THE URBAN COURTYARD KOUSING FORM AS A RESPONSE TO

HUMAN NEEDS, CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of Graduate Studies

of

The University of Guelph

by

NANCY YU

In partial fûifïlment of requirements

for the degree of

Master of Landscape Architecture

April, 1999

O Nancy Yu, 1999

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ABSTRACT

THE URSAN COURTYARD HOUSING FORM AS A RESPONSE TO HUMAN NEEDS, CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Nancy Yu University of Guelph, 1999

Advisor: Professor Cecelia Paine

Courtyard housing is an important dwelling type in human history; it exists widely in

various cultures and climatic zones. Understanding what factors intluence the courtyard

housuig form is of importance to creating better living environments. This study explores

the urban courtyard housing fomi as a response to basic human needs, culture and

environment Based on a review of the historical ongins of urban courtyard housing, four

traditional and contemporary hlpes were selected for analysis. Drawings and a fiamework

that included territorial, social-psychological, cultural and environmental factors were

used to understand and compare the selected examples. Through time and across cuitirres,

territorial and environmentai factors were found to be highly relevant to all courtyard

housing forms. Gender, as an indicator of culture, has played an important role in those

courtyard foms influenced by religion and tradition. Kaowledge gained nom this shidy

c m benefit architects and landscape architects underiaking contemporary design.

First and foremost, 1 wish to express my sincere thanks to my advisor, Cecelia Paine, for

her encouragement and direction in keeping me on brack with my research. Without her

support, 1 could not have completed this study.

1 also wish to express my gratitude to m y cornmittee member, James Taylor, for his

insight and ideas in broadening my perspective towards my work His patience in reading

my thesis is greatïy appreciated.

1 wish to thank Amita Sinha, professor fiom University of Illinois, for her giving me so

many good advises. 1 could not have written this thesis without their support.

Special th& must go to my former classmate Kathe Gray, for her reading my thesis and

indicating the grammar mistakes. 1 am indeed grateful to her editonal comments.

Last but not least, 1 want to give my thanks to my husband Michael, for giving me the

initial idea of this research, and also for his constant encouragement and patience.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

.......................................................................................................... 1 -1 B A R 1 ............................................................................................. 1.2 PROBLEM STATEE~~ENT 2

1.3 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................... 3 1.4 SIGNIFICANCEOFTHESTUDY ....................................................................... 3 1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS ............................ .......................................... 4

2-0 LITERATURE REVIEW ~ œ œ œ m m œ . o m m o œ œ œ œ o œ œ ~ œ ~ œ ~ o œ œ m m œ œ œ o m œ œ œ œ o œ ~ œ œ œ o œ m œ m œ o œ œ m œ œ œ m œ m œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ m œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ m o 5

.............................................................................................. 2.1 BASIC HUMAN NEEDS 5 2.2 CONCEPTOFHOUSING ...................................................................................... 7 2.3 MEAMNGS OF HOME ................................................................................................ 8

..................................................................... 2.4 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF HOME 10 ........................................................................................... 2.4.1 Territorial mode1 11

................................................. 2.4.2 Social-Psychological mode1 .............. .... 12 .............................................................................................. 2.4.3 Cultural mode1 13

2.5 THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG BASIC HUMAN NEEDS, CONCEPTS OF HOME AND ............................................................................. FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF HOME 14

2.6 COURTYARD HOUSING ........................................................................................... 15 2.6.1 Evolution of four types of urban courtyard housing ..................................... 16

................................................................ 2.6.2 Courtyard house and environment 19 .......................................................... 2.7 PLIC CATIONS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW 20

3.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................. 22

......................................................................... 3.1 I ~ I T R O D U ~ O N 22 ............................................................................................ 3.2 R E S E A R ~ METHOD 2 2

................................................................................ 3 .2.1 Assessrnent Framework 22 3 .2.2 Data Collection ................................. ,. ............................................... 23 3 .2.3 Data Organization and Analysis ..................... .. ........................................ 25

4.0 RESEARCH FINDINGS... ..................................................................................... 27

.................................................................... 4.1 FAR EASTERN COURTYARD HOUSING 27 ... ................................................ .................... 4.1.1 Beijing courtyard house .... 27 4.1.2 Indian courtyard house ................................................................................ 34

........................................................................... 4.2 ISLAMC COURTYARD HOUSING 39 .............................................................................. 4.2.1 Baghdad courtyard house 39

4.2.2 Cordoba courtyard house .................................................................... 4 4 4.3 TRADITIONAL WESTERN COURTYARD HOUSING .. ...................,............... . . . 48

4.3.1 Greek courtyard house ............................................................................... 48 ................................................................................ 4.3.2 Roman courtyard house 51

4.4 CONTEMPORARY COURTYARD HOUSING ........................................................... 54 4.4.1 Los Angeles courtyard house .......................... .. ........................................ 54

................ ............-.--......... 4.4.2 Northem European courtyard house ....... 60 4.5 SUMMARIZATION OF FOUR TYPES OF COURTYARD HOUSING ................................ 65

4.5.1 Far Eastern courtyard housing ....................... .. ......................... 6 5 4.5.2 Islamiccourtyardhousing ...................... .. ................................................. 68

4.5.3 Traditional Western courtyard housing .................... ... ........................... 7 1 ................................................................. 4.5.4 Contemporary courtyard housing 74

........................................................................... 5.0 ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION 78

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 : Relationships among human ne&. concepts of home and fiindamental elements .............................................................................................................. of home 15

Table 2: Framework for assessing courtyard housing ...................................................... 23 Table 3 : Relationships between influencing elements and courtyard housing fo rm ......... 86

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 : Maslow's hierarchy of needs .............................................................................. 7 Figure 2: Evolution of four types of d a n courtyard housing ......................................... 17 Figure 3 : Conceptuai foms of courtyard houses .............................................................. 19 Figure 4: Research area in this study ................................................................................ 21 Figure 5: Research method flow ch art. .............................................................................. 24

................................................................ Figure 6: Building sections aEect urban space 25 Figure 7: Beijing courtyard house section drawing ............................................ .. ........ 28

........................................................... Figure 8 : Beijing courtyard house with three units 29 Figure 9: Colored painting on the eaves of corridor ......................................................... 30 Figure 10: Outer and inner quarter of courtyard ............................................................... 30

............................................................................... Figure 1 1 : The symbol of ba-gua 1 ... ............................................................................................... Figure 12 : Beijmg hu-tung -33 Figure 13 : Typical residential street of JaisaImer ............................................................. 34 Figure 14: The layout of typical courtyard houses in Jaisalmer ....................................... 35

.......................................................................... Figure 15: Courtyard house in Jaisalmer 35 Figure 16: The square of Mandala ........................ ....... ............................................ 36 Figure 17: Jaisalmer street facade of an urban house ....................................................... 38

................................................................ Figure 18 : Section through the Baghdad house 39 Figure 19: Ground floor plan of typical Baghdad courtyard house ................... .. ......... 40 Figure 20: Baghdad: Northeast corner of courtyard ......................................................... 43 Figure 21 : Section drawing of Cordoba courtyard house ................................................. 44 Figure 22: Main floor plan of Cordoba courtyard house ................... .... ......... ..... 4 5 Figure 23 : The layout of courtyard houses in Cordoba .................................................... 45 Figure 24: View of courtyard nom arcade .......................................... ......................... 47 Figure 25: Section drawing of ancient Greek courtyard .................................................. .48 Figure 26: Plan of Greek peristyle house ......................................................................... 49 Figure 27: Section drawing of Roman atrium house ....................................................... 1 Figure 28: Plan of Roman atrium house ................... ....... ............................................. 3 2 Figure 29: Los Angeles: Section drawing of Villa Primavera house ............................... 55 Figure 30: Los Angeles: Ground-floor plan of Villa Primavera house ............................ 56 Figure 3 1 : Doorway to the center of courtyard ......................... ... .................................... 57 Figure 32: Los Angeles: View fiom street to courtyard ................................................... 59 Figure 33: Section drawing of an L-shaped courtyard house in northem Europe ............ 60

Figure 34: Complex courtyard housing in Bntain ............................................................ 61 Figure 35: Plan of an L-shaped houe in Germany ......................................................... 62

............................................................................ Figure 36: View of L-shaped courtyard 64 Figure 37: Site plan of courtyard houses .......................................................................... 80 Figure 38 : Climate control in courtyard housing .............................................................. 82

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Set in the midst of the universe, people reqyïre a space of peace and seclusion.

This space, where people receive a share of day and night, sun and moon, heat and cold

and r a i - is the "courtyard" (Blaser, 1985). Ranging fiom the Far East to the

Mediterranean, American and Islamic world, courtyard housing is found in many parts of

the world, in widely varying cultures and different cclimctic zones. It is tnily universal as

it satisfies basic human needs and gives people the feeling of being at home. Courtyard

housing plays an important role in human's d w e h g history- Understanding what factors

influence the courtyard housing fonn is of importance to a better living environment. In

recent years, many factors have been found by researchers, such as basic human needs,

cultural and environmental eiements.

Housing design must satis@ basic human needs. Maslow in bis book motivation

and personality (1970) developed human needs into five steps, fkom lower to higher

levels. Higher needs cm not be met until needs of the previous Ievel are satisfied. James

S. Duncan brought a common social-psychological perspective to bear on the study of the

house and its relation to the self and the nature of the social order (1982). Furthemiore,

Roderick J. Lawrence in his book Houring, hel l ings and Homes (1987) identified those

cultural, social and psychological variables that can be used to examine houses and

domestic Me in ternis of an historical perspective. Although the field of housing research

has been active with al l these discussions and debates, very little research has been fomd

to relate both the house fonn and the above issues. In this area, there is a need for more

in-depth research.

The design and use of houses reflects certain cultural and social values. Global

development of technology giva us a chance to look at different culture in the world and

massive immigration has resulted in culturai exchange more fiequently. Understanding

cdtuiitl factors and the design form and use of houses become more important, but most

previous studies of housing have tended to focus on the theoretical relationship of design

to social and psychological theory (Duncan, 1982; Lawrence, 1987). This study explores

the relationships of human needs, cultural and mviroammtal factors and the courtyard

house through a study of design form.

1.2 Broblem Statement

The courtyard house has a long history. Many researchers have done shidies of

courtyard houses over the years. For instance, Werner Blaser examîned the roIe of

courtyard house form throughout the past five thousand years of human history (Blaser,

1985). Duncan Macintosh gave us a sense of modem courtyard house fonn in northem

Europe and North American (Macintosh, 1973). Such approaches, iike many others, only

focused on discussions of history and architechual fonn. Little research has been done

associating courtyard-housing fonn with design and social theones. There are many

questions that need to be answered in thi-s area, such as how do cultural traditions support

courtyard-housing form? How does environmental factors influence the courtyard-

housing form? And how might an understanding of these cultural and environmental

differences benefit architects and landscape architects in contemporary design? We need

more in-depth research in this field.

1.3 Goals and Objectives

Based on the questions identified above, the goal of this study is to understand the

urban courtyard housing form as a response to basic human needs, culture and the

environment, In so doing, we can understand how human needs, culture and environment

adapt courtyard form and how courtyard form responds to human needs, culture and

environment. To reach this goal, the following objectives were established:

1. To undexstand basic human ne& and social concepts of 'riome";

2. To iden- the architectural fom and typical landscape elements of traditional

and contemporary urban courtyard housing;

3. To compare traditional foms of urban courtyard housing; and

4. To compare traditional and contemporary forms of urban courtyard housing.

1.4 Signiiicance of the Study

The research in urban courtyard housing is not only about architectural fom.

Elements, such as site planning and vegetation are also very important in this research.

As this study consolidates a body of knowledge about how the courtyard forxn is

influenced by human needs, culture and environment, it can benefit both architects and

landscape architects.

Quite different with previous studies, this research links both architectural

theories and forms. The cultures examined include Far Eastern, Islamic and western. In

each culture, two examples in different countnes have been chosen for this study. In

broader terms, the key elements of each type of h a n courtyard housing have been

identified. It makes the comparison more clear and helps form a better understanding of

the relationships between culture* environment and courtyard forms.

