Hundred Years' War

Clockwise, from top left: John of Bohemia at the Battle of Crécy,English and Franco­Castilian fleets at the Battle of La Rochelle,

Henry V and the English army at the Battle of Agincourt,Joan of Arc rallies French forces at the Siege of Orléans

Date 1337–1453 (116 years)

Location France, the Low Countries, England, Spain

ResultEdwardian War (1337–1360):English victoryCaroline War (1369–1389):French victory

Lancastrian War (1415–1453):French victory; House of Valois maintainsthe throne of France

Territorialchanges

England gains the Pale of Calais but losesall other continental territory

Belligerents

Hundred Years' WarFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453between the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against theHouse of Valois, rulers of the Kingdom of France, for control of the latter kingdom.Each side drew many allies into the war.

For their French possessions, the English kings since the Norman Conquest werevassals of the kings of France. The French kings had endeavored, over the centuries,to reduce the possessions of their over­mighty vassals, to the effect that only Gasconywas left to the English. The confiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had beenpart of French policy to check the growth of English power, particularly whenever theEnglish were at war with the Kingdom of Scotland, an ally of France.

Through his mother, Isabella of France, Edward III was the grandson of Philip IV ofFrance, and nephew of Charles IV of France, the last king of the senior line of theHouse of Capet. In 1316, a principle was established denying women succession tothe French throne. When Charles IV died in 1328, Isabella, unable to claim the Frenchthrone for herself, claimed it for her son. The French rejected the claim, maintainingthat Isabella could not transmit a right which she did not possess. For about nine years(1328­1337), the English had accepted the Valois succession to the French throne. Butthe interference of the French king, Philip VI, in Edward III's war against Scotland,led Edward III to reassert his claim to the French throne. Several overwhelmingEnglish victories in the war—especially at Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt—raised theprospects of an ultimate English triumph. However, the greater resources of theFrench monarchy precluded a complete conquest. Starting in 1429, decisive Frenchvictories at Patay, Formigny, and Castillon concluded the war in favor of France, withEngland permanently losing most of its major possessions on the continent.

Historians commonly divide the war into three phases separated by truces: theEdwardian Era War (1337–1360); the Caroline War (1369–1389); and the LancastrianWar (1415–1453). Contemporary conflicts in neighbouring areas, which were directlyrelated to this conflict, included the War of the Breton Succession (1341–1364), theCastilian Civil War (1366–1369), the War of the Two Peters (1356–1375) in Aragon,

France

Scotland

England

Burgundy

Casualties and lossesHigh High

and the 1383–85 Crisis in Portugal. Later historians invented the term "HundredYears' War" as a periodization to encompass all of these events, thus constructing thelongest military conflict in history.

The war owes its historical significance to multiple factors. By its end, feudal armieshad been largely replaced by professional troops, and aristocratic dominance hadyielded to a democratisation of the manpower and weapons of armies. Althoughprimarily a dynastic conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism. The wider introduction of weapons and tacticssupplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated. The first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the WesternRoman Empire originated during the war, composed largely of commoners and thus helping to change their role in warfare. With respect to thebelligerents, English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of English nobles, resulting from the lossof their continental landholdings, became a factor leading to the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). In France, civil wars,deadly epidemics, famines, and bandit free­companies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically. Shorn of its Continental possessions,England was left with the sense of being an island nation, which profoundly affected its outlook and development for more than 500 years.[1]

Contents

1 Background1.1 English kings and continental dukedoms: 1066–13571.2 Dynastic turmoil in France: 1314–28

2 Beginning of the war: 1337–602.1 Gascony under the King of England2.2 Franco­Scot alliance2.3 End of homage2.4 Outbreak, the English Channel and Brittany2.5 Battle of Crécy and the taking of Calais2.6 Battle of Poitiers and the Treaty of Brétigny

3 First peace: 1360–694 French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–89

4.1 Aquitaine and Castile

4.2 English turmoil5 Second peace: 1389–14156 Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–29

6.1 Burgundy alliance and the taking of Paris6.1.1 Battle of Agincourt (1415)6.1.2 Treaty of Troyes (1420)6.1.3 Death of Clarence (1421)

6.2 English success6.3 Joan of Arc and French revival

7 French victory: 1429–537.1 Henry's coronations and the desertion of Burgundy7.2 French resurgence7.3 Fall of Gascony7.4 End of the war

8 Significance9 Timeline

9.1 Battles10 Important figures11 See also12 Notes13 References14 External links

Background

English kings and continental dukedoms: 1066–1357

Homage of Edward I of England(kneeling) to Philip IV of France(seated), 1286. As Duke of Aquitaine,Edward was also a vassal to theFrench King.

The Anglo­Norman dynasty that had ruled England since the Norman conquest of 1066 was brought toan end when the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Empress Matilda, Henry (great­grandson of William theConqueror), became the first of the Angevin Kings of England in 1154 as King Henry II.[2] The King ofEngland, in what is now known as the Angevin Empire, directly ruled more territory on the continentthan the King of France. However, as holders of continental duchies, English kings owed homage to theKing of France. From the 11th century onward, the dukes had autonomy, neutralising the issue.[3]

John of England inherited the Angevin domains from King Richard I. However, Philip II of Franceacted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of King John, both legally and militarily, and by 1204 hadsucceeded in taking control of most of the Angevin continental possessions. Following John's reign, theBattle of Bouvines (1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and finally the War of Saint­Sardos (1324)resulted in the complete loss of Normandy and the reduction of England's holdings on the continent to afew provinces in Gascony.[4]

Dynastic turmoil in France: 1314–28

The question of female succession to the French throne was raised after the death of Louis X in 1316.Louis X left only a daughter, and his posthumous son lived only a few days. Philip, Count of Poitiers,brother of Louis X, asserted that "women cannot succeed to the French throne". Through his politicalsagacity he won over his adversaries, and succeeded to the French throne as Philip V of France. By thesame law that he procured, his daughters were denied the succession, which passed to his youngerbrother, Charles IV, in 1322.[5]

