Hydrogen Seminar

8/2/2019 Hydrogen Seminar

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HYDROGEN- THE FUTURE FUEL

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless gas that accounts for 75 percent of the entire

universe's mass. Hydrogen is found on Earth only in combination with other elements such

as oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. To use hydrogen, it must be separated from these other

elements. Today, hydrogen is used primarily in ammonia manufacturing, petroleum

refining and synthesis of methanol. It's also used in NASA's space program as fuel for the

space shuttles, and in fuel cells that provide heat, electricity and drinking water for

astronauts. Fuel cells are devices that directly convert hydrogen into electricity. In the

future, hydrogen could be used to fuel vehicles and aircraft, and provide power for our

homes and offices.

Hydrogen as a fuel is high in energy, yet a machine that burns pure hydrogen

produces almost zero pollution. NASA has used liquid hydrogen since the 1970s to propel

rockets.

HYDROGEN - THE FUTURE FUEL:-

Hydrogen is the simplest element known to man. Each atom of hydrogen has only

one proton. It is also the most plentiful gas in the universe. Stars are made primarily of

hydrogen. Hydrogen, first on the periodic table of the elements, is the least complex and

most abundant element in the universe.

ATOMIC NUMBER: 1 ATOMIC RADIUS: 78 pm

ATOMIC SYMBOL: H MELTING POINT: -259.34C

ATOMIC WEIGHT: 1.0079 BOILING POINTS: -252.87C

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION: 1S1 OXIDATION STATES: 1,-1

DEPT. OF MECH ENGG. 2011-2012 Page 1


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Hydrogen is the element that has existed in the world for a long time; however, its

usefulness came across only few decades ago. After that, people that work in the field of

science, have tried to work out different ways that would be more efficient for getting

hydrogen out of the combined elements and use it as a fuel in other places. The sun is

basically a giant ball of hydrogen and helium gases. In the sun's core, hydrogen atoms

combine to form helium atoms. This processcalled fusiongives off radiant energy. This

radiant energy sustains life on earth. It gives us light and makes plants grow. It makes the

wind blow and rain fall. It is stored as chemical energy in fossil fuels.

MAIN BENEFITS OF HYDROGEN:-

Stronger national energy security

Reduced greenhouse gas emissions

Improved air quality

Increased energy efficiency.

Flexibility



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CHAPTER 2

PREPARATION

Since hydrogen doesn't exist on earth as a gas, it can be separated from other elements.

Hydrogen can be separated from water, biomass, or natural gas molecules. The two most

common methods for producing hydrogen are steam reforming and electrolysis (water

splitting). Scientists have even discovered that some algae and bacteria give off hydrogen.

2.1 Steam Reformer:

Steam reforming is currently the least expensive method of producing hydrogen and

accounts for about 95 percent of the hydrogen produced in the United States. It is used in

industries to separate hydrogen atoms from carbon atoms in methane (CH4). Because

methane is a fossil fuel, the process of steam reforming results in greenhouse gas emissions

that are linked with global warming.

Flowchart of a Steam Reformer:

1 Feed Pre-Treatment

2 Reforming & Steam Generation

2 High Temperature Conversion

3 Heat Exchanger Unit

4 Purification Unit optional, depending on reformer design a either heat exchanger for

low pressure reformer or compression to 1 bar for high pressure reformer.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/glossary/index.html#GHGhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/glossary/index.html#GHG


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Fig: STEAM REFORMER

2.2 Standard Electrolysis:

Electrolysis is a process that splits hydrogen from water. It results in no emissions but it

is currently a very expensive process. New technologies are being developed all the time.

Displacement from acids by certain metals.

Reaction of sodium or potassium hydroxide on aluminum.

Decomposition of certain hydrocarbons with heat.

2.3 The Fuel Cell

The fuel cell is the heart of a hydrogen-powered vehicle. A fuel cell uses the

combination of hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity. The side effect of this process

is the generation of water and heat. The electricity can then be used to power the car. The

fuel cell is the primary device that turns ordinary electrical vehicles into a practical,

competitive alternative.

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An Extremely Brief History

Fuel cells were first invented back in 1839. However, it was not until the 1960s

that NASA demonstrated the first practical use of fuel cells in space flight. From there the

technology has grown. In the 1990s fuel cells began to become a viable option for powering a

car. The late 1990s and the 2000s saw the first prototype hydrogen vehicles.

TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

There are multiple types of fuel cells. Each has different operating conditions andsome use a fuel other than pure hydrogen. For example, methanol fuel cells are commonly

used. They break down methanol into hydrogen and carbon, and then combine the

hydrogen with oxygen to produce water and energy. However, they release the carbon into

the atmosphere, thereby polluting. The only practical type of fuel cell for a clean, efficient

vehicle is a Proton Exchange Membrane cell (PEM). PEMs are the most suitable type of

fuel cell for vehicular applications because of their lower operating temperature. (They

operate at the lowest temperature, around 80 degrees Celsius. Other cells require higher

temperatures, which makes them unsuitable for a vehicular application.) PEM fuel cells

rely on the simple combination of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. At all points

in this book, whenever fuel cell is mentioned, we are talking about PEM fuel cells.

How Fuel Cells Work

The basic concept behind how a fuel cell works is very simple. The following illustration

from Ballard Power Systems provides an excellent view into the workings of a fuel cell.

The only practical type of fuel cell for a clean, efficient vehicle is a Proton

Exchange Membrane cell (PEM). PEMs are the most suitable type of fuel cell for vehicular

applications because of their lower operating temperature. (They operate at the lowest



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temperature, around 80 degrees Celsius. Other cells require higher temperatures, which

makes them unsuitable for a vehicular application.) PEM fuel cells rely on the simple

combination of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. At all points in this book,

whenever fuel cell is mentioned, we are talking about PEM fuel cells.

Fig: Fuel Cell Illustration from Ballard Power System

On the left side of this illustration, hydrogen enters the fuel cell. On the right, oxygen is

provided. Hydrogen is a reactive element, and will combine with oxygen given the

opportunity. Each hydrogen molecule, H2, has two hydrogen atoms each with one electron.

The oxygen has 6 valence electrons. The rules of chemistry tell us that each atom is in its

most stable state when it has a full outer shell of electrons, which for hydrogen is 2

electrons and for oxygen is 8. Each atom tries to move towards this optimal quantity and

arrangement of electrons by binding with other atoms. In this case, each oxygen atom needs

two more electrons. Each hydrogen atom needs one. The oxygen will therefore pull in two

hydrogen atoms to fill its valence electron shell to a total of eight electrons. Each hydrogen

atom, in return, shares one of the oxygens electrons, resulting in a full shell of 2 electrons

to stabilize the hydrogen.



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This process requires the hydrogen and oxygen to bind together, and in the

above illustration, they are on opposite sides of the fuel cell. The hydrogen, being the

smaller atom, is more mobile and is pulled to the right.

To reach the oxygen atom the hydrogen must pass though the Proton

Exchange Membrane. The PEM membrane, as its name suggests, allows only the passage

of a proton, which happens to be the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. As the hydrogen atom

passes through the membrane the hydrogens electron is left behind. Upon reaching the

oxygen, the hydrogen nucleus is joined by another which also crossed the membrane, and

both bond to the oxygen. However, the oxygen-hydrogen complex (which is H20 water) is

missing the two electrons that the two hydrogen atoms left behind when they crossed the

PEM membrane. The oxygen is not yet satisfied because it still only has 6 valance electrons

as the hydrogen arrived without any. The hydrogen-oxygen complex is therefore positively

charged, because electrons carry a negative charge and the hydrogen-oxygen complex is

missing two. Meanwhile, the left side of the fuel cell, where the hydrogen originally was,

now has two extra electrons.

An electric circuit connects the two sides of the cell. The electrons (negatively charged) are

drawn around the circuit, attracted to the hydrogen-oxygen complex because it is positively

charge. The only path to the oxygen is along the electric circuit. The potential difference in

charges (positive and negative) between each side of the cell creates voltage, generally in

the range of 1 to 2 volts for a PEM cell. If the electric circuit is closed, the electrons are

allowed to cross over to the hydrogen-oxygen complex, generating current. There is now

electricity that can be used to turn a motor and power a car. To produce enough electricity

to do this, many of the single cells illustrated above are connected together in series to

generate higher voltage.

