Glossary

(I) Hindi Words

ashram: Religious hermitage.

Churrack puja: A festival that involves devotees ‘swinging from hooks’.

ganja: The Hindi word for Cannabis or Marijuana.

gramadevata: Village gods.

gurdwara: Literally ‘Gateway to the Guru’. A Place of worship for Sikhs.

Harijan: Literally ‘Children of God’. Refers to the community of ‘untouchables’or Dalits in the Indian subcontinent.

maulavi: Muslim religious expert.

Muharram: Annual Shia festival.

panchayat: A committee constituted by ‘senior and influential overseers and theclerical staff of the plantation’ (Ramanathan, 1995, 84).

pandit: Hindu Brahmin priest.

pranapratishta: Performance of any ceremony of solemn act, consecration ordedication of a monument or of an idol or of a temple. The word pranapratistha,comes from ‘pran’, which means ‘the breath of life’ or ‘spirit’, and the root ‘stha’,which means ‘to establish in or bestow or confer upon’. Thus the word refers toa ceremony in which ‘life-breath is established in an image or icon’, rendering itworthy of worship.

sati: Refers to the Hindu custom of a widow immolating herself on her husband’sfuneral pyre.

257V. Sinha, Religion–State Encounters in Hindu Domains, ARI – Springer Asia Series 1,DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-0887-7, C© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

258 Glossary

(II) Malay words

Da’Wah: Missionary work, proselytization. Also refers to Islamic revival move-ment in Malaysia.

datuk: Title of distinction conferred on men or women.

halal: Lawful, permissible according to divine law.

keramat: Shrine, often at burial ground of a saint or a ruler.

Koran: The holy book of the Muslims.

merdeka: Independence or freedom.

Syariah: Islamic law.

wakaf: Endowment, a donation of property, usually land, for religious purposes.

Yang di-Pertuan Agong: Literally ‘He who is made Lord, Paramount ruler orHead of State’.

zakat: Tithe.

(III) Tamil words

abis.ekam: Consecration by sprinkling water or ritual bathing; refers to theceremonial lustration of sacred image using water, honey, milk, curds or saffron.

aiyar: Brahmin priest.

arccakarkall.: A religious guide or instructor.

arccan¯ai: Worship. This is a specific mode of worship where the focus is on the

arca (image or icon) and the deity it inhabits. The homage is addressed to the deityfor a particular purpose via a priest within a temple.

akn¯i koppar

¯ai: Literally ‘pot of fire’ which is carried by devotees in a ritual as a

sign of devotion.

alaku kavat.i: The word alaku literally means ‘beautiful’ and refers to a type ofkavat.i carried by devotees during festivals related to Murukan worship.

amman/atta: A generic term for ‘mother’ that is also used to refer to the Mothergoddess.

anka piratat.can. an: A ritual that involves devotees rolling on the floor in a templeor behind a chariot procession as a mark of devotion and submission to divin-ity. It may be performed by both men and women although the practice variescontextually.

cami: A word for ‘God/Lord’.

Glossary 259

cami vit.u: Literally ‘God’s house’.

cat.t.ai at.i: A ritual where the devotee is whipped with a rope around clasped handsand the back.

Caivacittantam/Saiva Siddhanta: Literally ‘the doctrine of Siva’.

camayattar: Religious specialist or priest.

capati: Sculptors, temple artisans.

cet.il kavat.i: A type of chariot kavati, denoted as a ter kavati in the Malaysian andSingaporean contexts.

cinna kovil: Small temple, shrine.

kal.añci: This refers to the actual items given as honours to respected individualson festivals.

kaval teyvam: Guardian deities.

kavat.i: According to the Tamil lexicon this is a ‘decorated pole of wood with anarch over it’ (Diehl 1956, 223). The physical structural form of the basic kavat.i takesmany different forms, both in India and in the Hindu Diaspora. Devotees carry thekavat.i in procession during Murukan festivals.

kangani: Literally ‘overseer’ or ‘foreman’. It refers to a system of labour recruit-ment where a senior labourer is mobilized to recruit labour from his homevillage.

kar¯pura tipam: Camphor lamp.

karakam: Literally a ‘pot’ in which divinity resides. During a religious ritual,typically a trance, a dancer balances this pot on his/her head and performs a dance.

Karuppan. acami: The name of a minor deity, who is widely popular, sometimes asan attendant to the village goddesses and often independently, in rural South India.Karuppan. is the Tamil word for ‘black’ or ‘dark’ and often the deity is depicted assuch.

kopuram: Gateway, the entrance to a South Indian style temple.

kovil: Literally ‘king’s house’ and is the common Tamil word for temple.

kovil illata uril kut.i irukka ven. t.am: Literally ‘Do not settle in a place that hasno temples.’

kumpapis.ekam: Dedication and installation of deities during a temple consecra-tion ceremony.

macimakam: An auspicious day in the Tamil month of Maci (February–March)

mavil.akku: Lamps fashioned out of flour dough, used especially in the venerationof mother goddesses.

