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Humanitarian Design in Response to CrisisAn analytical research evaluation

By Furaha Mussanzi

3/15/2013Liverpool John Moores UniversityLJMUBA (Hons) Interior Design

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ContentsPart 1 Introduction 2 1.1 – Aims and objectives 2 1.2 – Initial research: Learning from Poster Presentation 3 1.3 – Foreword 4

Part 2 History & Positioning 52.1 – A century of humanitarian design (Learning from the Past) 52.2 – A new consensus: Embracing Social Responsibility 6

Part 3 Shelter & Settlement 103.1 – Contingency planning (preparedness) 11

3.2 – The role of government, NGOs and local agencies 123.3 – Case Study: Super Adobe by Nader Khalili 12

Chapter 4 Conclusion 4.1 – General summary of the paper 14

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Part 1 – Introduction‘The 25th article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserts that adequate shelter and housing are fundamental to our human rights.’(Article 25) And it is equally imperative that these (systems) are well-built, safe and healthy, which subsequently contributes to a better livelihood of people regardless of their geographical location. With figures showing that a staggering ‘1.6 billion people live in substandard housing and 100 million are homeless’, it is ’impossible to be unaware of the challenge to house the world’s ever growing population’ (Baker, 2012: 14) ...making shelter an urgent necessity. Exasperating matters worse are the rise in meteorological and man-made catastrophes in the past few decades, which hit at such an unimaginable scale, taking lives and as a result leaving thousands of civilians homeless. The lack of basic shelter adds to the trauma victims accumulate, so much so that it cripples the survivor’s prospect of rebuilding their lives. These frequent, unprecedented devastations to our build environment is the driving force for new emerging architects, planners, engineers and design enthusiasts wearing a ‘H’ (Humanitarian)on their chest and finding solutions for safe, efficient and cost-effective responses to emergency shelters in areas of crisis. Their goal is essentially to serve the needs of the victims affected; giving them back a sense of their safety, privacy and human dignity.

This research paper endeavours to highlight the provision of shelter for refugees and displaced persons in areas of conflict/war and examines if the up rise of emerging conscientious architects and designers truly can solves some of these humanitarian turmoil.

1.1 – The aims and objectives

The aims and objectives of this research are three-folds;

1) To understand the culture and context of humanitarian design, focusing primarily on historical precedents from the past century in order to provide a foundation for this research.

2) To critically analyse the disaster relief design response by Nader Khalili, assessing the material, distribution on site, the in between phase and sustainability.

3) To increase knowledge and thus buoyantly re-enforce a strong sense of philanthropic value of ‘Using design for the common good’ and utilising the information as a search model for the design practice I want to explore.

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1.3 – Initial Research: Learning from Poster PresentationWhile design is the process of problem solving, design research is fundamentally a process of problem finding. (Tran, Ku)

Research is fundamental to the way we think. When we have the opportunity to dive deep into a particular subject area, we are presented with a range of information, viewpoints and theories that have previously been excavated and it is then our part to analyse, criticise and evaluate the subject whilst pragmatically and subjectively adding our personal view.

The initial idea derived during a conversation with a tutor whilst discussing what area of design I wanted to investigate further into in year 2. I genuinely had no idea. Just the idea of having the freedom to choose the potential dimension of study sounded pretty good to me. As my mind wandered for a brief second, I had the image of hundreds and thousands of refugees surviving in camps in dire conditions in my home country. And with that I sought after investigating conscientious design, focusing primarily on designers who are not afraid to come up with innovative ideas and exploring materials. My tutor spoke about a designer who he thought fit the bill, his name was Shigeru Ban. And from then on, I was intrigued.

This paper aims at drawing all the previous accumulated research I have undertook since year two up to now. It will, however, be converging more specifically on of this academic year’s theme of humanitarian design, critically analysing the role of emergency shelter in areas of war and conflict that leaves many homeless and in need of emergency shelters (temporary, transitional and permanent. After understanding the science of design research, I intended to approach this final phase of my research from an enquiry, knowledge-directed and communicable standpoint and consequently use the findings to summarise this topic.