Philip III ofFrance

r. 1270–1285

Philip IV ofFrance

r. 1285–1314

Charles ofValoisd. 1325

Louis X ofFrance

r. 1314–16

Philip V of Francer. 1316–22

Charles IV ofFrance

r. 1322–28

Isabella ofFrance

Edward II ofEngland

Philip VI ofFrance

r. 1328–50

Joan II ofNavarreb. 1312

Joan III, Countess ofBurgundyb. 1308

Edward III ofEnglandb. 1312

Charles ofÉvreuxb. 1332

Philip of Burgundyb. 1323

When Charles IV of France died in 1328 with only daughters as heirs, the nearest male relative was his nephew Edward III of England.Edward had inherited his right through his mother Isabella, the sister of the dead French king, but the question arose whether she should beable to transmit a right that she did not herself possess because of her gender. The French nobility, moreover, balked at the prospect of beingruled by the English king. The assemblies of the French barons and prelates and the University of Paris decided that males who derive theirright to inheritance through their mother should be excluded. Thus the nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IV's first cousin, Philip,Count of Valois, and it was decided that he should be crowned Philip VI. In 1340 the Avignon papacy confirmed that under Salic law malesshould not be able to inherit through their mothers.[5][6]

Beginning of the war: 1337–60

Gascony under the King of England

In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France had been incorporated into Aquitaine (also known as Guyenne or Guienne) and formed withit the province of Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne­et­Gascogne). The Angevin kings of England became Dukes of Aquitaine afterHenry II married the former Queen of France, Eleanor of Aquitaine, in 1152, from which point the lands were held in vassalage to the Frenchcrown. By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous.[7][8] At the beginning of Edward III's reignon 1 February 1327, the only part of Aquitaine that remained in his hands was the Duchy of Gascony. The term Gascony came to be used forthe territory held by the Angevin (Plantagenet) Kings of England in southwest France, although they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine.[8][9]

For the first 10 years of Edward III's reign, Gascony had been a major point of friction. The English argued that, as Charles IV had not acted ina proper way towards his tenant, Edward should be able to hold the duchy free of any French suzerainty. However, this line of argument couldnot be maintained by the English, so in 1329 the 17­year old Edward III paid homage to Philip VI. Tradition demanded that vassals shouldapproach their liege unarmed with heads uncovered, however Edward demonstrated his reluctance by attending the ceremony by wearing hiscrown and sword.[10] Despite Edward complying, albeit reluctantly, the French continued to pressure the English administration.[11]

Gascony was not the only sore point. One of Edward's influential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an exile from the French court,having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a war to reclaim France and was able to provide extensiveintelligence on the French court.[12]

Franco­Scot alliance

The Kings of England had been trying to subjugate the Scots for some time. In 1295 a treaty was signed between France and Scotland duringthe reign of Philip the Fair. Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promising Scotland that if England invaded then France wouldsupport the Scots. Similarly, the French would find Scottish support if their own kingdom was attacked. Edward could not succeed in his plansfor Scotland if they could count on French support.[11]

Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet off Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the Holy Land. However the plan wasabandoned and the fleet, including elements of the Scottish Navy, moved to the English Channel off Normandy in 1336, threateningEngland.[12] To deal with this crisis, Edward proposed that the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots "at a suitable time", theother to proceed at once to Gascony. At the same time ambassadors were to be sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.[13]

End of homage

At the end of April 1337, Philip of France was invited to meet the delegation from England but refused. The arrière­ban, literally a call toarms, was proclaimed throughout France starting on 30 April 1337. Then, in May 1337, Philip met with his Great Council in Paris. It wasagreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into the king's hands on the grounds that Edward III was inbreach of his obligations as vassal and had sheltered the king's 'mortal enemy' Robert d'Artois.[14] Edward responded to the confiscation ofAquitaine by challenging Philip's right to the French throne. When Charles IV died, Edward had made a claim for the succession of the Frenchthrone, through the right of his mother Isabella (Charles IV's sister), daughter of Philip IV. Any claim was considered invalidated by Edward'shomage to Philip VI in 1329. Edward revived his claim and in 1340 formally assumed the title 'King of France and the French Royal Arms'.[15]

On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received homage from Guy, half­brother of the Count of Flanders. The civic authorities of Ghent,Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward King of France. Edward's purpose was to strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. Hissupporters would be able to claim that they were loyal to the "true" King of France and were not rebels against Philip. In February 1340,

Battle of Sluys from a manuscript ofFroissart's Chronicles, Bruge, c.1470

Edward returned to England to try and raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties.[16]

Relations with Flanders were also tied to the English wool trade, since Flanders' principal cities relied heavily on textile production andEngland supplied much of the raw material they needed. Edward III had commanded that his chancellor sit on the woolsack in council as asymbol of the pre­eminence of the wool trade.[17] At the time there were about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone.[18] The great medieval Englishmonasteries produced large surpluses of wool that were sold to Europe. Successive governments were able to make large amounts of money bytaxing it.[17] France's sea power led to economic disruptions for England, shrinking the wool trade to Flanders and the wine trade fromGascony.[19][20]

Outbreak, the English Channel and Brittany

Edward, with his fleet, sailed from England on 22 June 1340, and arrived the next day off the Zwynestuary. The French fleet assumed a defensive formation off the port of Sluys. The English fleetapparently tricked the French into believing they were withdrawing. However, when the wind turned inthe late afternoon, the English attacked with the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet wasalmost completely destroyed in what became known as the Battle of Sluys. England dominated theEnglish Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions.[16] At this point, Edward's fundsran out and the war probably would have ended were it not for the death of the Duke of Brittanyprecipitating a succession dispute between the duke's half brother John of Montfort and Charles ofBlois, nephew of Philip VI.[21]

In 1341, conflict over the succession to the Duchy of Brittany began the Breton War of Succession, inwhich Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charles of Blois. Action for the next fewyears focused around a back and forth struggle in Brittany. The city of Vannes changed hands severaltimes, while further campaigns in Gascony met with mixed success for both sides.[21]