260 Glossary

Mun¯isvaran

¯: This deity originates from rural Tamil Nadu and is described as a

guardian deit1y, and also popularly worshipped as a protector deity. Typically thedeity is placed on the margins of living spaces and residences and rarely placed atthe household prayer altar in Indian contexts. In Singapore and Malaysia, however,his status has been elevated and he is viewed here as an incarnation of Siva and alsovenerated as a household deity, who is increasingly present in devotees’ homes.

Mun¯iyan. t.i: A minor deity who is firmly located in the ‘little tradition’ (Rajah

1975, 127). The deity is described as a ‘non-vegetarian’ deity with a fondness formeat. Mun

¯isvaran is sometimes denoted by this name as well.

nayan¯mar: This refers to the 63 teachers of Tamil Saivism who composed hymns

from the seventh to the tenth centuries. These hymns form 11 sacred books, theTirumur

¯ai.

nava kirakam/Navagraha: The nine planets which are worshipped as part of theHindu mythology.

nittiya pucai: Daily prayers which can be performed in homes or temples.

otuvarkal: A caste group responsible for chanting, reciting and singing devotionalsongs in praise of divinity, typically in Hindu temples.

palkut.am: Literally ‘milk pot’ and a type of kavati offering carried in honour ofthe deity Murukan.

Pankun¯i Uttiram: A festival dedicated to the Hindu deity Murukan.

pan. t.aram: According to the Tamil lexicon, multiple meanings include a religiousmendicant, a Saivan monk or a sect of non-Brahmin Saivites who sell garlands offlowers. The word refers to a caste as well as a profession.

pañcalukam: An alloy of five metals, considered auspicious for constructingstatues of deities.

pat.t.accariyarkal: Brahmin priests of the Vaisnavite tradition.

piracatam (prasadam): Divine grace, symbolized by a small amount of conse-crated food given to the worshipper in return for the offering that has been made tothe deity. Offerings, including food, are distributed to devotees as ‘leftovers of thegods’.

ponkal: Literally a mixture of rice, dhal, milk and sugar cooked together in apot and symbolic of abundance and prosperity. Also refers to a harvest festivalcelebrated by Tamils.

pucai/puja: A pucai can take many forms according to the religious affiliation ofthe worshipper, her community and the occasion. It takes place in homes and tem-ples and may range from a simple offering of fruit, flowers, leaves and occasionallysweets, sugar or water, to an elaborate ceremony involving a number of participantsand offerings of various sorts.

Glossary 261

tan. n. irppantalkal: Literally ‘water stalls’ (sponsored by volunteers) set up alonga festival processional route.

Timiti: Fire-walking festival.

Thirukkural: A compilation of 1,330 rhyming couplets authored by Thiruvalluvarand regarded as one of the foundational texts of Saivism.

Tai Pucam: A festival, dedicated to the Hindu god Murukan, which involves thecarrying of kavat.i along a processional route.

Tipaval.i/Deepavali/Diwali: Festival of lights.

tiruvil¯a: Annual temple anniversary celebrations.

un. t.iyal: Donation box.

upayam: Special prayers dedicated to a deity on a religious occasion but spon-sored by groups, families or individuals.

upayakararkal: Groups of volunteers who undertake to sponsor special prayersand rituals within a temple.

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This is Blank Page Integra 276

Index

AAbolition, 204, 212, 218Abuse, 88, 92, 108, 116, 175, 241Administration, 1, 3, 5–6, 8, 12, 17–18, 23,

29–43, 45, 48, 50, 62, 74–75, 77,79–81, 84, 86, 88–93, 95–103, 106,108, 113–114, 116, 120–124, 127,132–138, 144–145, 167, 170–172,175–177, 179, 181, 183, 185, 190, 196,200–203, 206, 227, 233–237, 240,243–244, 250–252

Administrative bodies, 9, 11, 18, 230, 244Advisory boards, 9, 11, 15, 77, 81, 84,

120–124, 127, 150, 157, 160–162, 164,196, 215, 218, 220, 235–238

Agamic temples, 56, 59, 63, 183, 185–231,245–246

Amendments, 71, 91–92, 100, 135, 159,168–169, 178–180, 207, 236, 238, 242

AMLA (Administration of Muslim Law Act),8, 233–235, 240

Annual reports, 8, 84, 101, 103, 105–109,111–117, 119, 125, 129–130, 133,138, 141

Annual temple festival, 57Appointed committees, 84–85Appointment of Hindu Members, 162Approval, 8, 89, 135, 141, 149, 151–152, 160,

191–192, 253–254Arulmigu Murugan Temple in Jurong East,

57, 245Authorities

municipal, 157, 160supreme, 7, 235–236

BBahari Temple in Penang, 109, 115Batu Caves, 222–223Belief, 3, 12, 45, 54, 216, 247