Learning from Poster Presentation

The poster presentation sought after really

Fig. 1: The four quadrants of Integral theory’s All Quadrant All Level (AQAL) diagram

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The AQAL diagram enabled me to distinctively look at the research from a better-rounded angle, identifying the potential scopes of my chosen subject by researching into an individual and subjective writings, a societal or group evaluation, objective appraisal of material and energy and the systems of things (technologies and things) that constitute my subject matter. After exploring all of these possibilities, I realized that this area was much more complex that I first imagined. I found articles, books and reports on the topic but I still had no idea which particular themes I wanted to explore. Then I decided on these:

History and Positioning & Philosophical and philanthropic idea Social, political (governmental) and cultural influence Critical analysis of design response

I initially proposed to look at three different emergency shelter responses, using precedents from natural disasters, war and famine. However, the purpose of the poster presentation was to only select one design response and really recognize the different factors that make up my topic extracting evidence from different sources (from graphical to constructed) as a point of reference that allowed me to begin to answer questions regarding the process of shelter provision from the time disaster strikes to the construction onsite and the recovery phase. Evaluating particularly the areas such as contingency and preparedness, prototype development, distributed networks of production, delivery onsite, collaborations with government agencies and NGO’s and the effectiveness of the shelter provided to its given environment. Although, the initial idea was to focus more on the effect of natural disasters (floods, storms, tsunamis and extreme temperature) the same process is still relevant in conflict areas.

Figure 2: My final poster presentation, showing all the different aspect of the links and connection of the design response.

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1.2 – Foreword

The reason why this area of research is of great significance to me is because I’ve always been captivated by humanitarianism, the idea that it is indeed our social duty as individuals or a group to promote human welfare. The ideology of ‘making a difference’ has always been pertinent to me since a very young age and I’ve been fortunate enough to explore this field through various projects and campaigns that were inspired by my parents involvement in promoting peace and reconciliation in a country that was torn by war and violence.

Growing up in the Democratic Republic of Congo forced to me experience things no child should ever be exposed to at a young age. I saw the suffering, killings and the many iniquities people faced each day and I myself had to flee my home several times out of sheer fear of losing my life as a result of ethnic tensions, invasion and political unrest. Fear is the impelling reason that forces people living in areas of conflict and unprecedented crisis to instinctively migrate. This mass displacement of the population is the reason why victims become homeless (the majority being women and children). IDPs (internally displaced people), EDPs (externally displaced people) face unimaginable struggle, making them vulnerable. That’s when the provision of shelter as a humanitarian aid is crucial as refugee camps sprout irrepressibly. I observed that many people’s basic human needs were not being met and since then, I vowed that whatever profession I find myself doing; I will contribute (big or small) using my skills, talent and the knowledge for the greater good of others.

The UN High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that there were

9,200,000 refugees in the world in 2004.Figure 3: “2004 Global Refugee Trends,” UNHCR, June 2005

Likewise, other basic necessities such as water, sanitation, medical and food, are inextricably linked and equally as important in the immediate recovery phase; but shelter plays a huge part in the rehabilitation process of those affected. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) whose ‘primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees’ (UNHCR online) provide tents as an emergency material but ‘to date none of these systems have proven effective in refugee situations’ (Habitat for Humanity, 2006). And for years now architects, engineers and designers have attempted to come up with innovative new concept for relief shelters, testing materials, durability, sustainability and above all ones that provide privacy and a sense of dignity. This paper explores the topic in a broader context and concludes the research by proposing examples of new horizon for design practice.

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Part 2 – History and Positioning 2.1 – A century of Humanitarian design response

“Housing in the twentieth century has been one of the continuing emergencies” – Charles

Abrams, The future of housing, 1946. (Stohr, 2006: 33). Charles Abram’s words encapsulate, almost prophetically today, the real issues of housing during his era. His awareness of the problem at hand is what most architects and designers at the time were advocating for and subsequently attempt to solve. The former years had seen a string of catastrophic disasters from the San Francisco earthquake and fires (which left more than a quarter of a million people homeless) to famine, floods and earthquakes. Consequently, the disasters equally provoked an urge to ‘do more’ so as to assist those in need through housing strategies which aimed at tackling the issue of transitioning refugees from ‘makeshift tent camps’ into temporary housing for the working poor (Stohr, 2006: 33) . The ‘novel solution’ was the design for small wooden cottages, which guaranteed an end to the camps. Today, most people are not aware of the real motifs and driving force of the modernism movement, which was initially concerned with harnessing the potential of constructing low cost buildings to respond to the growing problems of housing shortages and the continued migration of workers to urban expanses.

Other anticipated response to the growing demands for housing include,

Figure 4: A timeline of disaster response retrospective to the past 100 years.