DEVELOPMENT

Current hydrogen fuel cells need further development before they will be able to replace

Internal combustion engines. The present generation of fuel cells requires expensive metals

such as platinum, which is required as a catalyst to speed the reaction between the hydrogen



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and oxygen. Additionally, fuel cells today require very pure hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas

with small amounts (even fractions of a percent) of sulfur or carbon in it will cause

degradation of the fuel cell by binding to the platinum catalyst. This decreases both

efficiency and lifetime. Obtaining hydrogen without any impurities is difficult and

expensive. Therefore, current fuel cells are not cost-effective. However, research is

underway at Cornell University, other universities, and the private sector to solve these

problems. While todays fuel cells cost tens of thousands of dollars, tomorrows could be far

cheaper.

Hydrogen fuel cells also face several other issues that are rapidly being solved. The first

Concerns temperature. To operate, a PEM fuel cell must run at 80 degrees Celsius to

perform the hydrogen-oxygen combination. Fuel cells consequently have trouble in lower

temperatures. However, this issue can simply be solved by proper thermal management and

providing the cell with a heater when necessary. The other major issue concerns start-up

times; many fuel cells take several minutes to warm up before a car can begin driving.

However, this has recently improved a fuel cell system by the manufacturer Ballard

Power Systems can start in less than 40 seconds. Most people give their cars a few seconds

to warm up when they first start them, and so this amount of time is not unreasonable. It

should also improve even further in the future. The final issue is weight; a current 80 kW

fuel cells weighs nearly 500 lbs (220 kg). This is a significant fraction of the total weight of

a vehicle and consequently degrades the vehicles performance. However, this issue can be

solved hand in hand with the cost issue a cheaper fuel cell would by necessity use lesser

amounts of platinum and would therefore weigh less. Additionally, clever designing of the

car can decrease the weight of other systems so the fuel cells weight becomes less onerous.

CHAPTER 3

HYDROGEN DISTRIBUTION

The vast majority of the hydrogen produced today is transported only a short

distance before use. Short-distance distribution is by pipeline; similar to the method used



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for natural gas. At present, long-distance distribution is primarily in liquefied form in large

tanks. Both options pose certain technical challenges. Techniques for central bulk storage

are also important for the distribution infrastructure. If fuel use of hydrogen is to be

expanded significantly, a shift of emphasis seems likely, from tanker to pipeline.

3.1 Handling Hydrogen:

From the perspective of safety, storing and transporting hydrogen safely is very

similar to handling natural gas or propane, which are currently piped all over the world to

industries and homes. A safe hydrogen infrastructure will include a system of detectors to

pinpoint leaks, alarms in order notify of leakage, and a system of cut-off points, all of

which will be regularly tested.

Five percent of natural gas is already reformed to produce hydrogen for industrial

use in petrochemical production, food processing, microchip manufacture and for

spacecraft fuel. These industries have already resolved the safety issues around the storage

and transportation of hydrogen.

The Hydrogen Storage Tanks

A hydrogen car needs hydrogen, obviously. The car is powered by the energy given off by

the combination of hydrogen and oxygen into water. Oxygen is readily available from the

air, but hydrogen must be supplied by a separate source.

The traditional method for storing hydrogen (or any other gas) is in a

pressurized tank. This is the storage method we have opted for here, but it does, however,

have several disadvantages. Hydrogen is a very low-density gas, and so to store the

necessary quantity to provide adequate driving range to a car, very large or high-pressure

tanks are required. This is obviously not all that desirable because high pressures can be

dangerous and difficult to use and larger tanks consume a lot of vehicle space and weight.



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hydrogen storage tanks increase in pressure the latest are available at pressures up to

10,000 psi vehicle range rivals that of conventional gasoline vehicles.

A seemly ordinary hydrogen tank, the BL-400 can actually store up to 400 liters of H2 by

compressing it into a metal.

There are several other methods of storing hydrogen that look promising for the

future. None have reached a point where they can be integrated into our car, but ten years

from now they may well have replaced compressed hydrogen tanks. The first option

involves storing hydrogen by binding it in a metal. The metal compound is heated, and it

absorbs hydrogen. Done correctly, this allows for the storage of more hydrogen molecules

per volume than with pressurized tanks. However, the total weight per mole of hydrogen is

more than with conventional pressurized tanks. The process is also more complicated; the

metal has to be heated when hydrogen is being pumped in, and heated again to get the

hydrogen out. This would create an additional drain on a fuel cell in a car, decreasing the

overall efficiency slightly. This system also has another advantage: even if the tank is

broken open, the hydrogen cannot leak out because it is bound to the metal. The carbecomes even safer in an accident because a hydrogen fire would be extremely unlikely.