Housing design can not be isolated h m history. From the study of history. we

can see that the culture meets basic human needs. This study also makes a comparison

between traditional and contemporary urban courtyards so that it can benefit architects

and landscape architects În contemporary design.

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

The initial phase of this thesis consists of a review of literature that covers the

general context of the study which including basic human needs, concepts of home and

fiindamental eIements of home. The second phase of the research involves the

development of an analfical bmework that both identifies the architechiral form and

landscape elements of traditional and contemporary urban courtyard housing, and

analyzes the courtyard form as it responds to basic human needs, cultural influences and

the physical environment. This is achieved through the description of two examples in

four merent cultural contexts. Analysis and discussion are in the next phase. A

summary of research findings, limitations of the study and recommendations for future

research are presented in the finai phase of the study.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter provides a summary of literature relaihg research undertaken by

researchers in Merent fields. The review begins with a discussion that puts human basic

needs into a contextual fkameworlc, then explores concepts of home and culture. This is

followed by an introduction to the fhdamental elements of a home. The evolution of

selected urban courtyard housing, including the definîtion and philosophy of courtyard

housing, summarizes the chapter.

2.1 Basic Human Needs

As humans, we need to eat and drink every day; we need a place to stay safe and

warm. Fuahermore, we also need love, fkeedom, and the feeling of achievement. These

are al l human basic needs.

Maslow in his book Motivation and Personality (1943) summarized basic human

needs into five steps; fkm lowest to highest these steps are: physiological needs, safety

needs, love needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs.

Physiological needs: Physiological needs are the most dominant of all other

needs, which includes shelter and food needs. A person who is Iacking food,

safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly

than for anything else. In other words, if al l the needs are unsatisfied, and the

organism is then dominated by the physiological needs, ai l other needs may

become simply nonexistent or be pushed into the background.

Safety needs: If the physiological needs are relatively well gratified, there

then emerges a new set of needs - safety needs. Safety needs include security,

stabilïty, dependency, protection, and fieedom fiom fear, need for order,

structure, law, Iimits and so on. AL1 that has been said to the physiologicai

needs is equally true, although in less degree of these desires.

Belongingness and love needs: lfboth the physiologicd and the safety needs

are fairly weil gratXed, there will emerge the need for love, affection and

belonging. Ln resent decades, mobility, urbanization and loss of community

have been detrimetal in attainulg these needs,

Esteem needs: This is the desire that ali people in our society have to have

self-respect or self-esteem. These ne& can be classified into distinct two

sets. The h t set includes the desire for strength, for achievement, for

adequacy, for mastery and cornpetence, for confidence in the face of the

world, and for independence and fkeedom. The second set includes the desire

for a good reptation, respect fiom other people, status, fame and glory,

recognition, importance and dignity. Satisfaction of esteem needs leads to

feelings of self-confidence, worth, capability, and adequacy, of being useful

and necessary in the world.

Self-sictuakation needs: Even when al l the fkst four needs are satisfied,

people c m often find that a new discontent and restiessness will develop. To

ultirnately be at peace with oneself. one must do what one is fitted for. Self-

actualization refers to huma. desire for self-Mllment, to reach one's

potential.

Accountlng to Maslow's theory, higher needs can not be met uti l needs of the

previous level are satisfied- These needs change as comfoa in each level is achieved.

Steps fkom lower to higher Ievel can be presented as figure 1.

I - -

Esteem Level4 I

I Belongîngness and Love Level3 l

- -

Physiologïcal Level 1

FIGURE 1. UQSLOW'S hierarchy of neeak

2.2 Concept of Housing

Shelter is a basic human need because people need safety fiom the outside world

and protection fiom the elements, However, housing is not only shelter, it is much more

than just a structure to keep people safe and warm. Setha M. Low (1989) in her study of

housing conceptualized this in three ways. First and most simply, housing refers to those

physical structures that shelter people in the pursuit of thek private iives. The physical

structures give people the feeling of safety and privacy. Second, housing can be

conceptuaiized as a system of settings within which certain activities take place. Because

the dwelling and its parts are Lùiked to many other settings - the neighborhood and the

city - houses represent many cdturally-related activities and human relationships.

Fhally, housing is denned as part of the built environment in which particular activities

take place. The environmentai quality of housing cm be desmbed as an environmental

quality profile-

Culture is an important element in housuig design. Culture is defined by Low

(1989) as a complex term concephializes as " a way of Mie typicd of a group. it is a social

structural patterns of human behavior, it is a system of schemata transmitted

symbolically; it is a way of cophg with the ecological setting". Overdl, Me-style is the

most usefid concept in considering the relation of housing to culture- Across cultures

activities occur in many different settings with diffaent Mages and separations between

them, and with different axnounts of enclosure or opemess (Rapoport, 1982). Shce

culture can be reflected so strongly in housing design, we must consider people and th&

activities as important influences on houshg design.

2.3 Meanings of Home

Housing cm be seen as a physical forxn of home. Since home is not only a house,

it occurs on any Level of existentid space such as neighborhood, town, city, country, etc

(Sixsrnith, 1986). When housing satisfies basic human needs, it can be seen as a home.

Understanding the meaning of home is very important to this study.

Home can be seen as a center of emotional significance, of familiarity and

belonging (Sixsmith, 1986). Recently, home has also been proposed as 'a crucial site of

cultural activity and cultural expression7' (Altman, 1975). Carole Despres (1 99 1)

identified the following behavioral interpretations of home:

Home as security and control refers to home as the sole area of control for

the individual and its abiiity to provide a sense of physicai security. Usually

people in dinerent age and gender categones have different needs in this

regard. Adults prefer spatial control and social supervision, as well as children

prefer fiedom of action, and physicai and emotional security.

Home as renection of one's ideas and values indicates that people tbink

about their home as a symbol of how they see themselves and want to be seen

by others- People express their interests and character through furniture,

decoration and objects in the dwelling.

Home as acüng upon and modlfying one's dwelüig emerges h m the

process of controihg and acting upon one's environment. h other words,

people's physical, financial, and emotional involvement can be seen in their

dwelluig unit. Home provides a place for self-expression and a sense of

achievement and control.

Home as permanence and continuity is a temporal process that cari be

experienced through a period of the . Home provides a sense of belonging to

its occupants and indicates a connection with past experiences. It is a place

that gives people special mernories.

Home as relationships with famiiy and friends refers to home as a place

that strengthens and secures the relationship with the people one cares for.

Home provides an atmosphere of social understanding, MfUing people's

needs for share ideas and happiness with others.

Home as center of activities focuses on the home as purposive entity. A

home supports work and leisure activities.

Home as refuge fkom the outside world means that home is haven or

sanctuary to humans. It is a place to release outside pressures and to control

the level of its occupant's social interactions.

Home as incikator of personai statos means that a home can show its

occirpants' social StatuS.

Home as materiai structure refers to the concrete physical dimensions of the

home, including the physical characteristics of the neighborhood, the size and

spatial organization of the d w e h g unif as well as the senrices and facilities

available within the dwelling.

Home as a place to own is associated with positive experience of home as

fieedorn of action, controlled space, and permanency.

2.4 Fundamental Elements of Home

Despres (1991) defined the concepts of home used by people to talk about their

home without any indications on the forces that have shaped those meanings. She

identified three human theoretical approaches commonly used to interpret the function of

home: territorial model, social-psychological model and cultural model. These

fiindamental elements of home are presented by différent researchers and have been

adopted for use in this courtyard housing study.

2.4.1 Territorid mdel

The concept of temtoriality is generally understood as a sewother boundary

rnechanism that mvolves personalization or marking of a place or object, and

comrnlmication that it is "owned'' by a person or a group (Altman, 1975). Withui the

temtory of a home, occupants are allowed to exert control over the space. In other words,

the territorial approach gives priority to the dennition of the spatial bouudaries of the

dwelling. The essentid territorial components are s e c e t y , control, personalization, and

identity-

Security includes both psychologïcal security and physical security, or

protection. Both forms of s e c e are obtained in the home, and also in its

individualized cores (Porteous, 1976). Such as a dwelhg with high

surromding wails gives people the feeling of security.

Control is secured by two major means. The personalization of space is an

assertion of identity and a means of e n d g stimulation. The defense of

space is the means by which stimulation is achieved and security assured

(Porteous, 1976). Control can involve asking permission to enter the home of

another by knocking on the door or ringing the bell.

Personalization promotes both sec- and identity and may confer psychic

security on the occupant of a home (Porteous, 1976). Personalization could be

reflected in color schemes, tree planting, and even garden sculpture.

Identity means that people tend to identify themselves with certain objects

and attempt to preserve this sense of identity in their everyday lives

(Bretherton, 1985). When the object to which one is attached is a place, we

have "place-identity" (Proshansky, 1983), and when it is a place which is

central to the individual concemed, we have "home" (Tuan, 1980).

2.4.2 Social-PsychoIogicaI model

This model defines the home as a symbol of one's self @espres, 1991). Based on

Maslow's theory of human needs, the most elementary hc t ion of the home is to provide

a roof over one's head A shelter answers the human need for physical securîty and

health. The home can then provide psychological cornfort in temis of quietness, light,

cleanliness, etc (Appleyard, 1979). On the other hand, home plays an important role in

people's self-defïnïtion, acting as a dialogue between them and the larger comrnunity

@espres, 1991). This model is founded on privacy and social status-

Privacy is among the most powerfûl theoretical concepts that have been used

to explain the meaning of the home as refuge (Despres, 1991). Privacy needs

involve a desire for controllhg intrusions fiom neighbors in terrn of

surveillance, noise, and property control; for fkeedom of action; for solitude

within the home (Finighan, 1980). Sometimes, It also gives people the feeling

of isolation.

Social status is a human need that can be reflected by the home. Usually, the

exterior of the home transmits infoxmation about the household's social

position in terms of economic and professional status (Despres, 1991). It is

decoded through the characteristics of the house and its location, such as the

material character of the home, housing and landscaping styles, as weU as

decoration styles (Duncan, 1985).

2.4.3 Cultural model

Culture plays an important role in housing design. Because Me-style is the most

usefûl concept in considering the relation of housing to culture, and human activïty is

signifïcantly related to built form, the design and use of houses reflect certain cultural

characteristics. Needless to Say, homes are not merely physical amfacts but cultural

products (Mazumdar, 1997). The culturai model considers religion, tradition, dady

routine and gender,

Reiigion is a factor that influences the environment people seek (Rapopot,

1982). According to Errhgton (1979), home is "symbolically represented the

cosmos and mirrored intergroup social relations". Religion provides direction

to housing design, involving in the site planning, architectural form, room

arrangement and its landscape.

Tradition provides direction of design for contemporary circumstances by

providing contuiuity with the past (Rowe, 1989). In the architecturai field,

traditional patterns reflect the means of iivelihood of their occupants, the

relationships between one group and another, and the relationships of people

within caste, occupational, and ethnic groups as weli as between such groups

(Lang, 1989)-

Daily routine is related to things that regularly have to be done in the home. It

refers to the reoccurring character of the everyday activities (Despres, 199 1).

Everyday activities contriiute to the establishment of the home, and give

people the experience of being at home (Seamon, 1985).

Gender relates to physiological and perceived differences between men and

women. Space can be arranged in different ways to accommodate gender

dinerences, particuiarly as dictated by religion and tradition.

2.5 The Relationships among Basic Haman Needs, Concepts of Home and

Fundamental Elements of Home

We have discussed basic human needs, concepts of home and firndamental

elements of home in this chapter. However, these are not isolated. Home is a place to

satisQ human needs and human needs can be translated into housing needs. Fundamental

elements of home respond to these needs.

Physiological needs are the most dominant of all other needs. The need for

comfort and food help us to conceptualize home as a refùge fkom the outside word. The

fimdamental element of privacy also corresponds to these needs.

Applied to the concept of home, the need for safety can be seen in a home as

secunty and control and as a place to own. Secwityy control personalization and identity

all respond to these needs.

Belongingness and love needs can be mderstood as permanence and continuityy

as relationships with family and tnends, and as a center of activities. Personalization,

daily routine, religion and tradition respond to these needs.