Yet despite all the efforts of trying to tackle the issue using initiatives such as ‘The Social Housing Movement’ which aimed at getting to the grass root of providing housing for low-income workers after the Depression, things still fell apart.

“We are dealing with an urgent problem of our epoch, nay more, with the problem of our epoch. The balance of society comes down to a question of building. We conclude with these justifiable alternatives: Architecture or Revolution. Revolution can be avoided” – Le Corbusier

1934 Modern Housing, Catherine Bauer

Ca. 1939-45 Transportable Primitive, Finland

1948-49 -Geodesic Dome, R. Buckminster Fuller

1956-

Future Home, Smithsons

1973-76 Habitat for Humanity builds first project, Zaire

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Case Study: World War II and the Post-war building boom

The World War II brought along a shocking level of devastation. The outbreak not only caused severe destruction to towns and cities but it also galvanised an unimaginable death toll of civilians which far outnumbered those of soldiers, for the first time in warfare history. ‘When the war ended in 1945, millions were left displaced or homeless. Emergency shelter became a priority’ (Stohr, 2006: 39) In response to this overwhelming crisis which seemed to have shifted the world’s attention from exploring ‘for a technological solution to the world’s housing crisis’, architects such as Alvar Aalto and Prouvé began developing temporary emergency-shelter systems such as prefabricated shelters and metal-frame tents that could be easily transported to the site to house families as well as set up as schools for refugees.

Some may argue that this marked a poignant point in the history of aid as there was an influx of the NGOs or nongovernmental organisations with the likes of the United Nations as well as a bunch of other government agencies and humanitarian aid organisations. From then on, these NGOs would play an integral role in providing disaster relief shelter for refugees as well as responding to natural disasters and areas of political conflict and unrest.

As the war ended, the needs to rebuild cities and accommodate civilians become important. Architects such as Le Corbusier & Gropius realised that they had a complex problem to solve. Using the modernism movement as a driving force, the slab apartment block (which has already been explored in the 20’s and 30’s) were erected in cities such as Marseilles and was embraced in West Germany, Poland, Japan and Israel.

Figure 5: Roehampton estate London

2.2 – A new Consensus- Embracing Social Responsibility

“Architecture is a process of giving form and pattern to the social life of the community.” - Hannes Meyer, director of Bauhaus, 1928 to 1930. (Habitat for Humanity)

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Those few words truly captivate the tangible essence of what the field of architecture (and design) is all about. It is indeed the act of service, which should be tackling the turmoil of housing, an enormous global emergency. Architecture is defined as ‘the art and science of designing and erecting building’ and a humanitarian is ‘one who is devoted to the promotion of human welfare and the advancement of social reforms; a philanthropist’. Effectively the combined term of ‘humanitarian architecture’ is a rather new definition growing out of aid work in the 20th century, hence there is little literature defining and discussing this type of architecture. (Junge, 2013) Although it may seem as if there is hardly any literature which directly defining this new reform of architecture and design, there are, however, plenty of accomplished work out there. Some of the earliest initiatives include as Habitat for Humanity and Sergio Palleroni – BaSic initiative which have existed since 1970’s and 80’s.

Architecture, design and humanitarianism are forever at the forefront of the development process of empowering, uplifting and improving the lives of people, whether here on our doorsteps or far beyond. In most cases, however, architects and designers feel compelled to go out into developing countries (particularly in areas of crisis) to rebuild and assist new, affordable and sustainable shelters for the communities. These basic structures take different forms depending on the crisis and its physical planned sites. In relation to displaced people, Manfield asserts that:

Shelter, and shelter maintenance, continues to play a significant part in the environmental degradation of temporary settlements, whether inside or outside relief programmes.

This means that the chosen shelter method whether temporary, transitional or permanent, if adequate in its given environment truly can ‘works alongside immediate response services, supplementing their abilities to perform’ (Grehan) and in the process improving supplies of basic necessities such as water, food, health and education. The term ‘activism’ refers to the action of using vigorous campaigning methods in order to address certain issues with the agenda of bringing about change, on a political and social arena (Thorpe). Sinha, suggests these ‘development activists’ working in the field of ‘rapid changes and scares resources ought to embrace a new paradigm for architectural practice based on respect for diversity and equality, participation and empowerment. In addition to this, Ann Thorpe adds:

‘We are perhaps less familiar with how structures (such as buildings) or objects (such as furniture or tools), in their design processes and physical

manifestations, also have a role in resisting the status quo, calling for change and thus influencing decision makers.’