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3.2 Liquid Distribution:

At atmospheric pressure, liquid hydrogen (known as LH2) boils at

20K (-423F), making liquefaction, storage, and distribution challenging. Liquefaction is

also very energy-intensive. Nevertheless, greatly reduced space requirements compared

with gaseous hydrogen make the use of LH2 an attractive option in some cases.

Hydrogen is usually liquefied in a complex, multi-stage process that includes the use of

liquid nitrogen and a sequence of compressors. Detailed procedures are required throughout

the process to control the proportions of the two types of hydrogen molecule, known as

ortho and Para. If this were not done, ortho hydrogen in the distribution and storage tanks

would slowly but spontaneously convert to Para hydrogen over a period of days or weeks,

releasing enough heat to revaporize most of the liquid.

Gaseous Distribution

Compared with the hundreds of thousands of miles of existing natural gas network,

the hydrogen pipeline system is very small, totaling only about 460 miles. If the use of

hydrogen pipelines were to be expanded, possible embrittlement problems would have to



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be considered. Pipes and fittings can become brittle and crack as hydrogen diffuses into the

metal of which they are made. The severity of this problem depends on the type of steel and

weld used and the pressure in the pipeline. The technology is available to prevent

embrittlement, but depending on the configuration being considered, distribution costs may

be affected.

The capacity of a given pipeline configuration to carry energy is somewhat lower

when it carries hydrogen than when it carries natural gas. In a pipe of a given size and

pressure, hydrogen flows about three times faster, but since it also contains about three

times less energy per cubic foot, a comparable amount of energy gets through the pipe.

CHAPTER 4

PRESENT APPLICATIONS

As everyone knows, current vehicles are powered by an internal combustion

engine that runs off gasoline or diesel (fossil fuels). Current vehicles are also capable of

nearly everything we ask of them, whether it is reaching high speeds, pulling heavy



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loads or undergoing rapid acceleration. However, the internal combustion engine is also

a century-old invention.

Internal combustion engines are beginning to show signs of

age. Running off fossil fuels, they require a giant supply of oil. Without going into the

politics of it, securing this supply of oil has cost the United States and many other

countries billions of dollars, required compromising our values, and weakened the US

economically as we become increasingly dependent on foreign importation. The

dependence has, at the time of this writing, become particularly obvious as gas prices

soar past the $2 dollar a gallon mark. And because many people believe that we have

either reached or will soon reach the peak in the worlds supply of oil, prices will only

rise. The increasing scarcity of oil points to the imminent doom of the internal

combustion engine.

A hydrogen fuel-cell car should also have integrated regenerative braking.

This complicates the system somewhat. When the driver brakes, instead of conventional

brakes slowing the car through friction, the motor begins to act as a generator.

Regulated by the controller, which receives information the brake pedal, the motor

slows the car at the desired rate. At the same time this generates electricity, which goes

through the controller, is converted from the AC of the motor to DC, and charges the

ultra capacitors. Hence, when the car brakes the ultra capacitors gather electricity. This

increases vehicular efficiency. The amount of heat generated when a conventional 2500

lb car brakes from 60 mph to rest is enough to light a 100 W bulb for an hour. This

energy is normally vented off to the atmosphere providing no useful function.

4.1 HYDROGEN PLANES



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Hydrogen planes are airplanes that use hydrogen as a fuel source. Hydrogen is the best

known source of fuel to replace the current fuel for aircraft, kerosene. Disregarding

storage mechanisms, hydrogen is the most energy-dense combustible fuel known. As

aircraft efficiency can be tied closely with aircraft weight, a lightweight fuel is very

desirable.

4.2 HYDROGEN VEHICLE

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle, such as an automobile or aircraft, which uses

hydrogen as its primary source ofpowerfor locomotion. These vehicles generally use the

hydrogen in one of two methods: combustion orfuel-cell conversion:

In combustion, the hydrogen is "burned" in engines in fundamentally the same

method as traditional gasoline cars.

In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is turned into electricity through fuel cells

which then power electric motors.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel-cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel-cell


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Filling of Hydrogen Tank:

While handling hydrogen requires its own set of guidelines, refueling the car with this

fuel will not be any more dangerous or inconvenient than filling up with gasoline today.