Bengal, 29, 32–34, 38, 52, 59, 85, 109, 180,212–213, 216, 218

Boardjoint, 98permanent, 83, 91–92

Board-administered temples, 246Board Commissioners, 106, 208Board for Hindu religious, 98Board power, 168, 179Board reports, 118–119Board, statutory, 8–9, 136, 166, 234–235, 244Britain, 27, 29, 31, 41–42, 80, 108British authorities, 34, 42, 56–57, 60, 79, 88British Colonial Government, 57, 127British Empire, 42, 45, 80–81British Government, 20, 29, 34, 40–41, 58British Malaya, 28, 30–31, 36, 45–48, 51,

59–60, 79, 97, 106, 167, 202, 206, 230British Residents, 25, 31, 40–42British settlements, 29, 37–39, 72Bureaucracy, 1–3, 14–16, 23, 30, 231, 233–255Business, 70, 93, 101, 108–109, 125, 138, 142,

162, 177–178, 182, 188, 190, 196, 240

CCaptain Kling Mosque, 115, 118–119Celebrations, 56, 64, 68, 71, 73, 76, 102, 154,

188, 194, 210–211, 213, 216, 218, 220,224, 228, 241

Ceremonies, 34, 55–57, 65, 68, 72–73, 86,119–120, 131, 154, 186, 189, 191,193–196, 199, 203, 205, 208, 211, 220,227, 243, 245–246

Chariot processions, 63Charitable endowments, 18, 84–85, 91, 93, 95,

98, 100–101, 114, 174, 177–178, 185,207–209, 233–234

Charities Act, 8, 235, 243–244, 250

277

278 Index

Charity, 8–9, 85, 91, 95, 129, 132–133, 142,147, 243–244, 250

Chettiar Temple in Singapore, 203China, 5, 26–27, 29–30, 32, 38–39, 42, 48,

54–55, 61, 76–77, 117Chinese Advisory Board (CAB), 77, 127Chinese community, 37, 47, 54–55, 66–67, 70,

74, 76–78, 127Chinese grievances, 49, 52, 74Chinese New Year, 51, 55, 64, 70–71, 79Chinese processions, 64, 67–68Chinese temples, 55, 58, 176, 211Christian government, 62, 73–74, 80Christianity, 26, 47–49, 51, 60–62Colonial authorities, 17, 30, 41, 45, 47, 51, 60,

70, 77, 78, 80–81, 87–88, 97, 127, 133,169, 212, 216, 218, 222

Colonialism, 5, 46–47, 61, 80, 181, 247Colonial period, 9, 17, 19, 49–50, 97–99, 123,

239, 247, 252Colonial policy, 13, 17–18, 20, 41, 81, 97, 251Colonial state, 4, 14, 17–18, 23, 47, 50, 62,

108, 124, 167, 201, 214, 249, 252Colonies, 13, 25–26, 29–30, 39–42, 45, 49, 54,

60, 64, 72, 74, 76, 80–81, 84–85, 119,123, 159, 217, 220, 233

Commissioner for Hindu Endowments Boardin Madras, 209

Commissioner for Hindu Religious andCharitable Endowments, 208

Commissioner of Lands, 166–167Commissioners, 8, 31, 85, 91–93, 95, 100, 102,

106, 114, 138–139, 160, 165–167, 171,207–209, 235, 243, 250

Committeesdistrict, 99joint, 237separate, 145–147special, 91

Committees of management, 114–116,138–183, 187–188, 192, 196, 198, 200

native, 116, 138–183Community

Buddhist, 9, 127Chettiar, 203, 219, 245Chinese, 37, 47, 54–55, 63, 66–67, 70, 74,

76–78, 127Chulia, 144European, 61, 64Hindu, 8–10, 47, 54, 56, 59, 63, 89,

123–124, 127, 133, 147–148, 154, 156,161, 163–165, 169, 171, 173–174,177–178, 180, 182, 186, 198–199, 203,

206, 211, 213–214, 218, 223–224, 228,233–235, 239–244

Indian, 16, 53–54, 58, 61, 87, 127, 204,211, 217, 238

international, 250Malayalee, 58, 245Muslim, 64, 84, 90, 98–99, 102, 121–122,

124, 126–127, 144–145, 147, 234, 239Parsi, 133, 147Sikh, 9, 95, 133–136, 143, 158–159Tamil, 56, 218, 230, 246Taoist, 9, 127

Complaints, 52, 64, 71, 79, 113, 117, 136,142, 155, 186, 196, 207–208, 228,237, 243

Convicts, 28, 34, 64, 68–69, 71, 94, 130, 248Courts, 7, 33–37, 39, 52, 55, 74, 77–78, 87–90,