Battle of Crécy and the taking of Calais

In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the channel, landing in Normandy's Cotentin, at St. Vaast. The English army capturedthe completely unguarded Caen in just one day, surprising the French. Philip gathered a large army to oppose Edward, who chose to marchnorthward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went, rather than attempting to take and hold territory. He reached the river Seine to findmost of the crossings destroyed. He moved further and further south, worryingly close to Paris, until he found the crossing at Poissy. This hadonly been partially destroyed, so the carpenters within his army were able to fix it. He then continued on his way to Flanders until he reachedthe river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford at Blanchetaque, leaving Philip's army stranded. Edward, assisted by this head start,continued on his way to Flanders once more, until, finding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle and

Battle of Crécy, 1346

Philip's army attacked. The Battle of Crécy was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the English longbowmen and the Frenchking, who allowed his army to attack before it was ready.[22] Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attack onEngland. King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England, but his army was defeated and he was captured at the Battle ofNeville's Cross, on 17 October 1346. This greatly reduced the threat from Scotland.[21][23] In France, Edward proceeded north unopposed andbesieged the city of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for the English, allowingthem to safely keep troops in northern France.[22] Calais would remain under English control, even after the end of the Hundred Years' War,until the successful French siege in 1558.[24]

Battle of Poitiers and the Treaty of Brétigny

In 1348, the Black Death, which had just arrived in Paris, began to ravage Europe.[25] In 1356, after theplague had passed and England was able to recover financially, Edward's son and namesake, the Princeof Wales, later known as the Black Prince, invaded France from Gascony, winning a great victory inthe Battle of Poitiers.[21] During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch led amounted unit that was concealed in a forest. The French advance was contained, at which point deGrailly led a flanking movement with his horsemen cutting off the French retreat and succeeding incapturing King John II of France (known as John the Good) and many of his nobles.[26][27] With Johnheld hostage, his son the Dauphin (later to become Charles V of France) took over as regent.[28]

After the Battle of Poitiers, chaos ruled, as many French nobles and mercenaries rampaged. Acontemporary report said:

... all went ill with the kingdom and the State was undone. Thieves and robbers rose up everywhere in the land. The Noblesdespised and hated all others and took no thought for usefulness and profit of lord and men. They subjected and despoiled thepeasants and the men of the villages. In no wise did they defend their country from its enemies; rather did they trample itunderfoot, robbing and pillaging the peasants' goods...From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette[29]

Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne. The Dauphin's strategy was thatof non­engagement with the English army in the field. However Edward wanted the crown and chose the cathedral city of Reims for hiscoronation (Reims was the traditional coronation city).[30] However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the city's defences beforeEdward and his army arrived.[31] Edward besieged the city for five weeks, but the defences held and there was no coronation.[30] Edward

Edward III counting the dead on thebattlefield of Crécy

moved on to Paris, but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. The French made contact withhim and forced him to negotiate.[32] A conference was held at Brétigny that resulted in the Treaty ofBrétigny (8 May 1360). The treaty was ratified at Calais in October. In return for increased lands inAquitaine, Edward renounced Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine and consented to reducing KingJohn's ransom by a million crowns. Edward also abandoned his claim to the crown of France.[26][28][33]

First peace: 1360–69

The French king, John II, had been held captive in England. The Treaty of Brétigny set his ransom at3 million crowns and allowed for hostages to be held in lieu of John. The hostages included two of hissons, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteenprincipal towns of France. While these hostages were held, John returned to France to try and raisefunds to pay the ransom. In 1362 John's son Louis of Anjou, a hostage in English­held Calais, escapedcaptivity. So, with his stand­in hostage gone, John felt honour­bound to return to captivity inEngland.[28][33]

The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (near southern Gascony) since 1354 and in 1363 theNavarrese used John II's captivity in London and the political weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power.[34] Although there was no formaltreaty, Edward III supported the Navarrese moves particularly as there was a prospect that he might gain control over the northern and westernprovinces as a consequence. With this in mind Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations.[35] In 1364, John II died in London, whilestill in honourable captivity.[36] Charles V succeeded him as king of France.[28][37] On 6 May 1364, one month after the dauphin's accessionand three days before his coronation as Charles V, the Navarrese suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Cocherel.[38]

French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–89

Aquitaine and Castile

In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile (part of modern Spain). The ruler Peter of Castile's forces were pitched against those ofhis half­brother Henry of Trastámara. The English crown supported Peter and the French, Henry. French forces were led by Bertrand duGuesclin, a Breton, who rose from relatively humble beginnings to prominence as one of France's war leaders. Charles V provided a force of12,000, with du Guesclin at their head, to support Trastámara in his invasion of Castile.[39]

Statue of Bertrand du Guesclin inDinan

Peter appealed to England and Aquitaine's Black Prince for help, but none was forthcoming, forcing Peter into exile in Aquitaine. The BlackPrince had previously agreed to support Peter's claims but concerns over the terms of the treaty of Brétigny led him to assist Peter as arepresentative of Aquitaine, rather than England. He then led an Anglo­Gascon army into Castille. Peter was restored to power afterTrastámara's army was defeated at the Battle of Najera.[40]

Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black Prince, they failed to do so. The Prince was suffering from ill health and returned withhis army to Aquitaine. To pay off debts incurred during the Castille campaign, the prince instituted ahearth tax. Arnaud­Amanieu VIII, Lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince's side during the war.Albret, who already had become discontented by the influx of English administrators into the enlargedAquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be collected in his fief. He then joined a group of Gascon lordswho appealed to Charles V for support in their refusal to pay the tax. Charles V summoned one Gasconlord and the Black Prince to hear the case in his parlement in Paris. The Black Prince's answer was thathe would go to Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War broke out again and Edward IIIresumed the title of King of France.[41] Charles V declared that all the English possessions in Francewere forfeited and before the end of 1369 all Aquitaine was in full revolt.[41][42]

With the Black Prince gone from Castile, Henry de Trastámara led a second invasion that ended withPeter's death at the Battle of Montiel in March, 1369. The new Castilian regime provided naval supportto French campaigns against Aquitaine and England.[40]

English turmoil

With his health continuing to deteriorate, the Black Prince returned to England in January 1371, whereby now his father Edward III was elderly and also in poor health. The prince's illness was debilitating.He died on 8 June 1376.[43] Edward III only just outlived his son and died the following year on 21June 1377;[44] he was succeeded by the Black Prince's second son Richard II who was still a child.[45]The treaty at Brétigny left Edward III and England with enlarged holdings in France, however a smallprofessional French army under the leadership of du Guesclin pushed the English back and, by the time of Charles V's death in 1380, theEnglish only held Calais.[46]

It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a child monarch, but no regent was appointed for Richard II, who nominally exercised the powerof kingship from the date of his accession in 1377.[45] However, between 1377 and 1380, actual power was in the hands of a series of councils.The political community preferred this to a regency led by the king's uncle, John of Gaunt, although Gaunt remained highly influential.[45]

The Franco­Castilian Navy, led byAdmirals de Vienne and Tovar,managed to raid the English coastsfor the first time since the beginningof the Hundred Years' War.