Esteem needs relate home to a rdection of one's ideas and values, as acting upon

and modifying one's dwelling, and as an indicator of personal status. The fimdamental

elements of identity and social statu respond to these needs.

The relatiomhips among basic human needs, concepts of home and fundamental

elements of home can be understood as descrïbed as table 1.

Human Basic Needs 1 Concepts of Home 1 Fundamentrl Elements of

Safety needs

Belongingness and Love needs

Esteem needs

Table 1. Relationships among basic human needs, concepts of home and fûndarnental elements of home

-

Home as refbge fkom the outside world Home as security and control Home as a place to own Home as refbge h m the outside world Home as permanence and continuity Home as relationships with f d y and &ends Home as center of activities Home as reflection of one's ideas and values Home as acting upon and modifying one's dwelling Home as indicator of erso on al status

2.6 Courtyard Housing

Home Food Shelter Security Control Personaiizatioa Identity Privacy

Personalization Religion Daily routine Tradition

Identity Social status

The courtyard, with distinct boundaries, Lunited access to other landscapes, and

manicured plants, is one of the most controlled forms of landscape, and the landscape

most intimately related to buildings (Reynolds and Lowry, 1995). It is defined by the

Oxford English dictionary as "an open area surrounded by walls or buildings within the

precincts of a large house, castle, homestead, etc."

The couriyard house is also cded the atrium house or the patio house, AtRum

refers to the central hall or court of a Roman house. It is commonly used as a covered

space located in the center of the building and Iighted by a siryüght or wide windows

£kom the sides (AL-Hussayen, 1995). A patio is defined as an b e r court in the Spanish or

Spanish-Amaicm home, open to the sky (Oxford English dictionary).

2.6.1 Evolution of four types of arbm colirtgud housing

The evolution of urban courtyard housing introduced in this section includes Far

Eastern, Islamic, Greek and Roman, and contemporary courtyard houses. Figure 2

presents the histork evoIution of seIected urban courtyard h o d g in this study.

The courtyard has been a major housing element for many centuries. The eariiest

courtyard Oouse was built in India and China, aromd 3000 BC (Blaser, 1985). Beijing

courtyard housing dates back to 800 years ago, which is the typical courtyard housing

Spe in China. The typical home of Beijing is an extremely well guarded place. Every

family forms a Little community in itself that reflects the social structure of ancient China.

hdian courtyard housing impiies its cuihiral elements and the housing form responds to

the climate. The philosophy of these courtyard houses influenced the later urban

courtyard house in other countries of Asia Indian courtyard housing has a significant

influence on south Asian dwellings, such as Singapore and Indonesia courtyard housing.

Later Japanese courtyard gardens also reflect the philosophy of early Chinese courtyard

gardens.

Basically, the courtyard house was a town house in the civilizations of early

China, Greece and Rome. The f5st courtyard house in Greek was built in the 4h or 5"

centuries BC. From the nfth centmy BC, the Greek hall-type house was gradually

replaced in urban areas by the perktyle house, which is a Greek adaptation of the oriental

urban courtyard house (Schoenauer, 1981). The penstyle house reflects the internai

structure of the Greek family.

Chinese courtyard house 3000 BC

Japanese courtyard garden

South Asian courtyard

and Roman

t atrium house 400-500 BC 1

courtyard I house 300 BC

Baghdad courtyard

762 AD

& Cordoba c o u r ~ ~ d house 700 A D

L Spanish courtyard house 700 AD

Los Angeles patio house 1890-1930 AD

North European courtyard house 1928-1932 AD

Figure 2. Evolution offour types of urban courtyard housing

The Greek courtyard house had a rnarked influence on the Roman atrium house.

The typical Roman urban house that emerged during the Late Roman period had two

rectangular interior court gardens, the smaller called the atrium and the Iarger named the

penstyle (Schoenauer, 1981). The foxm of the Roman atrium houe irnplies its social

structures.

The traditional Islamic courtyard house 'ketains a l l the intriusic elements of the

Ur house. Reputedly the home of Abraham, Ur was located close to the confluence of the

Euphrates and Tigris rivers, close to the low hills near the edge of the Arabian Desert"

(Schoenauer, 1981). The concept of Ur courtyard house was developed during 2400 to

2300 BC. Ur courtyard house codd be retained and developed by the Moorish later

because of '"Be plan is a lasting solution to d a n We. The house is insulated agahst the

bustle of the street, defended against marauders, and protected against the fierce climate"

(Cantacuzino, 1969).

Although the religion is very diffèrent, the philosophy of Islam absorbed the

Greeks and Romans. At the time of the Moorkh conques remains of a nch Roman

culture were stil l present, and the Moors introduced their culture into Mediterranean

cities (Lehrman, 1980). As the Moors arrived in Spain in the 7" century, Cordoba became

the religious and cultural center of Spain and northem Anica (Lehrman, 1980). The

architecture in Cordoba became Moorish style, and the courtyard house became a major

type of urban house.

The patio house was first introduced into northem America by the Spanish in the

period of 1890-1930 (Macintosh, 1973). Mer the United States had taken possession of

California, the new settlers began to revive the Spanish Colonial style of architecture, and

built many of their larger homes with patios (Macintosh, 1973). Even today, some

architects are using certain elements of Spanish Colonial architecture to develop modem

architecture, including the patio.

The new a b house in northem Europe relates to a historical precedent.

However, most of contemporary courtyard houses were built &er the World War 1 and

are quite diffierent fkom any of the old Mediterranean type (Macintosh, 1973). Higher

population densities and more interesthg fomis have ken achieved by building L-shaped

and U-shaped courtyard housing*

The concept of each type of courtyard housing is presented in the foIlowing

figure.

Beijing courtyard Indian courtyard Baghdad courtyard Cordoba courtyard

Greekperktyle Roman ahium Los Angeles patio North- Ewopean courtyard

Figure 3. Conceptuaï forms of courtyurd houses

2.6.2 Courtyard hoase and environment

Housing design responds to climate and respects physical environment (Fisher,

1982). An understanding of environmental elements can provide tools for creating - thermaily cornfortable habitats for people. Temperature and humidity bot . strongly affect

the thermal cornfort of people and the energy use in buildings (Brown and Gillespie,

1995). It is very naturai that in hot, humid climates, housing design will try to avoid sun

exposure and facilitate coolhg by prevailing winds. In cold climates, the design of

housing wili try to maximize solar heat and avoid winter wïnds.

Microclimate is an important element affecthg human thermal cornfort and can

be modined through design @rom and Gillespie, 1995). Microclimate components,

such as humidity, d a t i o n , wind, and precipitation are ofien slrictly controiled or very

stable indoors, whereas outdoors these elements are highly vari-able (Brown and

Gillespie, 1995). Control of these cm be achieved by the use of mateds, the pattern of

housing, site location and landscape design. Housing characteristh, such as the size of

windows and doors varies from place to place depending upon the local climate. Also,

landscape elements can affect terrestrial radiation in a microclimate as a fimction of their

ability to absorb and hold solar radiation, and their ability to emit terrestn-al radiation

(Brown and Gillespie, 1995).

2.7 Implications of the Literature Revîew

The literature review has revealed that a home satisfies and responds to basic

human needs. Courtyard housing is in wide use around the world, and the courtyard

housing forrn responds to local culture and environment.

There are some researches in courtyard housing that have been done in the past

years. Werner Blaser in the book Atrium introduced the history of c o m d housing by

showing pictures and drawings. John S. Reynolds and William P. Lowry examuied the

Cordoba courtyard house nom different views, exploring the relationships among

esthetic, social and technical elements in courtyard housing form. Amita Sinha had done

similar study in Courtyard DweZZings in India- In this study, Sinha examined Indian

courtyard housing by cultural roles. Furthemore, Duncan Macintosh introduced the

modem courtyard house in North Aumica and northem Europe.

AIthough many research on courtyards have been done over the years, there has

been a lack of attention intepting knowIedge about courtyard housing form, culime, and

environment This study focuses on a c o m p ~ n of courtyard housing forms in different

cultures and environments, bas& on the context of basic human needs and concepts of

home. Figure 4 points out the research area in thÏs study.

Courtyard housing is found in many parts of the world, raaging h m west to east,

north to south. In widely varying cultures and dinerent cIimatic zones, the courtyard-

housing form reflects local culture and environment. This study of courtyard housing

foim, culture and environment is to improve understanding of the relationships between

them. This can benefit architects and landscape architects in contemporary design.

/ Basic / . \-ch Of Home

Figure 4. Research area in this study

The purpose of this chapter is to detail the research methodology of the courtyard

housing in different cultures. This chapter introduces the background of the research, then

describes the research method, including assessrnent hewor lc , data collection, data

organization and analysis.

3.1 Introdactioa

This study has been undertaken in three phases: reviewing the Literature,

developing a framework for assessing courtyard housing forms, and analysis of findings.

Details of the research methodology are presented in this section.

The Literature review is based on the data available, covering four types of

cultures around the world. The second part is to compare the findings. As outlined in the

research goals and the objectives, this cornparison focuses on the cultural and

environmentai influences,

The last part is data anaiysis. The research questions such as how cultural

traditions and environment factors support courtyard fom and how this understanding

benefit architects and landscape in contemporary design are answered in this phase.

3.2 Research Method

3.2.1 Assessrnent Framework

The framework of this study is based on the literature review presented in Chapter

2. Territorial, social-psychological, cultural and environmental factors will be examined

as a fiamework for the cornparison of courtyard housing forms. Each element of the

fiamework for assessing courtyard housing can be describeci in Table 2. Through a

literature review of selected courtyard houses based on the framework, we get the general

characters of these types of courtyard housing, then make a cornparison among them.

Results and conclusions are fkom this analysis (Figure 5).

Temtorial factors

Social-psychological factors

security control personalization identity privacy social status

cultural factors

Table 2- Framework for Assessing Courtyard Housing

3.2.2 Data Coliection

reiipioa tradition daily routine gertder

Environmental factors

The database of urban courtyard housing in Merent cultures has been derived

fkom the literature review. Four types of urban courtyard housïng, Far Eastern, Islamic,

traditional Western, and contemporary courtyard houses, are examined in this study as

they reflect different cultures, as well as they are the most influentid types in the

evolution of courtyard housing. In selection specinc examples, d courtyards were not

considered because they are inherently dinerent in inction and context.

For each type of courtyard houshg, examples of two Werent geographic areas

are described. Based on the data available, examples fkom Beijing, Indian, Baghdad,

Cordoba, Greek, Roman, Los Angeles, and northem European courtyard housing have

been selected for this study. These examples represent four types of cultures. Beijing and

Indian courtyard houshg foms represent Far Eastern culture, which is inauenced by

Buddhism; Baghdad and Cordoba courtyard housing f o m represent Islamic culture;

Greek and Roman courtyard housing forms represent traditional Western culture, and Los

climate

Angeles and northem

housing forms.

courtyard housing represent contemporary courtyard

Goals and objectives

1 Literature Review 1 Courtyard Housing Forms Fundamental elements of

Selection of examples History of courtyard housing

General characters of four types of courtyard house

Framework (Based on literature review)

Analysis Compare urban courtyard housing in different cultures and envlronments Compare traditional and contemporq urban courtyard housing

Conclusions Finding conclusion Limitation of study Fume research

Territonal Social-Psychological Cultural Environmental

t

Figure 5. Research Method Flow Chart

Drawings in same scale L

The research goal of tbis study is to explore the relationships between basic

human needs, culture, envitonment and the courtyard housing fom. In order to meet this

goal, the description of courtyard housing focuses on territorial, social-psychological,

cultural and environmentai factors. Oniy climate has been examined as an indicator of

environment, because it is the most infiuential element in the courtyard houshg form in

this section. Other environmental elements may also influence the housing form, such as

drainage and soil type, but they are not examinexi in this study due to the Iack of available

data..

Figure 6. Building sections ~ e c t urban space Qbier, 1979, page 24)

3.23 Data Organization and Analysis

The cornparisons of courtyard forms in

different cultures are based on both drawings

and description. As drawings can clearly show

the architectural fomis of courtyards, for a

better understanding of the comparisons, the

drawing of the courtyard housing forms in the

same scale has been a m j o r research method.