Demonstration hydrogen refueling stations are currently operating in the United States,

Japan, and Singapore, with the first commercial station debuting in Reykjavik, Iceland, in

the spring of 2003.

Fully open to the public, this station will initially serve three hydrogen-powered gas

stations. Later on as with the concerned governments approval and in the general interest

of the public this will fully convert to an advanced energy-saver mechanism.

The traditional method for storing hydrogen (or any other gas) is in a

pressurized tank. This is the storage method we have opted for here, but it does, however,

have several disadvantages. Hydrogen is a very low-density gas, and so to store the



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necessary quantity to provide adequate driving range to a car, very large or high-pressure

tanks are required. This is obviously not all that desirable because high pressures can be

dangerous and difficult to use and larger tanks consume a lot of vehicle space and weight.

However, as hydrogen storage tanks increase in pressure the latest are available at

pressures up to 10,000 psi vehicle range rivals that of conventional gasoline vehicles.

A fuel cell vehicle driver connects the electrical and computer cable to the vehicle

to confirm that the safety systems are established and functioning properly. The

information transferred by this process to the computer includes details of the vehicle fuel

tank, the vehicle manufacturer and specific conditions set by the manufacturer that must be

met to begin fueling, such as confirming the car ignition is off. Following that, the driver

connects the fill nozzle and fills the vehicle. Refueling should take about four minutes, a

comparable time to a conventional fill up.While the general public is not currently familiar with the conventions of handling of

hydrogen, this substance has been widely used in industry for a very long time. This

experience has contributed to the development of rigorous safety standards and sound

practices.



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Hydrogen has been used effectively in a number of internal combustion engine

vehicles as pure hydrogen mixed with natural gas.

4.3 REGENERATIVE BRAKING

Regenerative braking has greatly benefited hybrid cars, increasing both their range and

efficiency. Regenerative braking requires an electrical power system, and so is impossible

to incorporate into a conventional internal combustion vehicle. With electric and hydrogen

cars, it is easy to implement.

Regenerative braking recaptures the kinetic energy of a vehicle when it

brakes. A car traveling at 30 mph has significant kinetic energy; it used a lot of fuel to get

its mass going that fast. When a normal car brakes, all that energy is transformed to heat in

the brakes and is essentially wasted. With regenerative braking, that energy is used to turn agenerator and charge up a battery, or in our case, a bank of ultracapacitors. The generator is

often the very same motor that powers the car one advantage of electric motors is that

while putting electricity in turns the motor, turning the motor also sends electricity out.

Regenerative braking can therefore be incorporated into the system with little addition to

the vehicles weight.

In practical terms, regenerative braking is handled by the motor controller. The brake pedal

will be attached to the controller. When the driver wants to brake, he or she will push down

on the petal in the normal fashion. This will send a signal to the controller to open up the



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connection to the ultracapacitors, which will effectively put a load on the generator (the

motor). Because the motor is connected to the wheels, it will be spinning with the wheels.

Adding a load (the ultracaps) will force the motor to generate electricity. Because the

energy comes from the kinetic energy of the vehicle, the motor will slow down as it charges

the ultracaps, slowing the wheels and thereby the car. The rate at which the motor slows the

vehicle will be determined by the controller and in turn by the amount the driver pushes

down on the brake pedal. All this happens in real time, and many drivers would not notice

the difference between regenerative and conventional braking.

For normal braking situations, regenerative braking is all that is necessary. However, it

would be wise to include regular friction brakes in case of an emergency. Also, long

downward hills would generate more electricity than the ultracapacitors could hold. After

the capacitors filled up, regenerative braking would no longer slow the car. Friction brakes

would be necessary to allow the driver to maintain control of his or her vehicle. For that

reason, in a hydrogen vehicle conventional brakes would also be connected to the brake

pedal, albeit at a level where they would not engage until the petal was pressed most of the

way down. If a driver slammed on the brakes, both the regenerative and conventional

brakes would go on, giving the car maximum braking power. Otherwise only regenerative

braking would come into play, as long as the ultracapacitors are not fully charged.

For more information the specific energy involved in regenerative braking, see the section

on Ultracapacitors. In summary, our car will contain enough ultracapacitors to store

225,000 Joules of energy, which is the approximate amount that a car, given some internal

inefficiency, can gain from a 44 mph deceleration to zero. Ideally, for regenerative braking

to be most effective, the ultracaps should be able to store all the power generated from any

deceleration. However, having that quantity of ultracapacitors is not feasible at this point in

time. Regenerative braking can still be very effective, especially in city driving, even if it

can capture the energy from only a 44 mph speed decrease.