Assassination of Louis I, Duke ofOrléans

Richard faced many challenges during his reign, including the Peasants' Revolt led by Wat Tyler in1381, an Anglo­Scottish war in 1384–85. His attempts to raise taxes to pay for his Scottish adventureand for the protection of Calais against the French made him increasingly unpopular.[45]

Second peace: 1389–1415

The war became increasingly unpopular with the English public largely due to the high taxes needed tosustain it. These taxes were seen as one of the reasons for the Peasants revolt. [47] Richard's increasingdisinterest in the war together with his preferential treatment of a select few close friends and advisorsangered an alliance of lords that included one of his uncles. This group, known as Lords Appellant,managed to successfully press charges of treason against five of Richard's advisors and friends in theMerciless Parliament. The Lords Appellant were able to gain control of the council in 1388 and tried,unsuccessfully, to reignite the war. Although the will was there, the funds to pay the troops waslacking, so in the autumn of 1388 the Council agreed to resume negotiations with the French crown,beginning on 18 June 1389 with the signing of a three­year truce at Leulinghen.[47] [48]

In 1389, Richard's uncle and supporter, John of Gaunt, returned from Spain and Richard was able torebuild his power gradually until 1397, when he reasserted his authority and destroyed the principalthree among the Lords Appellant. In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, Richard II disinherited Gaunt'sson, the exiled Henry of Bolingbroke. Bolingbroke returned to England with his supporters anddeposed Richard and had himself crowned Henry IV.[48][49][45]

In Scotland, the English regime change prompted border raids that were countered by an invasion in1402 and the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill.[50] A dispute over the spoilsbetween Henry and Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland resulted in a long and bloody strugglebetween the two for control of northern England, resolved only with the almost complete destruction ofthe Percy family by 1408.[51][52]

In Wales, Owain Glyndŵr was declared Prince of Wales on 16 September 1400. He was the leader ofthe most serious and widespread rebellion against English authority in Wales since the conquest of1282–3. The rebellion was finally put down only in 1415 and resulted in Welsh semi­independence fora number of years.[53]

In the meantime Charles VI of France was descending into madness and an open conflict for power began between his cousin John theFearless and his brother, Louis of Orléans. After Louis's assassination, the Armagnac family took political power in opposition to John. By1410, both sides were bidding for the help of English forces in a civil war.[49] In 1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who massacred theCount of Armagnac and about 2,500 of his followers.[54]

Throughout this period, England confronted repeated raids by pirates that heavily damaged trade and the navy. There is some evidence thatHenry IV used state­legalised piracy as a form of warfare in the English Channel. He used such privateering campaigns to pressure enemieswithout risking open war.[55] The French responded in kind and French pirates, under Scottish protection, raided many English coastaltowns.[56]

The domestic and dynastic difficulties faced by England and France in this period quieted the war for a decade.[56]

Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced by his eldest son Henry V. Charles VI of France's mental illness allowed his power to beexercised by royal princes whose rivalries caused deep divisions in France. Henry V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploitthem. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he received ambassadors from Burgundy.[57]

Henry accredited envoys to the French king to make clear his territorial claims in France; he also demanded the hand of Charles VI's youngestdaughter Catherine of Valois. The French rejected his demands, leading Henry to prepare for war.[57]

Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–29

Burgundy alliance and the taking of Paris

Battle of Agincourt (1415)

In August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with a force of about 10,500 and laid siege to Harfleur. The city resisted for longer thanexpected, but finally surrendered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpected delay, most of the campaign season was gone. Rather thanmarch on Paris directly, he elected to make a raiding expedition across France toward English­occupied Calais. In a campaign reminiscent ofCrécy, he found himself outmaneuvered and low on supplies and had to fight a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north ofthe Somme. Despite the problems and having a smaller force, his victory was near­total; the French defeat was catastrophic, costing many ofthe Armagnac leaders. About 40% of the French nobility was killed.[58] Henry was apparently concerned that the large number of prisonerstaken were a security risk (there were more French prisoners than the entire English army) and he ordered their deaths.[57]

Treaty of Troyes (1420)

Fifteenth­century miniature depictingthe Battle of Agincourt.

Henry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in 1417, and Rouen on 19 January 1419, turning Normandy English for the first time in twocenturies. A formal alliance was made with the Duchy of Burgundy, which had taken Paris after the assassination of Duke John the Fearless in1419. In 1420, Henry met with King Charles VI. They signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry finally married Charles' daughterCatherine of Valois and Henry's heirs would inherit the throne of France. The Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry formallyentered Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates­General.[57]

Death of Clarence (1421)

On 22 March 1421 Henry V's progress in his French campaign experienced an unexpected reverse.Henry had left his brother and presumptive heir Thomas, Duke of Clarence in charge while he returnedto England. Clarence engaged a Franco­Scottish force of 5000 men, led by John Stewart, Earl ofBuchan at the Battle of Baugé. Clarence, against the advice of his lieutenants, before his army had beenfully assembled, attacked with a force of no more than 1500 men­at­arms. He then, during the course ofthe battle, led a charge of a few hundred men into the main body of the Franco­Scottish army, whoquickly enveloped the English. In the ensuing melée, the Scot, John Carmichael of Douglasdale, brokehis lance unhorsing the Duke of Clarence. Once on the ground, the duke was slain by AlexanderBuchanan.[57][59] The body of the Duke of Clarence was recovered from the field by ThomasMontacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, who conducted the English retreat.[60]