This technique was used by Rob Krier

to analyze urban space. In the book Urban - Space, Krier defined space as "geometrically

bounded by a variety of elevations". He

classified urban space into two basic fomis: the square and the Street. They are a i i formed

by the surrounding buildings. In order to explain how building sections affect urban

space, Krier showed a group of section drawings in the same scale, but in different forms,

creating different urban spaces (Figure 6). He also dlustrated elevation drawings

displaying how building elevations influence urban space. Then he showed a series of

basic forms of urban spaces. The relatiombip between urban spaces and smrounding

buildings are clearly presented.

Perspective drawings are also fiequently used in Kner's book that shows various

forms of urban space. These drawings are good examples of how to present mass and

space. The same technique is used in this study to explore the refationships among the

courtyard housing fomi, the culture and the environment. Same scale plans, sections or

elevation drawings are presented to gïve a better understanding of the relatiomhips.

Perspective drawings are also used in this study to show the mass and form of courtyard

housing.

This chapter presents the research findings deriveci h m the research method-

Four types of urban courtyard housing, Far Eastern, Islamic, traditional Western and

conternporary courtyard houses, were investigated based on a hmework which included

temtorial, social-psychologicai, cultural and environmental factors. Drawings and

descriptions are the analytical methods of this chapter.

4.1 Far Eastern Courtyard Housing

Courtyard housing in the Far East has long history, and it is st i l l the traditional

house form in many Asian countries. There are several reasons for the acceptance in the

Orient courtyard housing: it pemiits the greatest densiîy; it is suitable for the local

climate; and it embodies religious elements. In this section, Beijing and Indian courtyard

housing have been chosen for this study as it is still a major form of residence in these

two locations,

4.1.1 Beijing courtyard bouse

Since Beijing became the formal capital of the Yuan Dynasty (13" century),

courtyard house began to appear alongside the palaces, offices, and neighborhoods (Ma,

1997). The typicd courtyard house is an extremely weli guarded place, and every famïly

formed a little communïty of its own. The construction of these courtyard houses is

unique, and is representative of traditional Chinese residential construction: greenish

bricks, gray tiles, post-and beam structure with masonry panels (Ma, 1997) (Figure 7).

The one-storey courtyard housing is also called the Hu-tung house in Beijing. Hu-

tung is a residential street which is formed by the outside waiis of courtyard houses and

links up with trafnc routes. The lots of the courtyard houses extend back between 60 to

70 meters (Blaser, 1979)-

Figure 7. BezJing courtyard house section drmvUg (ûased on Schoenauerr 1981)

4 . 1 1 Territorial factors

The typical courtyard house in Beijing is a wded compound consisting of several

buildings surrounding one or more courtyard. The courtyards are laid in sequence, dong

the north-south axis (Schoenauer, 198 1). Rwrns are arranged independently on four sides

and are iïnked by corridors. The only iink to the outside world is a simple doorway. Such

a closed form is suitable for a single family to live in (Figure 8).

According to Courtyard Home of Beijing (Ma, 1997), couriyards with two or

more units are divided into two parts - the imer quarter and the outer quarter. The outer

quarter serves for the reception of guests; the inner quarter is intended to accommodate

the women and girls of the f d y .

The organization of the courtyard house resembles the traditional Chinese f d y - structure. The south building adjacent to the Street side and facing north is the lest

important, often used as seNice room or kitchen. The side buildings, opening to east or

west direction are for the unrnamed children and married sons with theu families- The

main building at the rear of the courtyard, with openings facing south, is the most

important, and is occupied by the head of the f d y -

Personal character is reflected in plantings and decorations in the courtyardS.

Decorations are often seen in carved waiis and roofs. Brick carving is widely adopted; the

upper part of the main entrance is usually decorated The subject involves plum flowers,

orchids, bamboo, grass, pines, fortune and happhess (Ma, 1997). Doors and windows are

1 W . 1 nu-~ung

rom

Figure 8. Beijing courtyard house with fhree units (based on Ma, 199 7)

also important parts for decorated.

Colored painting îs another form of

decoratioa Paint is applied to protect

afl revealed wooded parts. Columns are

ofien painted in red, while doors and

wîndows are dark green. The eaves of

corridors are often painted with trees,

flowers, and historic stories (Figure 9)-

Plantings are important

components in courtyards. Two trees

are often planted in fiont of the main

rooms. The trees can be Chinese

flowerhg crabapple, Mac, jujube, and

pomegranate (Ma, 1997). Flowers and - gras cover the &round, and a large fish

bowl is ofien set in the center of

courtyard. In this courtyard, dweilers

can enjoy flowers in s p ~ g , f i t s in

autumn.

4.1.13 Social-psychologicaî factors

Enclosure and opening is the bdamentai principle of Beijing courtyard house.

The courtyard is open to the

occupants of the house and

compietely closed agauist the outside

worId. Extended families live here in

isoIatlon fiom the outside, Only

firiends and relatives are aiiowed to Figiae 9. Colored painting on the eaws of '-

corridor (based on Mà, 1997, page 3 7) enter the private inner quarter of the

home. A stranger is ailowed to corne into the entrance hall only, and guests can be invited

into the outer quarter G u and Wang, 1996) Figure 10).

A spirit walI located on the main

- HU-T~ng

* J ~ ~ ~ i ~ - . - - - - - ~ - - -

Figure 10. m e r md inner quarter of courtyard (Blmter. 1979. pagel2)

entrance prevents direct views nom outside, so

passengers can not see the courtyard fiom the

Street. This highüghts the pnvacy of the

courtyards. The spirit wall is also an impomt

decorative part of the courtyard as it is the first

sight to people entering the home.

The Beijing courtyard house expresses - the social statw of its occupants. AU the

components of the building reflect the owner's

economic status and social position. Wedthy families usually have two or more

courtyards, and the main gate of courtyards directiy reflects the person's rank. For this

reason, gates are classifïed in severai ranges, fiom p h c e to normal residence. The

differences are denoted by the gate size, decoration, and constructior~ For example, for a

prince, the gate is much bigger than normal size and has more decoration. There are also

more steps to the entrance than other gates.

4.1 -1.3 Cultural factors

Courtyard housing reflects traditional Chinese culture. From choosing the sites,

fixing the locations and placing fimitute, evcrything is done according to the theory of

Feng Shui. Feng Shui is a traditional Chmese technique which a- to ensure that afl

things are in harmony with their surrounding. Translated directly, it means 'k.ind" and

'kater" (Rossbach, 1983).

The significant influence of Feng Shui cm be seen in the site selection of a

courtyard house. According to Feng Shui, a rectangular or square shape is the best. The

south side should be open, allowing the sun's rays to enter and warm the house- A

t --- -- Figure I I . Ine symbol of ha-gua

compass is widely used to help selecting the

positions of the central axis of the house, the

main entrance and doors of different rooms.

The main entrance is often set at the southeast

or noahwest corner. People belïeve that good

selections cm bring gwd fortune to the - residence.

Feng Shui is often combined with the

Ba-gua principle Figure 11). Ba-gua is an a d e t with mystical powers, used for

deciding the location and size of roorns, for example, placing the washroom at the

southwest corner, and the kitchen at the east or southeast corner.

The courtyard is an outdoor living room. It is a place for daily activities, such as

readingy eating playing or just relaxin& especiaily for women. In ancient China, womai

did not have the fkeedom to go out into the outside world. Wornen were confbed within

the courtyard, so it became almost the only place to connect them to nature.

4.1 .l.4 Environmental factors

Beijing is at the northeast of China It is hot and rainy in SuIzlIller and cold and d r y

in winter. The design of courtyard house fits its local cIimate. The courtyard space is big

enough to allow d g h t into rooms directly in winter. In summer, big trees provide cool

shade for the residence. The comdor around the courtyard affords protection agauist sun

and min. It is also a place to rest and enjoy the scenes of courtyard.

The site plan of courtyard house uses a north-south am-S. This layout is suitable

for northern climate as it cm avoid winter winds h m West or northwest. Rooms facing

the south are most favorable, as they are warm in wùiter. U d y , two trees are planted in

fiont of these rooms, so they can still keep cool in summer. Rooms facing north are the

least important and often served as storage room or guest rooms.

Beijing courtyard house is harmonized in design and reflects Chinese philosophy

of Buddhist (calmness, humanity and tolerance). It has been a major type of residential

dwelling in Beijing for several hundreds of years and was a symbol of Beijing. It also

deeply influenced contemporary Chinese architecture.

Figwe 12. Beijing Hu-Tung (based on Schoenauer, 1981, page 190)

4.1-2 Indian courtyard house

The traditional Indian house is essentidy a courtyard dwelhg. A . open enclosecl

area with the d w e b g is found in almost ail parts of the h . y ama in the north of M a .

This can be traced back to the third millennium B. C. (Sinha, 1992). Ancient hdus

civilization inclined toward geometric order in its cities. AU main streets were oriented to

the points of the compass (Schoenauer, 1981). The size of bddings ranged fmm two

room dwellings to palaces. SmaU homes had only one courtyard, whereas the larger ones

had several courtyards. The cluster itseif couid be amorphous, nucleated, or hear

dependuig upon the region (Schoenauer, 1981).

The oriental concept of the courtyard housing still detennines today the physical

fonn of Indian cities such as Jainalmerer Located at the north of India, the typical urban

house of Jaisalmer is attached to other houses on its sides and at the back leaving only a

narrow facade with screened openings exposed to the street (Figure 13). Houses are

arranged in a hear cluster. The streets are nmow and the buildings are on a deep lot

(Schoenauer, 198 1) (Figure 14). The fom and construction techniques allow changes to

be made easily. This is a typical urban dwehg form in the north of India

Figure 13. Typical residential street of hisolnier (Schoenauer, 1981. page 88)

4.1.2.1 Territorhi factors

. - Courtyard houses in Jaisalmer are basicdy attached multistoried townhouses

built of stone wïth one or severd

courtyards. People usually

F W e 11 The làyout of fypicui courtyurd houses in Jaisdmer @ k h ~ e ~ t ( e ~ f 981, pcrge 88)

enclose the land with a boundary

before building a residence. Thus

a courtyard is fonned, usually in

rectangle shape (figure 15). The

co~mection of the courtyard to the

public outdoors is in many cases

through a narrow chamber. The chamber is a spacious s i h g room which leading people

to the courtyard (Sinha. 1992). It is the only link to outside world.

Courtyards with two or more uaits are divîded into two parts - the inner quarter

and the outer quarter. The outer quarter is set in the fkont section of the house and used

Figure I5. Courtyard house fn- ' Jaisalmer (Schoenauer, 1981, Page 90)

for formal activities. Guests can only enter the outer

qurter. The inner quarter is an informal space

reserved for the family.

Most houses in Iaisalmer are built of local - yeliow sandstone and adomed with beautifuly

carved oniaments that reflect the owner's

personalhtion. The stone wails are often

whitewashed, enhancing the shadow eEect of the

facades (Schoenauer, 198 1). Columns, brackets, and

balconies are similar throughout the city, resulting in a pleasing balame-

The planthg species in the courtyard are very Iimited, Withh the house, o d y the

sacred basil plant is fond in the courtyard (Sinha, 1992). Most courtyards are empty

because of space limitations.

4.1.2.2 SociabPsychological factors

Privacy is the key element in Indian courtyard house. The Jaisalmer courtyard is

totally closed to the street at ground fioor levei. Only the entry door opens to the Street, A

platform or porch is adjacent to the outside entrante. The door is blocked by a privacy

wall that prevents direct views h m the street-

Economic status and social position influence the size and location of the

courtyard house. The smallest typicd dwehg has a width of two bays (one bay is the

width of courtyard). With increased width and depth the houses become more luxurious.