94–95, 109–112, 129, 130, 136, 144,154–155, 159–160, 166–167, 169,179, 201

Crackers, firing of, 70–71, 79, 189, 223Customary practices, 18, 37, 40, 62, 72–73,

79–81, 96, 196Customs, 9, 31, 34, 36–37, 39, 41, 49, 52, 61,

71, 73–75, 127, 194–195, 219, 225, 241

DDarma Muneeswaran Temple, 241Deities

non-Sanskritic, 202–203, 245–246village, 56–57, 59, 202, 206

Devotees, 12, 63, 86, 103–104, 145, 153, 172,174, 187–189, 191, 193–194, 198–200,205–208, 211, 213–214, 216, 219–220,222, 225–229, 243, 245–246

Dialogue, 9, 11, 243Dutch, 25–30, 39, 42, 55, 59, 61Dutch East India Company (DEIC), 26

EEast India Company, 26, 28, 30, 32, 38–39, 52,

58–59East India Company’s petition, 52EEIC (English East India Company), 13,

25–30, 33–34, 38, 48, 56–58, 60–63,96, 187

Employees, 58, 116, 170, 178, 187–188,190–192, 201, 246

Enactment, 12, 15, 49, 52, 68, 75–77, 80, 85,88, 95–96, 122–123, 201, 213, 216,222, 227, 230, 254

Endowment funds, 108–109, 200, 225Endowment properties, 112, 158, 160

Index 279

Endowmentsadministration of, 97, 100, 102, 120, 132,

138, 190, 200management of, 17, 116–117, 148,

183, 225new, 109, 129–130particular, 107, 133various, 110, 112, 114, 140–142, 148, 150,

165, 168Endowments Board, 8–11, 15, 17–18, 20, 23,

57–59, 63, 83, 98–138, 140, 158–159,164, 166, 169–183, 185, 193, 198,207–209, 211, 224–226, 233–255

Endowments Board Act, 236England, 26, 32, 36, 39, 72, 75, 85, 91, 123English East India Company, see EEIC

(English East India Company)English laws, 37, 39, 73Europeans, 25–29, 31–32, 37, 40, 45,

48, 53–54, 57, 60–61, 64, 73–76,78–79, 102, 120, 123, 127, 211, 221,224, 227

Expenses, 39, 41, 53, 76, 94, 105–107, 112,119–120, 128, 141, 150, 164, 191–192,198

FFaith, 7–10, 12, 90, 123, 174, 183, 207, 241,

249–250Federated Malay States, see FMS (Federated

Malay States)Fees, 94, 107, 131, 140, 154, 188, 191–192,

194, 201, 205–206, 228, 239, 246Festivals, 3, 8, 15–16, 23, 49, 56–57, 60,

62–64, 68–72, 75–76, 79, 83, 96–97,102, 119, 128, 145, 154, 158, 161, 176,183, 185, 190, 193–194, 210–214, 218,222–225, 227–231, 241, 246

fire-walking, 63, 116, 120, 128, 145, 161,193–195, 199, 208, 210–211, 217, 220,222, 227, 230

FMS (Federated Malay States), 31–32,122–124

Foot procession, 64, 224–226, 228–229Funeral, 55, 64–68

GGaja Berang Hindu Temple, 113Governance, 5–6, 13–14, 18, 23, 25–43, 45, 48,

50, 62, 66, 78–80, 84, 86, 90, 95–96,99–100, 133–134, 136, 144, 176, 181,233, 235, 240, 244, 247–250, 252

Governmentlocal, 68, 75, 216regular, 33

Government councils, 91Government of India, 30, 38, 79, 158, 217–218Government intervention, 77, 84, 88, 90,

133, 235Government officials, 168, 223Government temples, 202Gurdwara, 9, 60, 95, 127, 132–137, 139,

142–143, 151–152

HHAB (Hindu Advisory Board), 9, 11, 15,

120–122, 157, 160–162, 164, 196, 215,218, 220, 235–240

Harbour Board, 194HDB (Housing and Development Board),

8, 251HEA (Hindu Endowments Act), 8, 23,

177–179, 189, 200, 225, 233, 235–236,238–242

HEB in Singapore and Penang, 167Hindu Advisory Board, see HAB (Hindu

Advisory Board)Hindu affairs, 177, 208–209, 235–236, 240,

244Hindu associations, 162, 217Hindu Boards, 157, 235–238Hindu burial ground, 157, 160, 166Hindu community

local, 86, 124, 148, 203, 213–214, 233, 235migrant, 59, 206migrant Indian, 59

Hindu domains in Singapore, 15Hindu Endowments, 8–11, 15, 17–18, 20,

22–23, 57–59, 63, 81, 83–184, 189,193, 198, 200, 202, 208–209, 211,224–226, 233–255

administration of, 124, 170, 185Hindu Endowments Act, see HEA (Hindu

Endowments Act)Hindu Endowments Bill, 92, 123, 171–176,

202, 240Hindu Endowments Board/Hindu Advisory

Board, 11Hindu Endowments Boards, 8–11, 15, 17–18,

20, 22–23, 57–59, 63, 83, 101–138,140, 158–159, 164, 166, 169–183, 185,193, 198, 208–209, 211, 224–226,233–255