English success

Henry V returned to France and went to Paris, then visiting Chartres and Gâtinais before returning toParis. From there he decided to attack the Dauphin­held town of Meaux. It turned out to be moredifficult to overcome than first thought. The siege began about 6 October 1421, and the town held for seven months before finally falling on 11May 1422.[57]

At the end of May, Henry was joined by his queen and together with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis. While there it becameapparent that he was ill (possibly dysentery) and when he set out to the Upper Loire he diverted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris,where he died on 31 August 1422.[57] The elderly and insane Charles VI of France died two months later, on 21 October 1422. Henry left anonly child, his nine­month­old son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.[61]

On his deathbed, Henry V had given the Duke of Bedford responsibility for English France (as Henry VI was only an infant). The war inFrance continued under Bedford's generalship and several battles were won. The English won an emphatic victory at the Battle of Verneuil,(17 August 1424). At the Battle of Baugé, Clarence had rushed into battle without the support of his archers. At Verneuil the archers fought to

Clan Carmichael crest with brokenspear commemorating the unseatingof the Duke of Clarence.

devastating effect against the Franco­Scottish army. The effect of the battle was to virtually destroy the Dauphin's field army and to eliminatethe Scots as a significant military force for the rest of the war.[61][62]

Joan of Arc and French revival

Joan of Arc's appearance sparked a revival of French spirit and the tide began to turn against the English.[61]

In 1428, the English laid siege to Orléans. Their force was insufficient to fully invest the city. In 1429 Joan convinced the Dauphin to send herto the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. She raised the morale of the troops and theyattacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift the siege. Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strongholds on theLoire.[63]

The English retreated from the Loire Valley, pursued by a French army. Near the village of Patay,French cavalry broke through a unit of English longbowmen that had been sent to block the road, thenswept through the retreating English army. The English lost 2,200 men, and the commander JohnTalbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury was taken prisoner. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin tomarch to Reims for his coronation as Charles VII (16 July 1429).[63][64]

After the coronation, Charles VII's army fared less well. An attempted French siege of Paris wasdefeated on 8 September 1429, and Charles VII withdrew back to the Loire Valley.[65]

French victory: 1429–53

Henry's coronations and the desertion of Burgundy

Henry VI was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey on 5 November 1429 and king ofFrance at Notre­Dame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431.[61]

Joan was captured by the Burgundians at the siege of Compiegne on 23 May 1430. The Burgundianstransferred her to the English, who organised a trial headed by Pierre Cauchon, a pro­Englishclergyman. Joan was burned at the stake on 30 May 1431.[63](She was rehabilitated 25 years later byPope Callixtus III).

Joan of Arc (c.1450–1500)

The first Western image of a battlewith cannon: the Siege of Orléansin 1429.

The Battle of Formigny (1450)

After Joan of Arc's death the fortunes of war turned dramatically against the English.[66] Most of Henry's royal advisers were against makingpeace. Among the factions, the Duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the Duke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais whereasCardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiations stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of 1435, where the duke of

Beaufort was mediator, the English were unrealistic in their demands. Afew days after the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke ofBurgundy deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of Arras thatreturned Paris to the King of France. This was a major blow to Englishsovereignty in France.[61] The Duke of Bedford died 14 September1435 and was replaced by a lesser man.[66]

French resurgence

Burgundy's allegiance remained fickle, but the English focus onexpanding their domains into the Low Countries left them little energyto intervene in France.[67] The long truces that marked the war gaveCharles time to centralise the French state and reorganise his army andgovernment, replacing his feudal levies with a more modern

professional army that could put its superior numbers to good use. A castle that once could only be capturedafter a prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from cannon bombardment. The French artillerydeveloped a reputation as the best in the world.[66]

By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen and in 1450 the Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont,Earl of Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) caught an Englisharmy attempting to relieve Caen at the Battle of Formigny and defeated it. The English army had beenattacked from the flank and rear by Richemont's force just as they were on the verge of beatingClermont's army.[68]

Fall of Gascony

After Charles VII's successful Normandy campaign in 1450, he concentrated his efforts on Gascony,the last province held by the English. Bordeaux, Gascony's capital, was besieged and surrendered to theFrench on 30 June 1451. Largely due to the English sympathies of the Gascon people this was reversedwhen John Talbot and his army retook the city on 23 October 1452. However, the English were defeated at the Battle of Castillon on 17 July1453. Talbot had been persuaded to engage the French army at Castillon near Bordeaux. During the battle the French appeared to retreat

Charles "the Victorious".

towards their camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out by Charles VII's ordnance officer Jean Bureau and this was instrumental inthe French success as when the French cannon opened fire, from their positions in the camp, the English took severe casualties losing bothTalbot and his son.[69]

End of the war

Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years' War,[69] Englandand France remained formally at war for another 20 years, but the English were in no position to carryon the war as they faced unrest at home. Following defeat in the Hundred Years' War, Englishlandowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of theircontinental holdings; this is often considered a major cause of the War of the Roses, that started in1455.[66][70]

The Hundred Years' War almost resumed in 1474, when the duke Charles of Burgundy, counting onEnglish support, took up arms against Louis XI of France. Louis managed to isolate the Burgundiansby buying Edward IV of England off with a large cash sum and an annual pension, in an agreementsigned at the Treaty of Picquigny (1475). The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years' War withEdward renouncing his claim to the throne of France. However, future Kings of England continued tokeep the lilies of France (Fleur­de­lis) on their coat of arms and even bore the title, until 1803, whenthey were dropped in deference to the exiled Count of Provence, titular King Louis XVIII of France,who was living in England after the French Revolution.[71]

Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy, was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477,[72] leaving a daughter, Mary, who lost the provinces ofArtois, Flanders, Picardy and Burgundy to Louis XI's armies.[72]

Significance

The Hundred Years' War was a time of rapid military evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the social meaning of war all changed,partly in response to the war's costs, partly through advancement in technology and partly through lessons that warfare taught.The feudalsystem was slowly disintegrating throughout the hundred years war.