CHAPTER 5

THE FUTURE OF HYDROGEN



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As everyone knows, current vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine that

runs off gasoline or diesel (fossil fuels). Current vehicles are also capable of nearly

everything we ask of them, whether it is reaching high speeds, pulling heavy loads or

undergoing rapid acceleration. However, the internal combustion engine is also a century-

old invention. Internal combustion engines are beginning to show signs of age. Running off

fossil fuels, they require a giant supply of oil. Without going into the politics of it, securing

this supply of oil has cost the United States and many other countries billions of dollars,

required compromising our values, and weakened the US economically as we become

increasingly dependent on foreign importation. The dependence has, at the time of this

writing, become particularly obvious as gas prices soar past the $2 dollar a gallon mark.

And because many people believe that we have either reached or will soon reach the peak

in the worlds supply of oil, prices will only rise. The increasing scarcity of oil points to the

imminent doom of the internal combustion engine.

There is a second price to gasoline vehicles: pollution. Ignore it as some might,

clouds of smog hang over many of the countrys cities. This problem can be even worse in

other nations around the world. It is not fully known at this point what this smog does to

our health and how responsible it is for causing various cancers, leading to the national

increase in allergies and asthma, and creating other health problems. Burning oil in our cars

dumps an estimated 302 million metric tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each

year. Many other greenhouse gases are also released. It is gradually becoming clear

that global warming is a real problem, and at this point the only people who deny this are

people who dont want to bother fixing it.

The gasoline engine is not something the planet can sustain for much longer, both

in terms of providing fuel and in terms of keeping the environment hospitable. The

development and adoption of alternative options now would enable the use of gasoline

engines for the next several hundred years at least. However, keeping and continuing to

expand the number of internal combustion engine vehicles will only hasten their

cataclysmic end when fuel supplies run out. We do not advocate abandoning oil power, but

we do feel that in order to preserve the technology for uses where it is required, critical, or

essential, we must stop wasting fuel in applications where other alternatives exist. A

gradual shift to alternative energy sources, beginning now, could reduce or possibly even



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eliminate any economic plight that would be caused by the sudden expiration of internal

combustion engines as a usable technology.

The most obvious alternatives to gasoline engines are electric motors. Electric

motors are, actually, far more suited to a transportation application than internal

combustion engines. Electric motors sport far higher efficiencies, lower weights, and higher

torques than their gasoline equivalents. Motors can also provide adequate power over a

large range of engine speeds, potentially eliminating the need for a transmission in a

vehicle. However, an electric motor system has one fatal downfall: energy storage. A well-

made internal combustion engine can propel a car for 30 or more miles per gallon of

gasoline. Vehicular ranges average around 300 miles on a tank, with a lot of variation

depending on the vehicle. Hybrid vehicles, which feature the marriage of internal

combustion engines and electric motors, get even better mileage, still consuming only oil.

The best electric cars, however, can barely travel 100 miles on a full battery charge.

Unfortunately, the current generation of batteries is unable to hold enough energy to power

an electric car any further. The batteries are heavy, consume a lot of space and take several

hours to recharge. Consequently, electric vehicles have never become practical alternatives

to conventional cars. Also unfortunate is that in effort to squeeze the highest possible

mileage out of an electric vehicle, the electric motors have been minimized to a size unable

to match todays standards of performance and power in gasoline engines. This has fostered

the myth that electric vehicles are not and cannot be as powerful as conventional cars.



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Dispelling this myth brings us to the topic of this booklet: hydrogen power. Hydrogen-

powered vehicles come in two types: hydrogen combustion engines and hydrogen fuel

cells. Through combustion, a hydrogen engine acts like an ordinary engine, except

hydrogen is burned in the cylinders instead of gasoline. However, this requires the use of a

modified combustion engine that still results in the inefficiency inherent of any exothermic

reaction. The other option, using hydrogen fuel cells, is far better. Hydrogen fuel cells take

hydrogen and combine it with oxygen. This generates electricity. The electricity is then

used to power an electric motor, using the same technology as todays electric vehicles.