Hindu festivals, 3, 15, 56, 63–64, 158, 185,210, 213, 225, 231, 241

280 Index

Hinduism, 3, 9, 13, 15–20, 22, 50, 56, 101,120, 172–174, 176, 185–232, 236–237,240–241, 244, 254

local, 173, 231Hindu leadership, 9, 18, 122, 235, 239,

244–245Hindu Management Committee, 170Hindu members of Parliament, 179, 217Hindu migrants, 55, 59, 202Hindu and Muslim Advisory Boards, 160Hindu and Muslim communities, 84, 90,

127, 147Hindu and Muslim endowments, 98, 180Hindu-Muslim Endowments in Madras, 98Hindu and Muslim members, 18Hindu organizations, 16, 244Hindu religion, 197, 217, 219–220, 230, 239,

243, 246Hindu religion and Indian philosophy, 246Hindu religiosity

folk, 231particular style of, 201

Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments,18, 84, 91, 93, 95, 100–101, 174, 177,207–209, 234

Hindu Religious and Charitable EndowmentsAct, 100, 174

Hindu Religious and Charitable EndowmentsAdministration Department, 100

Hindu Religious Charitable EndowmentsBoard (HRCEB), 98

Hindu Religious and Charitable EndowmentsDepartment, 18

Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowmentsof Madras, 209

Hindu Religious Council, 235–238Hindu Religious Endowments Act, 98–99Hindu Religious Endowments Board, 100, 103Hindu rites, 173, 177, 220Hindus

laws banning, 215local, 86, 90, 102, 124, 148, 173, 175, 203,

209–210, 213–214, 230–231, 233, 235,241, 246

official, 185, 209, 235–236reform-minded, 218, 223religious life of, 16, 55

Hindu scene in Singapore, 15–19, 176, 247Hindu shrines, 58, 93, 110, 175–176Hindu and Sikh temples, 114Hindu Sri Kunji Bihari Temple, 103Hindus in Singapore, 63, 179–180, 199,

236–237, 241

Hindu templesearly, 59new, 245official, 57particular, 172private, 204privately-owned, 175proper, 202public, 187registered, 242, 244

Hindu temple scene, 55Holland, 26–27Hook swinging, 80, 212, 216–218Hueys, 65–67, 77

IIndia, 1, 4, 7, 13, 25–30, 32, 34–35, 38–40,

46, 48, 52–59, 61, 67, 69–70, 73–75,79, 86–87, 91, 93, 96–97, 101, 117,123, 127, 132, 144, 151, 158, 178–179,187, 190, 195–198, 201, 203–210, 213,217–220, 224, 241, 243, 246, 249

Indian Association, 163Indian community, 16, 53–54, 58, 87, 127,

204, 211, 238Indian Constitution, 101Indian Government, 34, 38, 67, 75, 79, 91Indian and Hindu community, 9, 223Indian Muslims, 58, 68, 126–127, 136, 144Inter Racial Confidence Circles (IRCCs),

11–12Inter-Religious Organization (IRO), 10, 250Inter-Religious Organization of Singapore, 10IRCCs (Inter Racial Confidence Circles),

see Inter Racial Confidence Circles(IRCCs)

IRO (Inter-Religious Organization), seeInter-Religious Organization (IRO)

Islam, 9, 13, 41, 48, 50–51, 54, 62, 102,120–121, 123–124, 233–234, 236, 248

Islamic Religious Council of Singapore, 234

JJamael Mosque, 144Judicature, 35, 37, 52Jurisdiction, 6, 14, 17–18, 35–36, 39, 61,

74–75, 79, 83, 98–99, 112, 125–138,150, 153, 155, 172, 178, 185, 215, 235,239, 244, 249

Justice, 33–37, 39, 55, 66, 69, 74–75, 80, 88,99, 101, 155, 252

administration of, 34, 36, 39, 74

Index 281

KKaliamman Temple, 59, 63, 128, 136–137,

146–147, 154, 198, 203, 209, 241, 245Knowledge, 15, 22, 50–51, 66, 79, 95,

102–103, 111, 122, 144, 150, 160–161,165, 172–173, 177, 191, 195, 197, 207,224, 228, 251, 254

LLand, 32, 36, 39, 51, 55–56, 58–60, 62, 73,

88–89, 93, 101–103, 110–111, 117,119, 131, 156, 159, 164, 166–167, 211

disputed, 166Laws

customary, 37first, 98religious, 36, 55

Legal proceedings, 92, 94–95, 103, 110,154–155

Litigation, 85, 94–95, 103, 106, 108–109, 111,123, 155, 167

Little India Shopkeeper’s Heritage Association(LISHA), 241

LMS (London Missionary Society), 48, 60–61London Missionary Society, see LMS (London

