actor. S-Co concord (gender, person, number)

CONCORD types ofS-V concord: NOUN PHRASESThe CHANGE in male attitudes is most obvious in industry.The CHANGES in male attitude are most obvious in industry.

When the subject is realized by a noun phrase, the phrase counts as singular IF ITS HEAD IS SINGULAR.

S-V concord: AdvP and PPSlowly does it!In the evenings is best for me.

Prepositional phrases and adverb phrases functioning as subjects count as SINGULAR.

S-V concord: CLAUSESHow they got there doesnt concern me.To treat them as hostages is criminal.Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health.To drink and drive is a recipe for disaster.

Finite and non-finite clauses generally count as SINGULAR.However, there are some apparent exceptions.

S-V concord: clauses add-onWhat were supposed to be new proposals were in fact modifications of earlier ones.What was once a palace is now a pile of rubble.Whatever book a Times reviewer praises sells well.What ideas he has are his wifes.These are NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES:their number depends on the interpretation of the number of the WH-ELEMENT, e.g. with determiners WHAT and WHATEVER the concord depends on the number of the determined noun (the last two examples)

S-V concord: general rulesGeneral rule of S-V concord:A subject which is not clearly semantically plural requires a singular verb.In other words: SINGULAR is the UNMARKED FORM which is to be used in neutral circumstances when there is no positive.This explains why in informal speech we can often hear:There is hundreds of people in the streets.S-V concord: exceptionsMeasles is sometimes serious.Our people are complaining.

Apparent exceptions include SINGULAR NOUNS ending in S (e.g. measles, billards, mathematics, etc.) and PLURAL NOUNS lacking the S (e.g. cattle, people, clergy, etc.).S-V concord: exceptionsCrime and Punishment is a great novel.Brother Karamzov is his masterpiece.The Cedars has a huge garden.Senior citizens means people over sixty.Plural noun phrases (including coordinate phrases) count as singular if they are used as NAMES, TITLES, QUOTATIONS, etc.Such NPs can be regarded as appositive structures with an implied singular head: the book Crime and Punishment, the expression senior citizens, etc.S-V concord: exceptionsThe Canterbury Tales exists in many manuscripts.The Canterbury Tales exist in many manuscripts.The titles of some works that are collection of stories may be counted as either singular or plural.Principles of grammatical concord: NOTIONAL concord & PROXIMITYNo one except his own supporters AGREE with him.The head is NO ONE, but the verb agrees with SUPPORTERS this is called PROXIMITY. PROXIMITY (also called ATTRACTION) denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding NP in preference to agreement with the head of the NP that functions as subject:Proximity is here reinforced by NOTIONAL CONCORD (Only his own supporters agree with him).NOTIONAL CONCORD how the speaker understands the concept denoted with the NP (singular or plural) regardless of the grammatical form

EXAMPLES OF NOTIONAL CONCORDTen dollars is all I have left. [That amount is]Fifteen years represents a long period of his life.[That period is]Two miles is as far as they can walk. [That distance is]Two thirds of the area is under water. [That area is], Sixty people means a huge party. [That number of people means]Principles of grammatical concord: NOTIONAL concord & PROXIMITYConflict between grammatical concord and proximity increases with the distance between the NP head of the subject and the VP (e.g. when an adverbial or a parenthesis intervenes between the subject and the verb).Proximity concord occurs mainly in unplanned discourse in writing it will be corrected to grammatical concord.We will discuss GRAMMATICAL CONCORD, NOTIONAL CONCORD and PROXIMITY in the following cases:Collective noun headCoordinated subjectIndefinite expressions

COLLECTIVE NOUNSThe audience were enjoying every minute of it.The public are tired of demonstration.England have won the cup.Our Planning Committee have consideredSingular collective nouns may be notionally plural. In BRITISH ENGLISH the verb may be EITHER SINGULAR or PLURAL.COLLECTIVE NOUNSThe audience was enormous.The public consists of you and me.The crowd has been dispersed.The choice between singular and plural verbs depends in BRITISH ENGLISH on whether the group is being considered as a single undivided body or as a collection of individuals.On the whole: the plural is more popular in speech, whereas in writing the singular is preferred.COORDINATED SUBJECTSWhen a subject consists of TWO or MORE noun phrases (or clauses) coordinated by AND, we must make a distinction between:COORDINATION (PROPER)COORDINATIVE APPOSITIONCOORDINATION (PROPER)Tom and Alice ARE now ready. =[Tom is now ready and Alice is now ready.]What I say and what I think ARE my own affair. =[What I say is my own affair and what I think is my own affair]BUT:What I say and do IS my own affair. COORDINATION REFERS TO CASES WHEN WE HAVE FULL COORDINATED FORMS (not REDUCED FORMS).A PLURAL VERB IS USED EVEN IF EACH CONJOIN IS SINGULAR.COORDINATION (PROPER)His camera, his phone, his money WERE confiscated by the customs officials. A PLURAL VERB IS ALSO NEEDED WHEN THERE IS NO COORDINATOR. COORDINATION (PROPER)You problem and mine ARE similar. =[Your problem is similar to mine and mine is similar to yours.]What I say and do ARE two different things. =[What I say is one thing and what I do is another thing.]Conjoins expressing MUTUAL RELATIONSHIP are also PLURAL.COORDINATION PROPER TRICKY ISSUEEvery adult and every child was holding a flag. Each senator and congressman was allocated two seats.Each of them has signed the petition.BUT:They have each signed allocated two seats.PREPOSED EACH AND EVERY HAVE A DISTRIBUTIVE EFFECT AND REQUIRE A SINGULAR VERB.

COORDINATIVE APPOSITIONThis temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main street of the city. BUT:His ages servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers was with him at his deathbed.His ages servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers were with him at his deathbed. SINGULAR IS USED IF THE SERVANT AND THE EDITOR ARE THE SAME PERSON (APPOSITIVE COORDINATION) AND PLURAL IS USED IF THEY ARE TWO DIFFERENT PERSONS (COORDINATION PROPER).

COORDINATION WITH OR AND NOREither the Mayor or her deputy IS (ARE) bound to come.What I say or what I think IS(ARE) no business of yours.Either the strikers of the bosses (HAS) HAVE misunderstood the claim.Either your brakes or your eyesight IS (ARE) at fault.Either your eyesight or your brakes ARE (IS) at fault.When coordinated items have the same number, there is pure grammatical concord: when they are both singular (1 and 2) the verb is also singular, when they are both plural (3), the verb is also plural.When coordinated items do not have the same number, English follows the principle of PROXIMITY: whichever phrase comes last determines the number of the verb. (4 and 5).NOTBUT and NOT ONLYBUT behave like EITHEROR.

INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS AS SUBJECT - CONCORD

THE ENDTHANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME!CU NEXT WEEK!THE ENDTHANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME!CU NEXT WEEK!