4.1.2.3 Cultural factors

The courtyard housing form embodies the Indian cultural traditions. A square

Eut Sun

Earth South Fut Death

Figure 26. The square of Mandala

mandala, a microcosmic version of the

universe, determines the building types. The

mandala is an enclosed sacred space with a

Buddha in the center. The square form with - a network of lines of force running from

north to south and east to west, con- a

void in the center, symbolizing concentrated

energy (Sinha, 1992). This square has four

elements including fke, earth, wind, and water. Four forces of the cosmos - sun, min,

life, and death - are represented dong the elements. The head of Buddha faces the

noaheast, and his feet are in the southwest (Figure 16). The square mandala recommends

the location of the house, the arrangement of each room, and the fiiniiture placement, for

example, it is preferred to locate the dwelljng entrance in the east. The location of the

household shrine is in the northeast and the conjugal bed on the southwest (Sinha, 1992).

The various rooms of the Jaisalrner house are rarely designated for a single

activity. The foilowiug descnis a traditional Jaisalmer home:

Women's activities are centered in the chaupala, traditionaily, a living room, where spinning and weaving too were done, and where the f d y ate their meds or enjoyed th& midday rest Here too in one of the fiont niches the family deities, usually a Devi (India deity) or an impression of Sati's (a deity) palm were enshrined to guard the material goods of the house or safeguard the destiny of the members of the family. In some cases the plan of the ground floor was repeated on the upper story which was connected by a staircase by the side of the chaupala The arrangement of the upper store varied slightly. There was an open terrace for sleeping in summer and a chitrasali, with balcony and arched niches over the ova, which served the purpose of a bed and drawing room, As the name signifies, it was usually decorated with paintings of various types and kept scented wîth buming of perfumed oil lamps. The adjoining room called medi was meant for keeping valuables, money-chest and p h t e records or documents. If there was a third story, it was an open terrace ail over the building. Only on one side there was a s m d room for use as a bedroom in rainy season or sumrner nights, furnished with paintings, beds and other toilet equipment (Sharma, 1968, p.65).

Because of the arrangement of rooms around a central open space, the courtyard

becomes the center of all circulation withui the house. It is an important outdoor space,

especidy for women. Most daily household activities, including washing and m g ,

take place in the courtyard. It is also a place for children to play during the day and for

informal family meeting, to take place in the evening.

4.1.2.4 Environmentai factors

Most regions in India are hot and dry year roundd Houses are built close together

sharing party walls. h order to reduce exposure to the sim, courtyards are built namw

and deep, so the courtyard seldom receives sunsIiinee A cornfortable microclimate is

created in the indoor spaces by the building structure-

The courtyard housing fonn in M a varies dependhg upon the region, but

because for religious, cdtaral, m i a l and climatic reasons, they afl keep the basic id-

the center as a void In conternporary W a d w e b g design, we can still see this basic

character-

Figure 17. Juisalrner street facade of un urban house (Schoenauer, 1981, page 92)

4.2 Islamic Courtyard Housing

Islamic courtyard housing has its mots in the ancient urban dwehgs of

Mesopotamia (Schoenauer, 198L). The fom of Islamic courtyard satisfis social and

religious needs. From palaces to nomial urban dwellings, it is a widely adopted residence

style. In this study, Baghdad and Cordoba courtyard housing have been chosen as they

refiect typical Islamic courtyard hooses.

4.2.1 Baghdad courtyard house

Located in the heart of Iraq, the city of Baghdad s t - keeps its Isiamic customs.

Urban houses retain the essential features of the medieval Islamic house: an open center

created by arcades and galleries. It is an essentially courtyard house, usually iu square or

rectanguiar shape.

- -

Figure 18. Section through the Baghdad Rowe (Schoenauer, 1981, page 48)

The architectural features of this courtyard housing are its regular geometrical

shape and smooth w d s devoid of omament (Blaser. 1985) (Figure 18). The building

matenai of this type of house is m-dned brick, and the surface of courtyard is usually

stone, marble, or mosaic (Lehrman, 1980). Vegetation and hard building materiai are

signincantly balanced by water. The courtyard is viewed fiom the surrounding d e

where people can sit and relax.

4.2.1.1 Territorial factors

The typicaf courtyard house in Baghdad consists of severaI rooms mund a

central court (Figure 19). High w d s sul~ound the home, separating it fkm the outside

world The house is divided into two Quarters* the salamilk and the hinsmilk (Schoenauer,

1997). The salamilk serves as the public part of the house for males and their male guests,

while the haramilk is a pnvate place for the famiy. In larger homes these two parts are

separated and have their own courtyardS. In smder homes the separation is vertical, with

the salamilk at the ground floor and the haramillc upstairs surrounding the single

courtyard.

The decoration on the houses covers a large part of the building's d a c e 9 both

Street

Frgure 19. Groundfloor plan of typical Baghdad courtyard house (the salamilk) (Schoenauer, 1981, page 42)

interior and exterior. This decoration personalities the

homes. Islamic ornament is used to define and

emphasize the hctional components. to which it

dates in scale and'character (Lehrman, 1980). Waves?

spirais and loops are the most fiequent patterns. The - patterns are also derived fiom plant parts, such as

waves, flowers and branches, Water is a source of life

and symbolizes punty in the Islamic world. Fountains

or pools are often found in the center of bigger

courtyards, sumomding by potted plants.

4.2.1.2 Social-Psychological factors

The courtyard provides a pnvate, protected space for the inner Me of the family.

Privacy is achieved though architecturaL elements like doors, windows, and walls. W d s

are blank with few openings, partieulady on the side facing the street (Mazumdar, 1997).

Even ifwindows are included, they are often very small and above eye level. To enhance

privacy, a screen wail is ofien located at the entrante, preventing direct view fiom street-

The housing form in Baghdad reflects the social statw of residents. Wedthy

families often have two or more courtyards, one for the public use, and the others for the

family. The smaller homes feature only one courtyard.

4.2.1.3 Cultural factors

The Islamic housing form is strongly influenced by religion and gender factors.

Orientation is particularly important to M u s b s . Those praying are required to face the

direction of Mecca. Houses made to face south or southwest towards Mecca are preferred

(Mazumder, 1 997).

Social life in Iraq is still very traditional. The male is the head of the family.

Women are generally required to remain separate nom men who are not related to them

by blood or marriage (Al-Azzawî, 1969). Consequently women can not be seen by male

strangers. In a f d y , men and women have separate entertainment areas and separate

entrances. Male visitors are not allowed to go any M e r in the house than the salamilk.

Knockers have different sound for male and female visitors, and women in the f d y are

not supposed to see the male guests (Al-Azzawi, 1969).

The courtyard is the focal point of the house and acts as a pnvate social gathering

place for the family, especiaily for women. Daily activities and famiy celebrations take

place here- It is also a safe area for children to play. Because of its central position, the

courtyard becomes the center of all circulation within the house. By all means, the

courtyard meets the need of privacy for ali farnily activities-

4.2-1 -4 Environmental factors

Iraq is very hot and dry in sumxner and mild in winter. The housing design creates

a favorable microclimatic condition in its interior. The houses are grouped closely

together to prevent exposnre to the sim, and courtyards are kept smaU to reduce the

exposed area In bigger courtyards, water fountains, bas&, as well as planted or potted

trees, create a coolhg effect in the courtyard. Arcades provide cool shade for adjacent

rooms. In addition, the courtyard is usually washed at least once a &y to raise the relative

humidity ( A l - m w i , 1969)- These help to keep the extemal environment cool.

Depending on the season of the year and the time of the day, spaces in the house

have different fiinctions. For example, a room that is used as a bedroom becomes a living

room in summer as roof terraces are cooler and more desirable for sleeping- The multiple

use of spaces offers maximum cornfort at any given tirne.

The courtyard housing form in Iraq is strongly influenced by local culture and its

climate. From site planning, the room layout and space use, these requirements are best

met by the courtyard concept. Even today, when new courtyard houses are built with

some Western characteristics, people still prefer traditional Islamic houses.

Figure 20. Baghdad: Northeast corner of courtyurd (bared on Schoenauer, 1981) e

4.2.2 Cordoba courtyard house

Like other Spanish cities, Cordoba urban houses carry Islamic architecture

features. When the Muslims conquered Spain during the 7fi century, Cordoba became the

capital of the Islamic worfd. From 755 to 1031, Cordoba, one of the greatest Islamic

centers of culture, and was calïed the ''Mecca o f the West" Wewton, 1974).

Cordoba houses represent Moorish culture: houses with an endosad courtyard

that emphasizes f d y privacy. It is also a response to a hot-dry climate and a denseIy

urban setting. The architectural detail is strongly Moorish with Spanish modifications

(Figure 21).

Figure 21. Section drawing of Cordoba courtyurd house (Reynol' and Lowry, 1996, page 13 7)

4.2.2.1 Territorial factors

The courtyards in Cordoba are enclosed by walls or buildings, thus formed by,

and integral to, the surromding architecture (Figure 22). Courtyards are usually square or

rectangular. Individual homes are connected by narrow streets and shared w d s (Figure

23). High walls and an iron gate separate the family fiom others. A quiet, cool zaguan (a

doorway fiom street to courtyard) is the cornecion to the outside and creates a contrast

with the noisy street. Unlike the traditional Western courtyard housing, most of the

courtyards in Cordoba are asymmetrical, and many lack arcades on several sides

(Reynolds and Lowry, 1996).

5-, Sm- ,

The Cordoba courtyard is usuaiLy

surfaceci with stone or marble. The w d s of the

building were buüt of rough m a s o q finished

on the exterior with stucco (polyzoides, 1982).

The wntrast of the red tile roof and white

w d s creates a unique streetscape.

Plants and trees in the c0mfya.d soften

the hard d a c e and obstnict the view fiom the

, Figure 22. Main/Iiwrplan of street. Potted plants can be moved in the ! Cordoba cowtyard house (ReynoI&

d L o w r y , 1996. page 136) . - courtyard dependhg on the seasons. As the

focus of the courtyard, water is suppiied fiom a fountain or containeci in a pool.

4.2.2.2 Sociai-Psychologidfacton

The courtyard provides a pnvate space, but aliows a selected vïew from the Street

through the zaguan to the courtyard. A dense concentration of vegetation often stops this

view near the center of the courtyard (Reynolds and Lowry, 1996), so the activities in the

arcades around the courtyard can go on

in privacy. An iron gate is placed inside

the zaguan, preventing pedestrian - passage. However, it aiiows the sounds

of &g water and singing birds to

pass to the street. When more complete

Figure 23. The Iayout of cour@md houses - pnvacy is desired, "solid wooden doors

in Cordoba (îteynolcls and Lowry, 1996, page 136) shut off the zaguan at the side walk.

This is typicdy done at night, and sometima during siesta. This acts as an well-

understood signal: if the wooden door is closed, do not disturb" (Reynolds and bwry,

1996).

The household's social status is hard to detemine fiom characteristics of the

house. Poor and nch ltYe side by side. Sometimes, however, wealthy families have more

valuables in the courtyards, Iike prized roses, rare trees, fountains of costly maten*als

and intrïcate design-

4.2.2.3 Cultural factors

The courtyards are used for mmy activities such as children's play, cooking,

eating, sleeping and hanging clothes to dry. Because the courtyard is at the center of the

dwelling, it permits circulation among the rooms. The arcades around the courtyard ate

highly used during the daytime because of the good views into the courtyard and because

they are better lit by daylight than the rooms behind them. It is a favorite place for

people's reading, sewing, or just relaxing. For this reason, arcades are designed wide

enough for both circulation and for placing chairs, s m d tables, or even sewing machines.

4.2.2.4 Environmental factors

Like other Mediterranean areas, Cordoba is hot in summeer and mild in whter-

The courtyard supplies light and cool air to the surounding rooms thanks to both ninning

water and potted plants. White walls reflect more than half of the sun's radiation

(Reynolds and Lowry, 1996). Arcades separate the courtyard walIs fiom other rooms, and

as a result these rooms are much cooler and much darker.