And rightly so, it is also imperative to first and foremost understand the significance of activism in general before moving on to critically analysing particular precedents that fall under this criteria. It is essentially an awakening of the conscience, coming to a pivotal realisation of the demand or needs addressed and taking a much more significant and

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almost critical decision of being part of that movement; thus contributing towards the development and change. The argument that arises is that surely all design, since its prime purpose is to improve the lives of people, must be activism (Thorpe)

Nevertheless, there is still more to be done by introducing this field as ‘the new frontier in [design] education’, (Hill: 2012) giving young designers the prospect of beginning to addressing these societal issues that needs solving through their designs. It also seems like humanitarian designers are a minority group, who are not given the chance to share their skills. I believe that the problem really isn’t the fact that people do not care about these existing issues, it’s just that they are not presented with the scopes of really exploring other areas of design; hence why ‘thousands of designers graduate and go off to work in prestigious agencies where they solve the same usability problems’ (Tran, Ku). Powell observes that with the current recession affecting sectors like education, it certainly ‘diminishes and limits the ability of architectural practice to inform the educational curriculum in a positive manner. And as Tran and Ku examine, ‘The design discipline is well positioned to apply creative problem-solving towards these “wicked” problems.

Contrasting to these ideas, design critic Bruce Nussbaum frames humanitarian design as a cross between high-style architecture, low-tech interventions, and altruistic goals – as the “new imperialism” (Kaye: 2011). He suggests that:

“…now that the movement is gathering speed to ask whether or not American and European designers are collaborating with the right partners, learning from the best local people, and being as sensitive as they might to the colonial legacies of the countries they want to do good in.” (Nussbaum: 2011)

This rather controversial and strong argument implies that perhaps it is indeed the time for designers to step back and examine how this ‘missionary-like’ new approach of helping people is being received in host countries. In response to this idea, Emily Pilloton, founder of the non-profit humanitarian design firm defends Nussbaum’s accusation as being ‘short-sighted’ insisting that the only way humanitarian design can succeed is when it is democratic and honest, the project centres on a social mission, and everyone involved has a clear investment in the final result. (Kaye: 2011)

Part 3 – Shelter & Settlement

“…shelter must be considered as process, not an object”- (Davis: 1978)

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This section introduces the important phase of shelter and settlement, highlighting the various factors affecting its implementation on site such as mitigation, advanced planning, response, recovery and risk reduction.

It is also vital to know the complexity of this phase therefore appreciating that sheltering is a process, not just a product. The provision and distribution of shelter falls under three categories: temporary, transitional and permanent. Each of which are unique methods of solution in assisting those affected, but vary vastly depending on the context, type of disaster, local capacities scale and resources.

One’s beautiful design must serve the humble everyday needs of men. (Fatty, 1969: 50)

According to Kronenburg (1999), “any shelter solutions which are provided by relief agencies, must be indigenous, acceptable, appropriate, affordable and provide a boost to the local economy”. That implies that whichever form the solution comes in should aim at ticking those boxes, be it tents, shipping containers or prefabricated housing. Architects, designers and engineers’ aim “should be to organise and create more liveable ephemeral communities that allow seamless transition into the permanent.” (Grehan)

Figure 6: Shelter is a continuum process, where all the different phases are overlapped.

3.1 – Contingency planning (preparedness)

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Figure 7: Emergency management phases. Arrows indicate natural emergency flow and darkness indicates importance of time

7. Contingency planning (preparedness)

Post-disaster needs, including shelter requirements can be anticipated with some accuracy. Effective contigency planning can help reduce distress and homelessness. (UN report: Shelter After Disaster, 1982)

Despite all the study that has been done, numerous mistakes continue to occur in relation to shelter and housing provision post-disaster. In the context of humanitarian design, the participatory approach for safe shelter is also rather significant. That may include working directly with local authority to come up with suitable solutions after disaster and perhaps the idea of self-help is particularly crucial so that the victims [do not] become mere spectators but participants. (UN report)

In 1982, the UN published a comprehensive documentation on ‘Shelter after Disaster’, guidelines for assistance. The study’s aim for to ‘remedy’ the problems of shelter provision from the stand point of the survivor receiving the aid. It asked a few imperative questions, but among them, this one stood out to me: How should disaster assistance be dispensed? Should it simply be given away, subsidised or marketed in affected area?