Because the energy is stored in the form of hydrogen, and not in a battery, this enables

electric vehicles to carry significantly more energy. This allows for vehicles with larger

motors and longer ranges. In fact, with development, the average hydrogen vehicle should

be able to go further and be more powerful than the average gasoline vehicle. The use of

hydrogen fuel cells will allow us to advance automotive technology to levels unreachable in

past times.

Hydrogen fuel cells overcome the two major flaws of internal combustion

engines. First, hydrogen is the universes most common element. There is no risk of ever

running out. As hydrogen can be produced from the electrolysis of water, it can be made in

any county anywhere. The issue of importing hydrogen will not exist. And because fuel

cells output water, there is no need to worry about consuming the worlds water supply.

Essentially, the hydrogen can be manufactured anywhere in large quantities by breaking

down water into oxygen and hydrogen. The hydrogen is then distributed to the gas

stations of the future to fill your car. The car will be powered by the fuel cells, which

recombine the hydrogen with oxygen in the ambient air to form all the water originally

used. For more information on the manufacturing process of creating hydrogen.

Secondly, hydrogen vehicle will not pollute. The fuel cell potentially enables a

hydrogen car to be completely environmentally friendly. Because a fuel cell needs only

hydrogen and oxygen, no carbon, greenhouse, or other harmful gases are produced. Oxygen

is already found freely in the air. The hydrogen involved is also not environmentally

damaging for two reasons. First, the pure hydrogen will be completely contained at all

times during the process, and will not come in contact with the outside world. Second, even

if any hydrogen does leak into the atmosphere, it will immediately combine with

atmospheric oxygen to form H2O (water). Water does not damage the environment.



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Hydrogen vehicles have the potential to revolutionize the transportation industry.

However, the massive size of the automotive business makes it slow to change and hesitant

to adopt new technology. Only through public and political pressure will hydrogen vehicles

be developed within a reasonable time frame. Hydrogen could very likely be the future. The

sooner we reach that future, the sooner we decrease pollution of the planet and cure the

economic and political woes caused by a dependency on foreign oil. This booklet is an

effort to explain just how easy that future is to construct.

Hydrogen has great potential as an environmentally clean energy fuel and as

a way to reduce reliance on imported energy sources. Before hydrogen can play a bigger

energy role and become a widely used alternative to gasoline, many new facilities and

systems must be built. There is need for facilities to make hydrogen, store it, and move it.

Today economical fuel cells are needed. And consumers will need the technology and the

education to safely use it. Hydrogen could provide clean, renewable energy for the future.

There is a saying that hydrogen is the ideal fuel for cars, homes, and even for

laptop or cell phone. It might know that all major car companies are intensely researching

hydrogen technology for the next generation of vehicles, and that in light of global climate



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change and our dependence on foreign oil, people are raving about the potential for a zero-

emission, home-produced hydrogen economy.

Hydrogen is the element that has existed in the world for a long time; however, its

usefulness came across only few decades ago. After that, people that work in the field of

science, have tried to work out different ways that would be more efficient for getting

hydrogen out of the combined elements and use it as a fuel in other places. These machines

also have to be very well built so that they would react correctly and create pure hydrogen

energy.

CHAPTER 6

COMBUSTION

Hydrogen can combust rapidly in air. It burned rapidly in the Hindenburg

disaster on May 6, 1937. Hindenburg was a GERMAN ZEPPELIN (RIGID AIRSHIP)

Along with its sister-ship LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II, it was the largest aircraft ever built.

Zeppelin is a type of rigid airship pioneered by German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in

the early 20th century.



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Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen) is highly flammable and will

burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The

enthalpy of combustion for hydrogen is -286 kJ/mol.

2 H2(g) + O2(g) = 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)

Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air if it is 474% concentrated

and with chlorine if it is 595% concentrated. The mixtures spontaneously explode by

spark, heat or sunlight. The hydrogen auto ignition temperature, the temperature of

spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 C (932 F). Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit

ultraviolet light and are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of

the Space Shuttle Main Engine compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle

Solid Rocket Booster. The detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame

detector; such leaks can be very dangerous. The destruction of the Hindenburg airship was

an infamous example of hydrogen combustion; the cause is debated, but the visible flames

were the result of combustible materials in the ship's skin. Because hydrogen is buoyant in

air, hydrogen flames tend to ascend rapidly and cause less damage than hydrocarbon fires.

Two-thirds of the Hindenburg passengers survived the fire, and many deaths were instead

the result of falls or burning diesel fuel.