Courtyard floors also help to cool the air as they "utilize some combination of

earth, dark porous brick, pebbles set in mortar, or unglazed tile. Al1 these hold moisture

and thus increase the tirne ova which evaporative coolhg c m occur" @eynolds and

Lowry, L996)-

Figure 24. View of courtyardfiom arcade (Bosed on Schoemer, 19881)

4.3 Traditional Western Courtyard Housing

Traditionai Western courtyard housing refers to d e n t Greek and Roman

courtyard housing in this study. Cowtyard housing in Greece and Rome were developed

in the 4& to 5& centunes BC. It has long history and has influenced Iater Meditenanean

courtyard housing, as welI as contemporary courtyard housing in northem America

4.3.1 Greek courtyard house

Ancient Greek courtyard houses are single-stoned structures. Larger homes may

have two stories. The homes are built of mud, brick, or stone with floors of hard-packed

earth or mosaic (Schoenauer, 1981). The construction of the wails is brick, the roof

covering is tile and the co1ll~nns and roof-supporthg structure is Iargely stone or wood

(Figure 25).

Figure 25. Section d d g of ancient Greek Courtyard

4.3.1.1 Territorial factors

The central space of the Greek

surrouuded on three or four sides by

courtyard house is the peristyle. A courtyard is -

colonnades, which give access to the adjacent

rooms. Entrance to the centrai courtyard is though a narrow chamber, which is the only

link to the outside world. The house is divided into two parts. The k t part of the house,

that closest to the main entrance, is calied the andronitis while the second part is calleci

. the gynaeconitis. The fornier is designatecl for

r

men and guests, and the latter for women and

>: - children. Normdy, guests c m not go M e r

k ! d

Figure 26. Plan of Greek Penstyie hoüse (Schoenauer, 1982, page 210)

than the andronitis.

The courtyard ground is either hard

paved or hard-packed earth with Lttle

vegetatioe Columns surround the empty

courtyard for daily activities. The completely

closed form gives residents a strong feeling of

control and security (Figure 26).

4.3.1.2 Sodai-Psychologieal factors

Pnvacy is the key element in ancient

Greek courtyard housing. Buildings on four

sides enclose the courtyard, and the only link

to the outside is a narrow chamber. Extemal

walls have few openings and most of windows

open onto the courtyard. This results in street

elevations that are simple and modest A wall Iocated at the entrance screens the -

courtyard' emphasizing the privacy of the house.

The courtyard form reflects the owner's social status. The number of the rooms

and the size of the dwelling Vary according to the wealth of the family. Normaliy wealthy

families have two or more courtyards and smaii homes feature only one courtyard.

Because of the simple design of extemai walls, the social stanis of the occupants is rarely

recognizable by the exterior, though the interior can be lavish.

4.3.1.3 Cultural factors

The preferred Greek courtyard plan is a symmetrical form with the main entrance

on the axis of symmetry- This fom reflects the intemal structure of the Greek family,

especially the role and social position of the woman. In ancient Greece, women seldom

went out, so most household activities such as washing, dqïng, and watchg children

playing took place in the courtyard. Guests can only stay in the andronitis part of the

house.

4.3.1.4 Environmental factors

Like other Mediterranean countries, Greece is hot in summer and mild in winter.

The courtyard is smali and deep, surromdeci by corridors. Houses are grouped together to

prevent exposure to the m. Comdors around the courtyard a o r d protection against sun

and rah, and also creating coohg effects for adjacent rooms.

4.3.2 Roman courtyard house

The typical Roman courtyard house was adapteci h m Greek courtyard housing. It

is characterized by an axial plan with a central halI and open skylight, which began as a

smoke hole and later evolved to a courtyard well and atrium. An ancient Roman

courtyard housing has the foiiowing arrangement,

Facing the entrance way, or fuuces, and across the atrium, the central courtyard, was the tabiinm, orÏginalIy perhaps the main bed-room but later a record depository and reception mm. The principal space of the house was, of course, the atrium. Its fa, end was flanked by two alae, or alcoves. At the rear of the tablinum and accessible through a corridor adjacent to this reception room was an horl~lus, an enclosed garden, no doubt afKording an admirable Vista dong the axial sequence starting h m the entrance, then through the atrium space and the tablinum, and ending in the smaU garden (Schoenauer, 1981, page 229).

Most of the Roman atrium houses are one-story buildings. Viewed h m outside,

they are s m d and similar. The facades are rather simple with few openings toward the

nmow Street and are interrupted only by necessary doors. In contrast, courtyards are

lavishly adomed by fountains, statues and vases (figure 27). The floors are patterned

rnosaic or marble, the w d s are decorated with frescos, and the ceiling thbers are ofkn

gilded (Schoenauer, 198 1).

Figure 2 7. Section drawing ofRoman atrium house (Schoenauer, 1981, page 232)

4.3.2.1 Territorial factors

The typical Roman a h house has two rectangular interior courtyards. The

srnaller one is called the atrium and the Iarger one smounded by columns is the perïsiyle.

The atrium with its surrounding area formed the public section of the house for guests

and slaves, while the peristyle section is a private or f d y quarter. The atrium is Iinked

to the peristyle area by namw passageways or a reception room (Figure 28).

Entrance to the house is o h though a narrow hallway. A wooden h n t door is

usually decorated and carefblly lighted. The door led people to the hallway which opens

into the atrium. The household god is placed in the hallway with a lamp buming in his

honor and guarded by a slave (Schoenauer, 1981).

0 - p - %

Figure 28. Plan of Roman atrium house (Schoenauer, 1981. page 230)

Fountains or statues are often found in the center of

the atrium or peristyIe. The peristyle sometimes serves as a

garden with climbing vines and potted plants. In this

courtyard house, bedrooms and ciining rooms are richly

decorated reflecting the occupant's personal taste.

4.3.2.2 Social-Psychological factors

In Roman atrium houses, courtyards are surounded

by high walls or buildings. External walls have few - openings except the necessary doors. Most windows open

onto the courtyards or onto an enclosed garden in the rear.

This results in a simple and homogenous streetscape.

Social status is reflected in the size of the atrium

house. Wealthy fdl ies have bigger homes, including

atrium, pexistyle and a big rem garden. Smalier homes often lack the rear garden, and the

peristyle serves as a court garden-

4.3.2.3 Cultural factors

In ancient Roman culture, women were encouraged to stay at home, and male

guests normaily could not see female members of the f d y - The house divides into two

sections, the atrium section and the perïstyfe section, to accomplish this separation. The

atrium is a public part of the home and guests can stay in this section ody. The peristyie

section is for family activities. Bedrooms, dining room, living room, and kitchen group

aromd the peristyle courtyard, which provides the source of light and air for these rooms.

The courtyard serves as an outdoor Living room in the peristyle section,

especidy for women. It is almost the only place for women to engage in the outdoor

activities. The courtyard is also a f a d y gathering place and a safe playground for

c hildren.

4.3.2.4 Environmental factors

The Roman atrium house suits Mediterranean climate. In either the atrium

section or the penstyle section, the courtyards are small to avoid exposure to the SUU. In

bigger courtyards, fountain or potted plants cool the hot air and additional shade is

provided by red-dyed veils. AU of these result in a cornfortable indoor environment-

The concept of ancient Greek and Roman courtyard housing is adopted by many

areas, such as Mediterranean couritries, northern Europe and even American couniries.

As weii, in some of Christian churches, the inward-looking form of the Greek and Roman

courtyard house is an important design inûuence.

4.4 Contemporary Coartyard Housing

Contemporary courtyard housing, paaicularly in North Amerka and Northern

Europe, is based on the courtyard houses of ancient Greek and Rome. It is also influenced

by Islamic culture, canying Mediterranean courtyard housing characters.

Most North Americau and norhem European courtyard housing has been built in

this century- Although the courtyard housing in this century relates to its historical

precedents, it is m i r e n t f5om the anCient versions- The basic architecturai unit is not the

individual building but the group. The single building is integrated into the larger context

of the courtyard complex (Blaser, 1985). Contemporary courtyard housing meets the

need for high density housing in urban areas while also enhancing the quality of urbm

Me.

4.4.1 Los Angeles courtyard honse

Courtyard housing is a major urban housing form in sorne areas of North

America, such as City of Los Angeles. Courtyard housing in Los Angeles is supported by

a variety of cultural influences and characteristics unique to the region. It is also called

the 'patio housing" and was h t introduced into northem Amerka by the Spanish. In

about 1895, the new settlers in Los Angeles began to revive the Spanish Colonial style of

architecture and built many of theV homes around a patio (Macintosh, 1973). The 1890s

courtyard housing in Los Angeles is nothing but simple repetitions of the single-family

house arranged in series (Polyzoides, 1982).

The common type of courtyard house in Los Angeles is the low-rise apartment

building up to a three-story limit. Mediterratlean country characteristics are retained:

whitewashed walls with red, burned cIay tiles Figure 29). D m , windows, stair.

porches, bdconies, and foimtains a h carry Meditexranean architecture features.

Figure 29. Los Angelesr Section d r d g of Vi la Pn'muvera house (Pofyzoides, 1982, Page 67)

4.4.1.1 Territorial factors

Courtyard housing in Los Angeles is multiple-family dwelling type. A typical

courtyard apartment building is two or three stories high surroundhg a central open

space. The central courtyard is public open space, which provides both access and a place

for public activities for its residents. The means of access is dehed in different terms.

Pedestrian access is incorporated uito the courtyard, and vehicular access is usually

outside (Polyzoides. 1982). This dinerentiation defines for the dwellings a fiont and a

back, a public and a service side. Parking garages are placed on the senice side of the

dwellings and integrated into the whole design. Dwehgs are arrangeci around the

courtyard, and direct access h m all unïts leads people to the center of the courtyard -

(Figure 30). The passage nom court to building or fiom level to level is always though a

portico, porch, fiont yard, or stairway.

Entrance to the courtyard fiom the street is often though a dark, n m w doorway

(Figure 3 1). The eutrances to the individual apartments are directly kom the courtyard

Fi'gure 30. Los Angeles: ground-/mr plan of Villa Primavera home (Polyzoides. 1982. page 68)

either by individual docm or by stairs to the

upper levels. This definhg of the Ïnterior

court and exterior allows residential control

and creates a strong feeling of temtoriality.

The landscape and building

elements of the courtyard are strongiy

individriallzed, and îhey are always

appropriateci by given dwellings

(Poiyzoides, 1982). Usdly the ground is

divided into a regular pattern that is hard

paved. A fountain is ofien placed in the

middle of the intersecting paths. A canopy

of palms, cypresses, and olives dominate

the courtyard, and the ground plant is fUed

with flowering shnibs. Plants in pots placed on hard surfaces cm be moved depending on

the residents' personal taste.

4.4.1.2 Social-Psychological factors

Uniike other courtyard housing forms introduced in this chapter, courtyard - housing in Los Angeles is a multiple-family. As a result, the center courtyard is reserved

for public use. The courtyard is set apart nom the street by an iron gate. People live

together, isolated in the courtyard h m outside.

Apartments are visually connected by stairs or corridors. Each unit has its own

staïxway to enhance the privacy of each family. Given the space limitations of the court,

buiiding elements express sp&c

realms of activities- Doors,

windows, stairs, wds , balconies,

and arcades are used to express the

appropriate degree of publicity or

privacy of the various parts of the

courtyard yard-

The center courtyard

becornes a public recreation center

in much recent courtyard housing

in Los Angeles. The quiet, pnvate

garden has been replaced by a

Figure 31. Doonvay to the center of courtyard swimming pool. Corridor or (Based on Polyzoides, 1982)

gdery type access to all upper

units, instead of the private entrantes of older building, that has reduced the quality of

privacy (Polyzoides, 1982).

Unlike most courtyard housing in other areas, the courtyard dwellhg in Los

Angeles expresses little perceivable connotation of class or social status (Polyzoides, - 1982). Unially, this multiple-family type dwelling is suitable for workùig glas.

4.4.1.3 Culture factors

Los Angeles courtyard housing is influenced by Islamic, Roman, and Greek

cultures. It is a multi-cultural product. The red, pitched roof with white exterior waii and

central fountain keep Meditemean features. The overall plan is symmetric and the main

enûance is placed on the axis of syrnmetry reflecting ancient Roman and Greek

architecture characteristics.

The courtyard is used in summer as an extension ofground floor living rooms and

is typically furnished with indoor fhiture such as tables and chairs. Tt is a place for

reading, eating, or just relaxïng. The unique mul t i - fdy dwelling fom makes the center

courtyard a social gathering place. The courtyard becornes a recreation center in sorne

new courtyard housing developments. A !nvhming pool in the center of the courtyard

creates a highly public space.