Before the Hundred Years' War, heavy cavalry was considered the most powerful unit in an army, but by the war's end, this belief had shifted.The heavy horse was increasingly negated by the use of the longbow (and, later, another long­distance weapon: firearms). Edward III wasfamous for dismounting his men­at­arms and having them and his archers stand in closely integrated battle lines; the horses only being used for

Burgundian territories(orange/yellow) and limits of France(red) after the Burgundian War.

transport or pursuit.[73] The English began using lightly armoured mounted troops, known as hobelars. Hoblars tactics had been developedagainst the Scots, in the Anglo­Scottish wars of the 14th century. Hobelars rode smaller unarmoured horses, enabling them to move throughdifficult or boggy terrain where heavier cavalry would struggle. Rather than fight while seated on the horse, they would dismount to engage theenemy.[74][75][76]

By the end of the Hundred Years' War, these various factors caused the decline of the expensively outfitted, highly trained heavy cavalry andthe eventual end of the armoured knight as a military force and of the nobility as a political one.[76]

The war stimulated nationalistic sentiment. It devastated France as a land, but it also awakened Frenchnationalism. The Hundred Years' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudalmonarchy to a centralised state.[77] In 1445 the first regular standing army since Roman times wasorganised in France partly as a solution to marauding free companies. The mercenary companies weregiven a choice of either joining the Royal army as compagnies d'ordonnance on a permanent basis, orbeing hunted down and destroyed if they refused. France gained a total standing army of around 6,000men, which was sent out to gradually eliminate the remaining mercenaries who insisted on operating ontheir own. The new standing army had a more disciplined and professional approach to warfare than itspredecessors.[76]

The conflict developed such that it was not just between the Kings of England and France but alsobetween their respective peoples. There were constant rumours in England that the French meant toinvade and destroy the English language. National feeling that emerged from such rumours unified bothFrance and England further. The Hundred Years' War basically confirmed the fall of the Frenchlanguage in England, which had served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce there fromthe time of the Norman conquest until 1362.[77]

Lowe (1997) argued that opposition to the war helped to shape England's early modern political culture. Although anti­war and pro­peacespokesmen generally failed to influence outcomes at the time, they had a long­term impact. England showed decreasing enthusiasm forconflict deemed not in the national interest, yielding only losses in return for high economic burdens. In comparing this English cost­benefitanalysis with French attitudes, given that both countries suffered from weak leaders and undisciplined soldiers, Lowe noted that the Frenchunderstood that warfare was necessary to expel the foreigners occupying their homeland. Furthermore French kings found alternative ways tofinance the war – sales taxes, debasing the coinage – and were less dependent than the English on tax levies passed by national legislatures.English anti­war critics thus had more to work with than the French.[78]

The spread of the Black Death (withmodern borders).

Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population numbers throughout Europe during this period. France lost half its population during theHundred Years' War.[58] Normandy lost three­quarters of its population, and Paris two­thirds.[79] The population of England was reduced by 20to 33 percent due to plague in the same period.[80]

Timeline

Battles

Important figures

EnglandKing Edward III 1327–77 Philip IV's grandsonKing Richard II 1377–99 Edward III's grandsonKing Henry IV 1399–1413 John of Gaunt's sonKing Henry V 1413–22 Henry IV's sonKing Henry VI 1422–61 Henry V's sonEdward, the Black Prince 1330–76 Edward III's sonJohn of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster 1340–99 Edward III's sonJohn of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford 1389–1435 Henry IV's sonHenry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster 1306–61 KnightJohn Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury 1384–1453 KnightRichard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York 1411–60 Knight

Sir John Fastolf[64] 1380–1459 Knight

FranceKing Philip VI 1328–50 Charles of Valois' sonKing John II 1350–64 Philip VI's sonKing Charles V 1364–80 John II's sonLouis I, Duke of Anjou 1380–82 John II's sonKing Charles VI 1380–1422 Charles V's sonKing Charles VII 1422–61 Charles VI's sonJoan of Arc 1412–31 CommanderJean de Dunois 1403–68 KnightGilles de Rais 1404–40 KnightBertrand du Guesclin 1320–80 KnightJean Bureau 1390–1463 KnightLa Hire 1390–1443 Knight

BurgundyPhilip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy 1363–1404 Son of John II of FranceJohn the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy 1404–19 Son of Philip the BoldPhilip the Good, Duke of Burgundy 1419–67 Son of John the Fearless

See also

Timeline of the Hundred Years' WarFrench military historyBritish military historyAnglo­French relationsMedieval demographySecond Hundred Years' War­ this is the name given by some historians to the near­continuous series of conflicts between Britain andFrance from 1688–1815, beginning with the Glorious Revolution and ending with the Battle of Waterloo.List of battles involving France in the Middle Ages

Notes

1. ^ As noted in, e.g., Gregory D. Cleva, Henry Kissinger and the American Approach to Foreign Policy, Bucknell University Press, 1989; p. 87 ("theEnglish Channel gave the nation a sense of geographical remoteness", while its "navy fostered a sense of physical unassailability" that lasted until theearly 20th century).

2. ^ Bartlett 2000, p. 223. ^ Bartlett 2000, p. 174. ^ Gormley 2007 [1] (http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/archive/hundredyearswar.cfm?

CFID=12106913&CFTOKEN=48989585&jsessionid=463076a37003e50bfe0063343a5d3c64687b) Ohio State University

5. ^ a b Brissaud 1915, pp. 329–3306. ^ Previte­Orton 1978, p. 8727. ^ Harris 1994, p. 8

8. ^ a b Prestwich 1988, p. 298

9. ^ Prestwich 2005, pp. 292–29310. ^ Wilson 2011, p. 194

11. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, p. 394

12. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, p. 30613. ^ Sumption 1991, p. 18014. ^ Sumption 1991, p. 18415. ^ Prestwich 2003, pp. 149–150

16. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, pp. 307–312

17. ^ a b Friar 2004, pp. 480–48118. ^ R.E.Glassock. England circa 1334 in Darby 1976 New Edition, p. 16019. ^ Sumption 1991, pp. 188–18920. ^ Sumption 1991, pp. 233–234

21. ^ a b c d Rogers 2010, pp. 88–89

22. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, pp. 318–31923. ^ Rogers 2010, pp. 55–4524. ^ Grummitt 2008, p. 125. ^ The Black Death, transl. & ed. Rosemay Horrox, (Manchester University Press, 1994), 9.