In most cases, when disaster strikes, nothing substantial is done in order for the response phase to be quick and effective. The standard example of the shelter provision failure in response to the Rwandan genocide where the UNHCR given tents was proven inappropriate due to the underlying lack of research and preparedness and site planning which caused more environmental problems instead of finding solutions. Architect Shigeru Ban’s design Paper emergency shelter for UNHCR was finally implemented 4 years after the disaster took place after going through a series of test was finally. The same mistakes continue to happen, particularly in recent cases such as Haiti and later Pakistan. In such disastrous case study, who is to blame? Is it the UNHCR’s fault, or is it simply that the shelter strategy options were scarce.

Some will argue that it is all down to planning phase, as Manfield writes ‘the planning decisions made at this point are crucial, as any major mistakes in planning and the provision of shelter and infrastructure will prove extremely difficult and costly to correct. However, one thing is certain, ‘the earlier the construction process begins, the lower the ultimate social, economic and capital cost of the disaster’ (UN: 1982)

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3.2 – The role of government and local agencies"Each state has the responsibility first and foremost to take care of the victims of natural disasters and other emergencies occurring on its territory”UN General Assembly Resolution46/182

‘The global response to humanitarian crises is the collective output of a complex ecosystem of communities, organisations and national and international governments, each facing a range of choices about how, where, when and how much they contribute to meet humanitarian need.’ (GHA report: 2012) The role of government and local agencies is significant and complex in the aftermath of a disaster. It is rather unclear how exactly they should assist victims. But in most circumstances (especially in developing countries) the state is either unable to help their victims thus focus on individual and public assistance or immediately call on international community to step in.

There also exists tension between home grown and ‘delivered’ solutions due to the simple fact that other alternative arrangements are thought of before the tent even arrives which in most cases comes at an environmental cost. Moreover, with dispatching and emergency shelter supplies costing as much as manufacturing, one could argue that perhaps this is in fact the gap that only architects, designers and planners can fill by exploring other solutions of shelter and settlement in relation to its given surround and particular context. As Sokol expresses:

‘The phenomenon of do-good architecture may, in fact, reflect a critical mass of wealth bifurcation, government neglect, and environmental degradation that have propelled desperation, anger, and ultimately, the desire to help’

3.3 – Case Study: Super Adobe by Nader Khalili

Nader Khalili (1936-2008) an Iranian born architect; author, humanitarian and philosopher is the inventor of the simple yet profound building technology known as Super Adobe (constructed using sandbags and barbed wire) and is prominent for his Ceramic Houses using ready available material of earth, water and fire for more than three decades. After extensive research and prototyping, this was his conclusion and philosophy:

“To build simple emergency and safe structures in our backyards, to give us maximum safety with minimum environmental impact, we must choose natural materials and, like nature itself, build with minimum materials to create maximum space, like a beehive or a sea shell,”

In 1984, Khalili responded to a NASA’s call for housing designs for the future human settlements on the moon and mars. His idea was to utilize indigenous building supplies and materials to construct traditional earth architecture, which would be appropriate for the moon’s harshest climate. The assignment (a purely theoretical project) became live in 1995

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following the Persian Gulf War which sent an outpour of refugees into his country. His idea was simple, to use the earth and the element. He observed that postmodernism architecture was indeed struggling to survive and embraced the idea of using what he had learned and explored to help others in their times of need. He had previously been really successful working in the very commercial and competitive architecture arena, where he had set up his own firm. Until he had a calling to abandon ‘the rivalry to get big jobs’ tracing it for the simple life in the dessert, where he worked for 5 years ‘with the people on their ideas and dreams.

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Material:

Polypropylene or burlap bags filled with sand, soil, gravel or other material. The soil or earth mixture can be used as is, or stabilized with cement or lime. It is extremely easy to be sourced and very low cost to erect. Earth is a standard material that is available globally and provides superior protection against wind, rain, heat, cold, snow, bullets, fire, flooding, hurricane, earthquake and noise.

Distribution on site:

Earthbags are available almost everywhere in the world, but can be purchased in its needed region.

Easy to assemble No skill needed to participate in the building process

Sustainability:

More durable than tents Covered with mud, it can last for years One benefit is that when used as a transitional shelter, it can easily become

permanent shelters depending on the settlement strategy Other facilities can be built on the same building system such as kitchen, clinics,

social spaces etc. The material can also be dismantled therefore making it reusable for other purposes Minimises impact on local resources (tree-free shelter/building)

Sensuous experience

Maximum privacy, safety and comfort which then contributes to lower stress level Refugees can determine their own living spaces and thus feel empowered.