4.4.1.4 Environmental factors

The climate in Los Angeles is &y7 hot in the daytime and cool at night, quite

similar to the ciimate in Mediterranean couutries. Spanish Colonial architecture is

naturally well suited to Los Angeles. The thick adobe w d s and srnail windows keep the

interiors cool. High palm trees and various species of bushes shade the patios, which is

considered a living room in the summer. Running water fiom the central fountaïns cools

the hot air and provides an amenity for the residents.

Los Angeles courtyard housing provides high density housing, and it also

provides a pnvate and cornfortable space for the residents. Palms, flowering shrubs, pot-

plants and fountain compose a unique court garden for both public and private We.

Courtyard housing is a favorable dwelling type and even today, it is stili an active,

valuable ingredient in the Los Angeles environment.

Figure 32. Los Angelesr Viewjbm street to cou-rd @med on Polyzoides, 1982)

4.4.2 Northern Eunipean courtyard house

Like the patio house, Courtyard housing in northem Europe relates to a histoncal

precedent. It is also called "'atrium house" - the word for atrium in Greece means "clear

sky" (Blaser, 1985). The atrium house harks back to the houses of ancient Rome and

Greece. In the housa of classical Rome, the center was replacexi by a pool, which is for

the drainage fcom the roof. The new atrium house in northem Europe daers in several

respects fiom the Roman model, The courtyard house plan could be L or U shaped, with

an asymmetrical image; High wak surround a square or rectangular open space, and the

entrance typically does not lie dong the central axis.

Most European courtyard housing was built after World War 1. It has been built

for smaller families and is a new type of mass housing for lower-income groups. The new

atrium house has been completely modernized and quite different than its Roman

ancestry. 'lt is characterized by the obligate style of horizontal architecture and the

unprecedented unity of the design" Figure 33) (Blaser, 1985). The basic architectural

unit is not the individual building but the group. The single building with its structured

court is integrated into the larger context of the courtyard mmplex (Figun 34).

Figure 33. Section drawing of an L-shaped couriyard houe in northern Europe (Blizster. 1985, page 187)

4.4.2.1 Territorial factors

The type of courtyard house which is being built most in northem Europe today is

the small L-shaped house developed in the years 1928 to 1931 (Macintosh, 1973). It is a

Iow-rise dwelling, ofien up to two stories. L-shaped d w e b g and w d s creat'e a central

open space. Bedrooms are ai l in one wing or upstairs and the Living room is in the other.

The kitchen, bathroom and the entrance Lobby are ùi the corner of the 'Z". The separation

of living room and bedrooms allows most of daily activities to talce place in one wing of

the house while sleep and relaxation take place in the other Figure 35).

Several courtyard houses grouped together creating a central public space with

quiet, low-key environment, as Macintosh said, ''Courtyard houses generate a dense

urban fabric with a clear separation of public and private open spaces" (Macintosh,

Figure 34. Cornplex courtyard housing in Britain (&facintosh, 1973, page 3 9)

1973). This public space senres as a community

center for surroundhg houses. Buildings and

high walls dehe a private courtyard for family

activities, In some cases, a corridor is placed

around the courtyard for circulation of the

house. New rnaterials, such as steel, concrete or

glass, are often used in construction of the new - atrium house.

4.4.2.2 Social-Psychologieal factors

The chief asset of the new atrium house

is its courtyard. It is pnvate, quiet, sunny, and

sheltered fiom the wind- Most of these house are

Figure 35. P h ofmr L- Shaped houre B Germany @las fer, 1985, page 185)

low in stories in order to keep neighbors h m overlook

Less noise wiII travel between courtyards if they are not

directly adjacent to one another, but this arrangement is

in conflict with the need to share party wah (Macintosh,

1973)-

Footpath access to each dwelling give more

- privacy to the h n t door. The entrance is oRen small and

placed at the corner of "L" An intenor wall stops direct

views h m outside. Few windows face the pdestrim

path, but the windows f&g courtyard are oAen large.

These features help modem courtyard housing in

northem Europe m a i n pnvate.

The courtyard houses might be expanded when

the householder can af5ord i t Typically one or two roorns are first built at the h n t of the

plot, and others are added behuid later, creating a courtyard. It gives this type of

courtyard housing a possibility to sene for low-incorne families.

4.4.2.3 Cultural factors

W e it is associated

northern Europe is not really

with an ancient precedent, the modem atriurn house in -

similar to it. The traditional symmetncal plan has been

changed to various shapes, such as L-shaped, U-Shaped or 2-shaped plans. Still it keeps

the basic feature of privacy.

The contemporary courtyard design tries to make indoor and outdoor spaces flow

together. The courtyard is an outdoor living room fùrnished with tables and chairs.

People enjoy sunlight and seasonal changes here. In SuIlllller, it is an extra room to live

in, in winter "it is a Luik between man and nature, bringing the changïxig seasons into the

heart of the house" (Blaster, 1985). It is also a safe place for chiltiren to play.

4.4.2.4 Environmental factors

The ciimate in northem Europe is quite diffefent fimm the Mediterranean area. It

is cold in *ter and mild in summer. Modern courtyard housing has been designed for

northem climates, The courtyard fonn is used to allow sunlight to penetrate into the

house. Rooms c m be aven large windows for more sunlight. To admit the long rays of

the northern sun into the house, the courtyard needs to be wide and open, and the houses

are kept low-stoned to prevent fkom overshadowing each other.

In winter, circulation in the house prefm indoors. The comdors cm be designed

with glass walls to wami and also to allow sunlight into the house. Extemal walls are

s h e d with neighboring houses in order to reduce heat losses. Heat insuration is also

used to keep the house warm.

The contemporary courtyard house is essentially an urban type of dwelling. It

express people's various roles as family member, neighbor and citizen. Grouped together,

"Courtyard houses has a cellular structure which suggests that man is working in

harmony with nature" (Macintosh, 1973).

Figure 36. View of L-shaped courtyard (Based on Macintosh. 1973)

4.5 Summafization of Four Types of Coartyard Hoasing

This summarization is based on the research findings noted earlier- General

characteristics of each type of courtyard house are presented to reach the research

objectives: to ident* the architectural form and landscape elements of traditional and

contemporary urban courtyard housing. The traditional courtyard housing includes Far

Eastern, Islamic and traditionai Western courtyard houses,

4.5.1 Far Eastern courtyard housing

Courtyard housing has a Long history in both Beijing and h d i a Cultural tradition

is one of the major elements determining the coiniyard housing form in these locations.

The courtyard housing forms in these two areas have some similar characteristics because

they share the similar cultural background - Buddhism is the major religion in these two

areas; ciifferences can be seen in the foilowing analysis.

4.5.1 .l Territorial factors

Typical courtyard houses in Beijing and India are suitable for single family

dwelhgs. The courtyards are usually rectanguiar, surrounded by high walls or buildings.

The only link to the outside world nom these homes is through a simple doorway or a

narrow chamber. Typicai courtyards in these two locations are totally enclosed.

Families with two or more courtyards are divided into two parts: the inner quarter

and the outer quarter. Set in the front section of the house, the outer quarter serves as a

reception area for guests. The inner quarter is reserved for the family.

The major building materials are wood and brick in Beijing and stone in

Jaisalmer- Beautifid decoration is ofien seen in these courtyard houses. in Beijing,

painting is the major media used in decoration. Iii Jaisaher, c-ed omaments are more

often seen.

In Beijing, plantings are important components in cointyitrds. Flowers and grass

cover the ground, and two trees are often planted in fiont of the main rooms. Because of

space restrictions, plantïngs in the couriyards of Jaisalmer are limiteci.

4.5.1.2 Social-Psychologieal factors

Privacy is the key elexnent in both Beijing and India courtyard housing. The

courtyards are completely closed against the outside world- A spirit wall or privacy waU

located at the entrance prevents direct views £iom outside, highlighting the pnvacy of the

courtyard-

The courtyard housing of Beijing and Jaisalmer both express the socid status of

their occupants. In Beijing, ail the components of the building reflect the owner's

econornic status and social position. Wealthy f d e s usualiy have two or more

courtyards. In Jaisisalmer, social status idiuences the size and location of the courtyard

house. With increased width and depth the houses become more luxurious. Status is also

indicated by the surface decoration on the buildings.

4.5.1.3 Cultural factors

China and India have the similar cultural backgrounds. Buddhism is the major

religion. The courtyard housing forms carry evidence of their cultural traditions. In

Beijing, everything is fixed according to the theory of Feng Shui fiom choosing the site

to placing firrniture- In India, a square mandala detennines the building type, the location

of the house, the arrangement of rooms with respect to one another, and the placement of

fimiture.

The courtyard is used as an outdoor living room in Beijing. It is a place for daily

activities, especially for women. In India, the courtyard is also an important outdoor

space and is mainly used by woman. Most daily household activities take place in the

courtyard.

4.5.1.4 Environmental factors

The ciimate is quite mirent in Beijing and India, with Beijing being much colder

than India The courtyard ui Beijing is big enough to d o w sunlight into rwms directly.

Southem exposures are most favorable, as they are warm in winter. Planting trees provide

cool shade for these rooms in summer- In India, houses are built close together sharing

party walis. Courtyards are small and deep, so they seldom receives mushine.

From the anaiysis based on territorial, social-psychological, cultural, and

environmental factors, the general characters of Far Eastern courtyard housing can be

summarized as follows:

Temtorial factors

Rectangle shape surrounding by high wails or buildings

Narrow chamber or doorway

Inner and outer quarter

Rich decoration on building surfaces

Social-psychologial factors

The courtyard provides a private place for family activities

Spirit or privacy wall at the entrance gives secured privacy

Courtyards reflect the residents' social status

Cultural factors

Building type and site planning are determineci by either Feng Shui or the

mandala

The courtyard is especially used by women

Environmental factors

The size of Beijing courtyard housing is wide and big but it is small and deep

in hdia

The major differences between Beijing and Indian courtyard housing are the size

and form of the coiutyard. Beijing courtyards are wide and big enough to ailow sunlight

into rooms directly, while Indian courtyards are smaii and deep for cool shade. Because

of size restrictions, these smaller Indian courtyards have few plantings compared to

Beijing courtyards which have many species.

4.5.2 Islamic courtyard housing

Baghdad and Cordoba courtyard housing both reflect Islamic architectural

influences and share many similarities. Because of the culture differences, particularly

since Iraq is a Muslim country, the courtyard housing nom in these two areas also have

many different aspects.

4.5.2.1 Territorial factors

Courtyards in Cordoba and Baghdad are rectangular in shape sunounded by high

walls. In Baghdad, courtyard houses are divided into two parts: the salamillr and the

haramilk. The salamilk is public part of the house in which male residents entertain their

male guests, which the haramilk is a private space for the family. There is not this

separation of space in Cordoba

The architectural features are quite similar. Building materials are usually stone or

marble with nch decoration. Waves, spÏrals and loops are popular surEace treatments in

both areas. These courtyard-housing foms are asymmeical, and a fountain or pool is

often found in the center of the courtyard. Other elements, such as arcades and potted

plants are all major features in both courtyards, auother reflection of Islamic architectural

characteristics.

4.5.2.2 SociaI-PsychoIogîcal factors

The courtyards provide private space in Baghdad and Cordoba, however, the

degree of privacy is different- In Baghdad, the courtyard is totally closed nom the

outside. Walls are blank with few openings on the side facing the street, and a screen wall

is placed at the entrance. In Cordoba, an iron gate is placed inside the zaguau, preventing

pedestrian passage. However, it allows a selected view fiom the street into the courtyard.

In Baghdad, the housing form reflects the residents' social status. Wealthy

families have two or more courtyards and more decoration on the building surfaces. The

smailer homes feature only one courtyard. In Cordoba, the social status of the residents is

instead seen though the valuables in the courtyard such as prized roses, rare nuit trees, or

fountains made of costly materials.