26. ^ a b Le Patourel 1984, pp. 20–2127. ^ Wilson 2011, p. 218

28. ^ a b c d Guignebert 1930, Volume 1. pp.304–30729. ^ de Venette 1953, p. 66

30. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, p. 32631. ^ Le Patourel 1984, p. 18932. ^ Le Patourel 1984, p. 32

33. ^ a b s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brétigny.34. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 102–10335. ^ Ormrod. Edward III. p. 38436. ^ Backman 2003, pp. 179–180 – Nobles captured in battle were held in "Honorable Captivity", which recognised their status as prisoners of war and

permitted ransom.37. ^ Britannica. Treaty of Brétigny (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/78946/Treaty­of­Bretigny). Retrieved 21 September 2012

38. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 8639. ^ Curry 2002, pp. 69–70

40. ^ a b Wagner 2006, p. 78

41. ^ a b Wagner 2006, p. 12242. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 3–443. ^ Barber, Richard (2008). "Edward , prince of Wales and of Aquitaine (1330–76) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,

2004; online edn. Subscription Required" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8523). Retrieved 3 October 2012.44. ^ Omrod, W. M (2008). "Edward III (1312–1377) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription

Required" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8519). Retrieved 3 October 2012.

45. ^ a b c d e Tuck, Richard (2008). "Richard II (1367–1400 in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn.Subscription Required" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/23499). Retrieved 3 October 2012.

46. ^ Francoise Autrand. Charles V King of France in Vauchéz. Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Volume 1. pp. 283–284

47. ^ a b Baker 2000, p. 6

48. ^ a b Neillands 1990, pp. 182–184

49. ^ a b Curry 2002, pp. 77–8250. ^ Mortimer 2008, pp. 253–25451. ^ Mortimer 2008, pp. 263–26452. ^ Bean, J.M.W (2008). "Percy, Henry, first earl of Northumberland (1341–1408) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,

2004; online edn. Subscription Required" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/21/101021932). Retrieved 8 October 2012.53. ^ Smith, Llinos (2008). "Glyn Dŵr , Owain (c.1359–c.1416) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn.

Subscription Required" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/10/101010816). Retrieved 8 October 2012.54. ^ Sizer, Michael (2007). "The Calamity of Violence: Reading the Paris Massacres of 1418" (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/w/wsfh/0642292.0035.002/­­

calamity­of­violence­reading­the­paris­massacres­of­1418?rgn=main;view=fulltext). Retrieved 29 December 2013.55. ^ Ian Friel. The English and War at Sea. c.1200­c1500 in Hattendorf. War at Sea. pp. 76–77

56. ^ a b Nolan. The Age of Wars of Religion. p. 424

57. ^ a b c d e f g Allmand, C.T (2008). "Henry V (1386–1422) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn.Subscription Required" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/12/101012952). Retrieved 8 October 2012.

58. ^ a b Turchin 2003, pp. 179–180Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall (http://books.google.com/books?id=mUoCrTUo­eEC&pg=PA179&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false)

59. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 44–45

References

60. ^ G. L. Harriss, ‘Thomas , duke of Clarence (1387–1421)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Sept2010 accessed 14 May 2013 (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27198,) Subscription required.

61. ^ a b c d e Griffiths 200462. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 307–308

63. ^ a b c Davis 2003, pp. 76–80

64. ^ a b "Sir John Fastolf" (http://www.archives.norfolk.gov.uk/view/NCC110270). Norwich: Norfolk Record Office. Retrieved 20 December 2012.65. ^ Jaques, Tony. 2007 (https://books.google.com/books?

id=tW_eEVbVxpEC&pg=PA777&lpg=PA777&dq=French+siege+of+Paris+was+defeated+on+8+September+1429&source=bl&ots=pxigJl0nf5&sig=ZD952C3hb3tOmPBK7uGJ2AHwFbk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ti3AVNLrGunksATYnYDwDg&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=French%20siege%20of%20Paris%20was%20defeated%20on%208%20September%201429&f=false). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 777. Retrieved January 21,2015.

66. ^ a b c d Lee 1998, pp. 145–14767. ^ Sumption 1991, p. 56268. ^ Nicole 2012, pp. 26–35

69. ^ a b Wagner 2006, p. 7970. ^ Webster 1998, pp. 39–40: "Every version of the complaints put forward by the rebels in 1450 harps on the losses in France."71. ^ Neillands 1990, pp. 290–291

72. ^ a b Charles Derek Ross, Edward IV, (University of California Press, 1974), 249–250.73. ^ Powicke 1962, p. 18974. ^ Colm McNamee. Hobelars in Rogers 2010, pp. 267–26875. ^ Jones 2008, pp. 1–17

76. ^ a b c Preston, Wise & Werner 1991, pp. 84–89

77. ^ a b Holmes, Urban & Schutz 1948, p. 6178. ^ Lowe 1997, pp. 147–19579. ^ Ladurie 1987, p. 32The French peasantry, 1450–1660 (http://books.google.com/books?

id=VT9rIMQFt2MC&pg=PA32&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false)80. ^ Neillands 1990, pp. 110–111