Missionary Society)

MMAB (Mohammedan Advisory Board),

120–122, 161–162Madras Board, 207–209Madras Government, 97, 99, 216–217,

219–220Madras Hindu Religious and Charitable

Endowments Act, 100, 174Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act, 99Mahamariamman Temple in Penang, 56Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act, 8,

248Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura, see MUIS

(Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura)Malacca Board, 103, 105–107, 109–113, 115,

117, 119, 158–159Malacca Mohammedan and Hindu

Endowments Board, 104Malacca Muslims, 121–122Malayan communism, 96–97Malayan Hindu Temple Committees, 204Malayan Indians, 203–204, 211–212, 217, 223Malay law, 37Malay Peninsula, 27, 30, 32, 42, 58, 69Malay states, 25, 31–32, 40–42, 47, 122–123Management

effective, 5, 189, 227, 229, 252internal, 100, 150, 176proper, 62, 83, 123style of, 203, 242

Management committeeselected, 245native, 18, 104new, 136various, 169

Management Committee of Sri PerumalTemple, 225

Management committees of temples, 172, 174,192, 221

Management of Hindu temples, 86, 145Mariamman Temple, 49, 56, 58, 63, 86–89, 91,

103, 105, 116–117, 119, 128, 139, 143,145, 147, 151–155, 157, 169, 180, 186,189, 191–195, 199, 203, 206–208, 211,216, 219, 222, 225, 245

Mariamman Temple Management Committee,151–152

Mechanisms, legislative, 96–97Members of native communities, 83, 92, 96MHEB (Mohammedan and Hindu

Endowments Board), 17–18, 20,23, 59, 83–124, 125–183, 185–190,193, 200–208, 218, 222–223, 229,230–231, 233–235, 239–241, 244

MHEO (Mohammedan and HinduEndowments Ordinance), 8, 17, 23, 81,83–124, 127, 132, 134–137, 142, 155,158–159, 165, 168, 170, 176–177, 182,201, 233–235

Minority religions, 13, 244Mismanagement, 17, 84, 88, 91–92, 101, 108,

123, 136–137, 183, 250Missionaries, 26, 48, 51, 60–61, 80, 198, 218Modern Indian Religious Movements in

Singapore, 15Mohammedan Advisory Board, see MAB

(Mohammedan Advisory Board)Mohammedan Advisory Boards in Singapore

and Penang, 121Mohammedan and Hindu endowments, 8,

17–18, 20, 59, 81, 83–124, 125–183Mohammedan and Hindu Endowments Board,

see MHEB (Mohammedan and HinduEndowments Board)

Mohammedan and Hindu EndowmentsOrdinance, see MHEO (Mohammedanand Hindu Endowments Ordinance)

Mohammedan and Hindu Religious CharitableEndowments, 101, 114

282 Index

Mosque ceremonies, 119–120Mosques, 9–10, 18, 56, 58–60, 89–91, 93,

103, 105–109, 111–120, 124, 126–127,132–133, 136, 142–147, 149–151, 158,234, 238–239

MUIS (Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura), 9–10,102, 170, 233–236, 240–241

Music, 67–70, 72, 189, 195–196, 226–228,246, 254

Muslim endowments, 50, 98, 103, 171, 180,234

administration of, 98, 171Muslim religion, 7, 234Muslim religion in Singapore, 234Muslim Religious Endowments in Colonial

Malaya, 50Muslims, 17, 36, 47–48, 54, 56, 62, 64, 68–69,

85, 89–90, 98, 102, 120–121, 126, 144,162, 165, 168, 170, 234, 236–238, 240

NNational Council of Churches of Singapore,

see NCCS (National Council ofChurches of Singapore)

Native Committees of Management, 116,138–183

NCCS (National Council of Churches ofSingapore), 9, 127, 249–250

OOfficial Hinduism, 185, 209Official state religion, 1, 253Organizations, 2, 8–12, 14–16, 23, 49, 84,

104, 120, 145, 160, 170, 174–175, 179,199, 212, 222, 225, 229–230, 240–241,243–245, 247, 249–251

religious, 8–11, 49, 244, 247, 250–251

PPanchayat of Endowment, 146, 157Panchayat of Mariamman Temple, 154Parsees, 17, 54, 126, 132, 147PCRH (Presidential Council of Religious

Harmony), 10–11Penang Hindu Endowments Board, 233Piercing, 213, 216, 218–221, 223Piety, 37–38, 173, 177, 217–218, 240Plantations, 53, 56–57, 59, 64PMHEB (Penang Mohammedan and Hindu