H2 reacts with every oxidizing element. Hydrogen can react spontaneously and violently at

room temperature with chlorine and fluorine to form the corresponding hydrogen halides,

hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, which are also potentially dangerous acids.



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CHAPTER 7

COOLING

Many elements of a hydrogen car require cooling. The motor, controller and fuel

cells will all need water cooling. The water cooling system can probably be integrated

together so that only one circulation method is needed. Additionally, these systems will be

used to heat the cabin when the driver requires it. The water can also be circulated through

the radiator in the same manner as in a conventional car, venting the heat out into the air.

Because both the motor and controller are far more efficient than the internal

combustion engine in a regular vehicle, they do not need such a large radiator and cooling

system. This will decrease the cost and complicity of a hydrogen vehicle as compared to a

conventional car. However, when converting a car to run off hydrogen, it is simply easiest

to use the radiator and cooling system already there.It is important to ensure the motor in particular receives adequate cooling. As

the wires in the circuitry of the motor heat up, they become more resistant. A higher

resistance decreases the current flowing to motor (as given by the equation V = I * R), and

so the motor becomes less powerful. Besides preventing the components from burning out,

system cooling assures you will have maximum power.

The specifics of the cooling system will be determined primarily by the final

location of each component. As it is impossible to say at this point in time where the fuel

cell will be located in the chassis, it is impossible to describe exactly how it will be cooled.



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If it is under the hood, cooling lines can simply be run over to the radiator. If it is under the

vehicle, however, a different solution may be needed depending on how the cooling hoses

can be run. Additionally, the fuel cell may (in the case ofBallards) have a cooling system

already built in, and until the details on that system is fully determined, it is impossible to

say if and how that system would tie into the rest of the car.

CHAPTER 8SAFETY

Hydrogen is Not Dangerous

Much skepticism still exists about the safety of carrying around pure hydrogen in a moving

vehicle. Many cite the vivid images of the Hindenburg ablaze, or the 1986 Challenger

catastrophe, or the Hydrogen bomb as testaments to the danger of hydrogen. Fortunately,

these explosions have little bearing on the safety of hydrogen fuel for car or home.

Health and Environmental Safety

Hydrogen, which exists as a gas under normal atmospheric conditions, is odorless,colorless, and tasteless. It is both non-toxic and safe to breathe. It can also be safely

transported. In a hydrogen-based energy economy, environmental disasters like the Exxon

Valdez debacle would be relegated to history. Because hydrogen dissipates when leaked, a

major hydrogen spill would amount to little more than a waste of precious fuel.

Concerns about the safety of hydrogen are sometimes brought up. An objective

evaluation, however, shows that hydrogen is likely to be safer than gasoline or methane as a

fuel.



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CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

A simple chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen generates energy, which

can be used to power a car producing only water, not exhaust fumes. Energy crisis in India

can be overcome by using hydrogen as a fuel. Use of hydrogen as a fuel, wherever possible

pollution can be drastically minimized.

The evidence for both an impending energy disaster and a climate

disaster if we do not respond in meaningful ways is becoming irrefutable, and the scientific

case against hydrogen as a transportation fuel is also now undeniable. Five years from now,

in hindsight, the hydrogen program will look more like a ruse then naive scientific

exuberance if major changes in energy programs are not forthcoming in response to these

scientific challenges.

Simply changing priorities in existing hydrogen R&D programs

will not bring a useful solution within 30 years and probably not within 70 years, as

futuristic energy technology projections beyond five years by scientific organizations have

a history of being overly optimistic. (For example, controlled fusion has been 40 years

away for the past 50 years.) We must rapidly ramp up all available promising renewable

options to lessen the effects of $150/bbl oil, $25/GJ natural gas, $200/kg uranium, and

major climate catastrophes, probably within a decade. Major investments are needed into

bio-methanol, cellulosic ethanol, advanced biodiesel crops, mixed-alcohols, high-oil algae,



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and advanced catalysts for biofuels from biosyngas. It's time we start putting some serious

money into real options for renewable energy to address global warming and our future

transportation needs.

REFERENCES

Hydrogen Storage

1. Brooks, Alec. Fuel Cell Disruptor. 7 Dec. 2002.EV World. May 2004

.

2. Dynetek Industries Ltd. June 2004

Hydrogen Seminar

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Transcript of Hydrogen Seminar