Baker, Denise Nowakowski, ed. (2000). Inscribing the Hundred Years' War in French and English Cultures. New York: New York University Press.ISBN 0791447014.Backman, Clifford R (2003). The Worlds of Medieval Europe. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0­1953­3527­9.Bartlett, Robert (2000). J.M.Roberts, ed. England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075 ­1225. London: OUP. ISBN 978­0­19­925101­8.Brissaud, Jean (1915). Garner, James W. Tr, ed. History of French Public Law. The Continental Legal History series. Vol 9. Boston: Little, Brown andCompany.Curry, Anne (2002). The Hundred Years War 1337–1453. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1­84176­269­5.Darby, H. C. (1976) [1973]. A New Historical Geography of England before 1600. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0­521­29144­5.Davis, Paul K (2003). Besieged: 100 Great Sieges from Jericho to Sarajevo 2nd. Ed. Santa Barbara CA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0­19­521930­9."Encyclopædia Britannica Online" (http://www.britannica.com). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2012.Favier, Jean (1980). La Guerre de Cent Ans. Paris: Fayard. ISBN 978­2­213­00898­1.Friar, Stephen (2004). The Sutton Companion to Local History. Sparkford, England: Sutton. ISBN 0­7509­2723­2.Froissart, Jean (1895). Macaulay; George Campbell, ed. The Chronicles of Froissart(http://archive.org/stream/chroniclesfrois00macagoog#page/n176/mode/2up). John Bourchier Translator; Lord Berners Translator. London: Macmillanand Son. Retrieved 24 September 2012.Gormley, Larry (2007). "eHistory:The Hundred Years War: Overview" (http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/archive/hundredyearswar.cfm?CFID=12106913&CFTOKEN=48989585&jsessionid=463076a37003e50bfe0063343a5d3c64687b). Ohio State University. Retrieved 20 September 2012.Griffiths, R.A (2004). "Henry VI (1421–1471) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; online edn, Sept 2010; Subscription required"(http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/12/101012953/). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 9 October 2012.Grummitt, David (2008). The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. ISBN 978­1­84383­398­7.Guignebert, Charles (1930). A Short History of the French People. Vol 1. (http://www.questia.com/read/98573239) F. G. Richmond Translator. NewYork: Macmilan Company.Harris, Robin (1994). Studies in History 71: Valois Guyenne. Woodbridge, Surrey: Boydell Press. ISBN 0­86193­226­9.Hattendorf, John B; Unger, Richard W, eds. (2003). War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. ISBN 0­85115­903­6.Holmes, Jr, Urban T; Schutz, Alexander H (1948). A History of the French Language, Revised ed (http://www.questia.com/read/82238646). Columbus,OH: Harold L. Hedrick.Jones, Robert (2008). "Re­thinking the origins of the Irish Hobelar" (http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/share/resources/CHP%202008.1%20Jones.pdf). Cardiff:Cardiff School of History and Archaeology. Retrieved 8 April 2013.

Lambert, Craig L. "Edward III’s siege of Calais: A reappraisal," Journal of Medieval History (2011) 37#3 pp 231–342Lee, Cristopher (1998). This Sceptred Isle:55BC­1901. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0­140­26133­8.Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy (1987). The French peasantry, 1450–1660 (http://books.google.com/books?id=VT9rIMQFt2MC&pg=PA32&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Alan Sheridan Translator. Berkeley and LA: University of California Press.ISBN 0­520­05523­3.Lowe, Ben (1997). Imagining Peace: History of Early English Pacifist Ideas. University Park PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.ISBN 0271016892.Mortimer, Ian (2008). The Fears of Henry IV: the Life of England's Self­Made King. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978­1­844­13529­5.Neillands, Robin (1990). The Hundred Years War, Revised ed. London: Routledge. ISBN 0­415­26131­7.Nicolle, David (2012). The Fall of English France 1449–53. Colchester, Essex: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978­1­84908­616­5.Ormrod, W Mark (2001). Edward III. London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978­0­30­011910­7.Le Patourel, John (1984). Jones, Michael, ed. Feudal Empires:Norman and Plantagenet (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aGlLTOOeBG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=treaty+of+br%C3%A9tigny&source=bl&ots=gT0ExAQS42&sig=EnglcrqXyhO7etEuonGwmC8D9gQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HyNiUP6vOqWr0QWfvYCQAw&ved=0CFcQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=paris&f=false). London: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 0­907628­22­2. Retrieved 26 September 2012.Powicke, Michael (1962). Military Obligation in Medieval England. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 0­198­20695­X.Preston, Richard; Wise, Sydney F.; Werner, Herman O. (1991). Men in arms: a history of warfare and its interrelationships with Western society. 5thEdition. Beverley MA: Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc. ISBN 0­03­033428­4.Prestwich, Michael (1988). English Monarchs: Edward I. Berkeley and LA: University of California. ISBN 0­520­06266­3.Prestwich, Michael (2003). The Three Edwards: War and State in England 1272–1377. London: Routledge. ISBN 0­203­60713­9.Prestwich, Michael (2005). J.M.Roberts, ed. Plantagenet England. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978­0­19­922687­0.Previte­Orton, C.W (1978). The shorter Cambridge Medieval History 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0­521­20963­3.Rogers, Clifford J, ed. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN 978­0­19­533403­6.Sumption, Jonathan (1991). The Hundred Years War I: Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0­8122­1655­5.Turchin, Peter (2003). Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall. Princeton: Princeton University. ISBN 0­691­11669­5.Vauchéz, Andre, ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of the Middle ages. Volume 1. Cambridge: James Clark. ISBN 1­57958­282­6.de Venette, Jean (1953). Newall, Richard A, ed. The Chronicle of Jean de Venette. Translated by Jean Birdsall. New York: Columbia University Press.Wagner, John A (2006). Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War. Westport CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0­313­32736­X.Webster, Bruce (1998). The Wars of the Roses. London: UCL Press. ISBN 1­85728­493­3.Wilson, Derek (2011). The Plantagenets. The Kings that made Britain. London: Quercus. ISBN 978­0­85738­004­3.

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to HundredYears' War.

External links

The Hundred Years War and the History of Navarre (http://www.lebrelblanco.com/15.htm)Timeline of the Hundred Years War (http://www.maisonstclaire.org/timeline/timeline.html)The Hundred Years' War (1336–1565) by Dr. Lynn H. Nelson(http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/hundred_years_war.html), University of Kansas EmeritusThe Hundred Years' War information and game (http://www.hyw.com)The Company Of Chivalry: Re­enactment Society at the time of the 100 Years War (http://www.yecompaynyeofcheualrye.com/)Jean Froissart, "On The Hundred Years War (1337–1453)" (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/froissart1.html) from the InternetMedieval SourcebookOnline database of Soldiers serving in the Hundred Years War (http://www.medievalsoldier.org/index.php)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hundred_Years%27_War&oldid=654394792"

Categories: Hundred Years' War 14th century in France 15th century in France Anglo­French Wars Late Middle AgesWarfare of the Middle Ages Wars involving Scotland Wars involving Luxembourg Wars involving PortugalWars involving the Holy Roman Empire

This page was last modified on 31 March 2015, at 20:42.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution­ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agreeto the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non­profitorganization.