Khalili’s portfolio embodies the true essence of what humanitarianism is all about. He was not afraid of stepping outside his comfort zone and exploring new ideas but above all using his prototypes to serve others in their time of need.

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Conclusion:

This paper has served as summative evaluation of this interesting but rather complex subject area of humanitarian design, focusing specifically on its effectiveness in serving the needs of displaced people in areas of crisis. It introduced historical precedent as a driving force, analysed the complex process of shelter and settlement provision and finally highlighted Nader Khalili’s innovative yet simple solution to solving the problem.

We are entering an era where designers aren’t just stylists, an era where designers can also serve as strategists in creating solutions that shape activities, behaviours, and relationships. (Tran, Ku)

To conclude, I have learnt that awareness is revolutionary. I now know that my passion is to serve others, especially those in need and I intend to use my skills to do good, as long as I have the opportunity.

“This is the real news of our century. It is highly feasible to take care of all of humanity at a higher standard of living than anybody has ever experienced or dreamt of. To do so without having anybody profit at the expense of another, so that everybody can enjoy the whole earth. R. Buckminster Fuller, lecture

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References

[1] Architecture for humanity (2006) Design like you give a damn: architectural response to

humanitarian crises: Thames & Hudson Ltd: London, pg. 35, 39, 40

[2] Fatty, H. (1969) Architecture for the Poor: The University of Chicago Press, ltd., London, pg. 50

[3] Khalili, N. (1986) Ceramic Houses & Earth Architecture: How to Build Your Own: Cal-Earth Press, California pg.

[4] Sinha, S. (2012) Architecture for Rapid Change and Scare Resources: Routledge, Oxon pg.

[5] Grehan, A. Dissertation: Disaster Relief Architecture: A case of study of the earthquakes of Peru 2007 and Chile 2010. (Liverpool John Moores University)

[6] Kronenburg, R. (1999) Transportable Environments, Taylor & Francis, London pg. 83

[7] Zetter, R: ‘Shelter Provision and Settlement Policies for Refugees’ 1994

[8] Davis, I: ‘Shelter after Disaster’ Oxford Polytechnic Press 1978

[9] Emergency Shelter for Humanitarian Relief in Cold Climates: Policy and Practice, Dissertation by Peter Manfield. Cambridge University G:\Research\coldshelter2.pdf

[10] Shelter after Disaster: Guidelines for Assistance. Office of the United Nations Disaster relief Coordinator, Geneva, 1982: http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/E4FE896AFFF16709C1256CB10056558E-undro-shelter1-jul82.pdf

[11] Research: The Emergency Shelter Process with Application to Case Studies in Macedonia and Afghanistan by Elizabeth Babister and Ilan Kelman, Cambridge University.(2002) http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/files/2011/04/a092.pdf

[12] GHA (Global Human Assistance) report, 2012: http://www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/GHA_Report_2012-Websingle.pdf

[13] Chapter 3: During the disaster. The Role of Government in a disaster: University of Florida, http://disaster.ifas.ufl.edu/pdfs/chap03/d03-07.pdf

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[14] Hill, D. (2012) The New Frontier in Education. Architectural Record Article: http://archrecord.construction.com/news/2012/03/The-New-Frontier-Education.asp

[15] Powell, A. Educational Possibility of Humanitarian Architecture: http://www.field-journal.org/uploads/file/2009%20Volume%203/field_03_9_Educational_Possibilities_of_Humanitarian_Architecture.pdf

[16] Article 25 online: http://www.article-25.org/

[17] The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture online: http://calearth.org/

[18] http://www.unhabitat.org/list.asp?catid=491&typeid=3&AllContent=1&ContentByTheme=277

[19] Designing for Social Change by Ruby Ku and Christina Tran (Austin centre for design)

[20] http://www.allindiary.org/page/internationalhumanitarianarchitecture

[21] Earth Buildings (photos) : http://www.earthbagbuilding.com/projects/sandbagshelters.htm

[22] Thorpe, A. Article: Defining Design as Activism. (Submitted to Journal of Architectural Educationhttp://designactivism.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Thorpe-definingdesignactivism.pdf

[23] Emergency sandbag shelter, Training guide: http://www.xeologosdelmundu.org/files/KhaliliEmergShltr.pdf

Word count: (Excluding title, context page and bibliography): 4,528