Endowments Board), 104, 109–110,114, 118, 158–159

Policy and Administration for Hindu Templesin South India, 1

Portuguese, 25–26, 51, 54–55Possession, 28–29, 40, 53, 73, 131, 156,

166–167Prayers, daily, 191, 193, 205Presidential Council of Religious Harmony

(PCRH), see PCRH (PresidentialCouncil of Religious Harmony)

Priests, 26, 57, 61, 117, 187, 190–192, 198,201, 205–207, 209, 219, 242–243,245–246

Processions, 3, 47, 49, 52, 55, 62–65, 67–69,71–73, 75, 76, 79, 96, 224, 226, 244,252, 254

funeral, 55, 64–68Property, 6, 36, 56, 65, 71, 75, 85, 93–95,

98–99, 102, 109–113, 117–119, 123,128, 130, 134, 136–137, 143, 150, 156,158–160, 163, 167, 178–179, 187, 193,200, 215, 241–242

religious, 98, 123Protests, 64, 70, 79, 194–195, 253

RRegulations, 1, 7–8, 12–14, 17, 33–34, 45,

47, 52, 71–72, 75, 80–81, 86, 88–89,91, 96–98, 124, 126, 138, 169, 172,185–186, 188, 191, 200–201, 222, 225,227–229, 233, 235, 244, 248–254

Religioninstitutions of, 1, 12, 255management of, 5, 7, 13, 15, 19, 75, 84, 88,

91, 101, 183native, 17, 80, 85, 96, 120

Religiosityprivate, 247–248public, 12, 248

Religious affairs, 6–7, 12–13, 37, 78, 80–81,96, 100, 160, 178, 200, 223, 231, 237,240

Religious beliefs, 12, 45, 54Religious ceremonies, 131, 189, 191Religious classes, 197–198, 246Religious communities, 2, 6, 8, 10–11, 13–14,

17, 25, 36, 43, 47, 51–52, 75–76, 84,102, 113, 120, 123, 127, 142–143, 153,155, 157, 160, 168, 181, 231, 244, 248,250–252

Religious domain, 1, 4, 6–7, 11, 13–14, 62, 81,83, 120, 181, 188, 249, 253, 255

Religious endowmentsadministration of, 18, 23, 81, 88, 96–97,

108, 116, 133, 137, 176–177, 181, 185,234, 240

Index 283

management of, 84, 101mismanaged, 235native, 85

Religious expression, 5, 7, 15, 54, 74, 247–248,251, 253–255

Religious extremism, 250–251Religious festivals, 49, 63, 69, 71, 76, 225Religious freedom, 6, 8, 13, 176, 213, 231,

233, 248, 253Religious groups, 4, 6–13, 37, 54, 77, 160,

226, 239, 241, 248, 250–251, 255unregistered, 12, 251

Religious Harmony Act, 8, 248Religious institutions, 1, 4, 9, 11, 13, 17–18,

23, 49, 62, 81, 84–85, 88, 91–92,96, 98, 100–101, 103, 106–108, 110,112–114, 116, 126, 130, 132–133, 136,142, 149–150, 165, 183, 200, 246

Religious liberty, 37, 72, 247Religious life, 16, 47, 49–50, 54–56, 63,

206, 250Religious neutrality, 7, 45, 80Religious observances, 51, 73, 76, 81,

154–155, 189Religious policies, 26, 74, 80, 123–124, 222Religious practices, 8, 46–47, 57, 78, 97, 201,

213, 215, 217, 220, 242, 248, 251, 255Religious precepts, 207Religious processions, 47, 49, 52, 62–63, 69,

72, 79, 96, 224, 226, 252, 254Religious reforms, 75, 175, 212–213, 219Religious rites, 217, 226Religious specialists, 190, 203, 205, 246Religious tolerance, 16, 47, 67, 72, 75, 78,

80–81policy of, 47, 75, 78

Religious traditions, 5, 9, 11–12, 45, 49–50,62, 126, 181, 210–211

Resolutions, 119, 123, 143–145, 151, 159–160,162, 164–165, 170, 186, 195, 198, 218

Responsibility, 5, 23, 29, 34, 38–40, 81, 93, 99,106, 112, 117, 127–128, 138, 185, 192,225, 239, 243–244, 252

Restrictions, 48, 62, 64, 70–71, 77, 79,83, 96–97, 153, 188–189, 193, 204,228–229, 252

Revenue, 29, 38–39, 41, 53, 98, 102, 106–109,117–118, 120, 141, 150, 186, 201, 246

Rituals, 8–10, 15, 18–19, 26, 49, 59, 64, 66,79, 86, 96, 176, 181, 185, 187–188,191, 193, 198–200, 202–203, 205–206,208, 211, 213, 219, 223, 227, 229–231,236, 242–246, 251

SSAB (Sikh Advisory Board), 9, 11SBF (Singapore Buddhist Federation), 9SCCC (Singapore Council of Christian

Churches), 9, 127SC (Select Committee), 20, 81, 92, 99–100,

171–177, 202, 240Secret societies, 47, 67, 69, 71–72, 77, 96Sects, 237Secular, 1–19, 23, 36, 80, 101, 138, 151, 157,

160, 170, 177, 181–182, 185, 187, 193,201, 204, 214, 230–231, 233, 235, 240,244, 246–249, 251, 254

Secularism, 1, 3–5, 13–14, 16, 101, 239–240,247–248

Secular state framework, 10Secular states, 1–19Self-torture, 212, 216–220Separation, 1, 3–4, 7, 180Services, 58, 106–108, 139–141, 149, 170,

180, 186–188, 191–192, 197, 201, 203,206–207, 240–241, 246

conditions of, 188, 191SHAB (Singapore Hindu Advisory Board),

157, 161, 196, 199, 205, 213, 215,217–218, 220–221, 229, 235,238–240

SHEB (Singapore Hindu Endowments Board),8–10, 18–20, 22–23, 124, 160–161,165, 170, 172, 176–180, 182, 185–186,188–202, 207–211, 223, 225–231, 233,235–242

Sikh Advisory Board (SAB), see SAB (SikhAdvisory Board)

Sikh community, 9, 95, 133–136, 143,158–159

Sikh religion, 9, 134Sikhs, 17, 54, 62, 120, 126, 133–135, 149Singaporean Hinduism, 15, 17, 22, 206,

210–231, 254legitimate features of, 210, 217, 229

Singapore Buddhist Federation (SBF), see SBF(Singapore Buddhist Federation)

Singapore Census, 5, 244Singapore Constitution, 6–7Singapore Hindu, 8, 10, 22, 59, 86, 157, 161,

164–165, 170, 174, 180, 196, 198, 217,228, 233, 235–236, 241, 244–247

Singapore Hindu Advisory Board, see SHAB(Singapore Hindu Advisory Board)

Singapore Hindu Association, 217Singapore Hindu Board, 235–236

284 Index

Singapore Hindu Endowments Board, seeSHEB (Singapore Hindu EndowmentsBoard)

Singapore Indian Development Association(SINDA), 238

Singapore Mohammedan Advisory Board, 122Singapore Mohammedan and Hindu

Endowments Board, 102, 104, 125, 233Singapore, multi-religious, 1, 4–6, 11–12, 177,

223, 249–251Singapore Police Force, 250, 254Singapore state, 2, 5–7, 11–13, 17, 233, 240,

247, 249–250, 252post-colonial, 19, 252

Singapore temples, 191, 205, 245Sivan Temple, 58, 128, 130–132, 139, 142,

150, 156–157, 187, 198, 203, 205,241, 245

Societies, 4–5, 8–9, 16, 47, 63, 67–69, 71–72,77, 96, 209, 248

Sri Kunji Bahari Temple in Penang Road, 109Sri Mariamman Temple, see Mariamman

TempleSrinivasa Perumal Temple, see Sri Srinivasa

Perumal TempleSri Perumal Temple, 63, 128, 142, 145–146,

150, 154, 156–157, 161, 169, 195, 198,203–207, 212, 218, 222, 224–226

Sri Siva Krishna Temple, 235, 241, 243, 250Sri Sivan Temple, 58, 128, 130–132, 139, 142,

145, 150, 156–157, 187, 198, 203, 205,241, 245

Sri Srinivasa Perumal Temple, 59, 132, 203,212, 227, 245

Sri Thandayuthapani Temple in Singapore, 219State of legal chaos, 37State regulation, 7, 14, 253State religion, 1, 11, 16, 19, 123–124, 253Subramaniam Temple, 63, 223–224, 228

TTamil Hindus, 120, 174, 214, 230Tank Road Temple, 205, 218, 225–226, 229Taoist and Hindu temples, 12Temple administration, 89, 97, 103, 185Temple affairs, 86, 100, 190, 192, 196Temple committees, 99–100, 192, 196,

199–200, 204Temple disputes, 86–88, 155, 187Temple festivals, 57, 63

annual Hindu, 63Temple funds, 89, 103, 246Temple musicians, 192, 205Temple personnel, 187, 190, 205Temple properties, 128Temple revenue, 117, 201Temples

building of, 56, 207management of, 100–101, 117, 172,

235, 243private, 175, 204, 239

Temple services, 192, 246Temple-state relations, 100Temple worship, 172, 174, 196, 201, 242

elimination of, 174Thaipusam, 23, 56, 212–214, 219–229Thian Hock Keng Temple in Singapore, 49

UUnfederated Malay States (UFMS), 31–32Urban Renewal Authority (URA), 8, 179, 251

WWakfs, 99Worship, 49, 51–52, 54–55, 57–58, 62–63,

84, 88, 124, 150, 172, 174, 191, 196,198–199, 201, 203, 205, 212–213, 216,231, 236, 239, 242, 245–247, 251–252