4.5.2.3 Cultural factors

Cultural backgrounds are quite different in Iraq and Spain. Iraq is an Islamic

country. Consequently the housing form is strongly influenced by religious and gender

factors. It is preferred that houses face Mecca Women are generaily isolated fkom men to

whom they are unrelated - this means they cannot be seen by male strangers. As a result,

men and women have separate entrances to the courtyard home. Furthemore, the house

is divided into salamillc and haramik parts; male guests can only enter the salamilk,

while the haramilk is exclusively for the fimily members.

Spain is now a Catholic country Separation of the sexes seldom Muences

housing form. Even though the courtyard housing carries rnany Isiamic architectural

features, the salamilk and the haramilk are not found in Cordoba courtyard bouses. This

difference is a reflection of the evolution of culture fkom Islamic to Catholic.

The courtyard is mainly used by women in Baghdad for household activities and

family celebrations. In Cordoba, courtyards are like outdoor living rooms for reading,

sewing, or relaxing, and are furnished with indoor fimittue. The courtyard is a place of

circulation within the house in both areas.

4.5.2.4 Environmental factors

Baghdad and Cordoba are similar climatically. Baghdad is hotter than Cordoba,

so the houses tend to be grouped closely together to prevent the house overexposure to

the sun. Courtyards are kept mal1 size to reduce the exposed areas. Water fountains,

bains, or potted trees can be found in both areits, cooling the courtyards.

4.5.2.5 Summary

The general characters of Islamic courtyard housing can be summarized as

follows:

Temtonal factors

Courtyards are ail in rectaagular shape sunounding by high walls

Building materials are usuaily stone or marble

r Architectural features include nch carved decoration, asymmetricai forni,

central fountain, arcades and potted plants. Waves, spirais and loops are the

most often seen patte- on the building d a c e s .

Social-Psychological factors

The courtyard provides a pnvate space

The courtyard housing fomi reflects owner's social status, as do the contents

of the courtyard

Cultural factors

The housing forrn is strongly influenced by religion and gender factors in

M u s h corntries

Environmental factors

Water fountauis, basins, or potted trees in the courtyards create a coohg

effect

The size of Cordoba courtyard is bigger than Baghdad's

Baghdad and Cordoba have different cultural backgrounds particularly with

regard to religion. This ciifference results in different housing forms, although Cordoba

courtyard housing is also strongly influenced by Islamic architecture. CLimate is another

factor influencing the form.

4.5.3 Traditional Western courtyard housing

Because the Roman atrium house was derived fiom the Greek peristyle house,

and the climates in these two areas are similar, so the forms of Greek and Roman

courtyard housing have very similar characters. They are one-story buildings with simple

facades and lavishly adomed interiors- The courtyards are surxounded on three or four

sides by colonnades. The most common building m a t a s are mud, brick, or stone-

4.5.3-1 Territorial factors

Both Greek and Roman courtyard housing is characterized by an axial layout that

feahires a central hall and open skylight. The house is divided into two parts. In the Greek

peristyle house, these two parts are called the andronitis and the gynaeoconitis.

Andronitis is a public part, while the gynaeoconitis is for f d y activities only. In Roman

atnum house, these two parts are calleci atrium and peristyle sections. Each section has its

own courtyard; the perktyle section is private, while the atrium is used for more public

functions. Entrance to both houses is gained though n m w haliway or chamber.

4.5.3.2 Social-PsychologicP1 factors

These homes are characterized by simple building facades. Extemal wails have

few openings and most of windows open onto the courtyard. The courtyard is surr~unded

by high wails or buildings, and the only link to outside is a narrow chamber or doorway-

Social status is reflected fiom the size of house, particularly the number of the

rooms and courtyards. Wealthy familes have more courtyards and bigger homes. In the

Roman atrium house, wealthy homes often have a big rear garden as weU.

4-5.3.3 Cultural factors

Ancient Greek and Roman culture requires that women stay at home; male guests

normaily do not see female members in the family. The house is divided into two

sections; one for public use, the other is for family activities.

In the Greek perktyle house, the courtyard is for household activities. Vegetation

is very limïted. In the Roman atrium house, the courtyard serves as an outdoor living

room. Fountains and potted plants are often seen in these courtyards.

4.5.3.4 Environmental factors

Greece and Rome are Mediterranean countries. The courtyard is kept maLi size to

reduce exposure to the sun. Comdors around the courtyard afftord protection against sun

and min, aiso creating cooling effécts for adjacent rooms. In the Roman atrium house,

fountain or potted plants cool the hot air and additional shade is provided by red-dyed

veils.

4.5.3.5 Summary

The generd characters of traditional Western courtyard houshg c m be

summarized as foilows:

Temtorial factors

Courtyards are rectanpuiar in shape, often surrounded by colonnades

Narrow chamber or doorway

b e r and outer quarters

Building facades are simple but interiors are lavishly adomed.

Social-Psycholo~cal factors

The courtyard provides a private place for f d y activities

Privacy walls at the entrance secures the privacy

Courtyards reflect the occupant's social status

Cultural factors

The courtyard is mainly used by women

Environmental factors

Courtyards are mail and comdors &ord protection fiom SUU and min.

Rome and Greece have the similar cultural background and chates, resulting in

similar courtyard housing fonns. The major dBierence between Greek and Roman

courtyard housing is the different purpose of the courtyard. Roman cotxrtyards are Iike

outdoor living rooms while Greek courtyards are used solely for household activities.

4.5.4 Conternporuy courtyard housing

Los Angeles and northem European courtyard housing are products of rndti-

cultural societies, though there are ciifferences between them. Los Angeles courtyard

housing is a traditional Western housing style that folIows historical precedent. Northern

European courtyard housing is completely modem and makes few historical references.

Los Angeles courtyard housuig is used for mult i - fdy dweliings, while northern

European courtyard housing is intended for single family use. The diflerences result in

quite different housing forms.

4.5.4.1 Territorial factors

Contemporary Western courtyard housing cornes in various shapes, încluduig U-

shaped, L-shaped and the more traditional rectangular shape. In Los Angeles, as the

courtyard is a multi-family unit, the central courtyard is a public space, which provides

both access for residents and a reah for public actlvities. Entrance to the courtyard fiom

the street is often though a dark, narrow doorway.

In northem Europe, most contemporary courtyard housing is L-shaped house.

Buildings and high w d s define a private courtyard that is for f a d y activities. Bedrooms

and living rooms are grouped at the end of the two wings. The proximal layout of several

courtyard houses creates a central public space that serves as a cornmunity center for the

neighborfiood,

In Los Angeles, the architectural features of courtyard housing still retain much

Mediterranean character, including the red tile roof and white walls, the arcade around

the courtyard and the central fountain as a focus in the courtyard. By contrast, northem

European courtyard housing is quite dlfferent- New materials, such as steel, concrete or

glas are often used in tbis new atrium house.

4.5.4.2 Social-Psychologicai factors

Privacy is the common characteristic in both couriyard forms. ln Los Angeles,

building elements express an appropriate degree of opemess or privacy. Doors, windows,

stairs and arcades are used to express specinc realms of activities. In northem Europe,

privacy is achieved though architectural features such as footpath access to fiont door,

small entrantes and few openings dong the pedestnan path.

Contemporary courtyard housing expresses Little in tenns of the class or social

stahis of its inhabitants. Most of contemporary courtyard housing is built for the workùlg

class in urban settings. It rneets the need of housing many people in a relatively small

area.

4.5.4.3 Cultural factors

Los Angeles courtyard housing is flavored by a Mediterranean influence, as can

be seen by the white walls with red pitched roof, and central fountains. The overall floor

plan is symmetric with the main entrance is pIaced on the axis of symmetry as in ancient

Roman and Greek courtyard homes. Noaheni European courtyard housing has few

historical references- The traditionai symmetrical plan has been changed to various

shapes, such as L-shaped, U-Shaped or 2-shaped layouts.

The common courtyard is used as an outdoor living room in both Los Angeles and

northem Europe. It is ofien furnished with indoor fbmiture such as tables and chairs. The

courtyard is an ideal place for people to enjoy the changing seasons, and is also a safe

place for chi1dren to play.

4.5.4.4 Environmental factors

The c h a t e in Los Angeles is quite diflierent fkom aorthern Europe. The former is

similar to Meditenanean climate, while the latter is defïnitely a northem climate. In Los

Angeles, courtyard housing features thick adobe walls and small windows to keep the

interiors cool. Runnuig water and potîed plants create cooiing effects in the courtyard. In

northern Europe, rooms have large windows for more sunlight. The courtyard is wide and

open. Adjacent buildings have few storïes to prevent overshadowing

4.5.4.5 Surnmary

The general characters of modem courtyard housing can be summarized as

follows:

Temtorial factors

Courtyard housing has various shapes such as L-shaped, U-shaped and

traditional rectanguiar shape

The center courtyard is for public use in multi-family dwelling type

In northem Europe, the basic architectural unit is not the individual building

but a group of buildings. Courtyard houses are arranged so that a community

open Face is formed between them

Social-Psychological factors

Courtyards provide a private space

Social status of the residents can not be seen in the housing form

Courtyards meet the need of pmviding open common spaces in high density

urban settings

Cultural factors

Cultural traditions and religion seldom innuence the contemporary courtyard

housing fom, though these elements deeply influence traditional courtyard

housing form

Courtyards are used as outdoor living rooms

Environmentai factors

The courtyard housing has small windows in Los Angeles and using the

central fountain cool the air, while northern European courtyard housing has

large windows

There are many dinerences between North Amencan and northem European

courtyard housing. Contemporary courtyard housing in northem Europe is completely

modem, and the form satisfies social needs in contemporary society. Climate is another

detennïning factor.

5.0 ANGCYSIS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter andyzes the research findings outhed above on the impact

territorial, social-psychological, cultural, and environmental factors have on the design

and function of courtyard housuig. The chapter includes the comparison of traditional

forms of courtyard housing based on temitoriai, cultural, social-psychological, and

environmental factors, as weii as the comparison of contemporary and traditional

courtyard housing.

5.1 Territorial Factors

In al l types of courtyard housing, the courtyards are isolated f?om outside and

surrounded by high walls or adjacent buildings. This dennition of inside and outside

courtyard gives people a sense of security-

Far Eastern, Islamic and traditional Western courtyards are all rectangular in

shape. Contemporary courtyards take varies forms. This variation provides ffexibility

needed in urban settïng, and c m accommodate a growing population while providing low

cost housing for the working class.

5.2 Social-Psychologkal Factors

Privacy is a key element in all types of couriyard housing, though the privacy is

more important in Far Eastern, IsIamic and traditional Western courtyard houses. These

three styles of courtyard houses have spint or screen wails at the entrantes to ensure

privacy. Houses are also divided into outer and b e r quarters. h contemporary courtyard

houses, there is usually a choice view into the courtyard.

Courtyard housing that unplies the owner's social status is characteristic of Far

Eastern, Islamic, Roman and Greek cultures. In these areas, a person's c h s or caste is

very important As a results the buildings are rich in decoration in order to reflect the

social status of the householder. Other architectural features, such as the number and size

of courtyards, the size of entrance and the number of steps also be used to express the

residents' social status- By contrast, social status of the residcnts cannot be seen fiom the

contemporqr courtyard housing forms.

5.3 Cultural Factors

Far Eastern, Islamic, and traditional Western courtyard housing foms are deeply

influenced by cuitural traditions, while religion is an important element in the cultural

traditions. In the Far East, building f o m and site planning are determined by Feng shui

or mandala- In the Islamic world, it is prefmed that houses face Mecca.

Gender ciifference is another important element determining the courtyard

housing form. Far Eastern, Islamic, Roman and Greek cultures require that women are

kept separate h m men who are not related to them. To accommodate this, the courtyard

housing is divided into h e r and outer quarters, with male guests allowed to enter only

the outer quarter. As women are encouraged to stay at home, the courtyard becomes a

major place for their daily activities.

In contemporary North Amencan and northern European courtyard houses, the

separation of huer and outer quarter does not exist as women have more fieedom in the

societies. Contemporary courtyard housing in northern America carries some vague

references to Christian architectural history, particularly in its ~ymmetric form. But in

northern Europe, religious influence is very hard to see ui contemporary courtyard

housing.

5.4 Environmentai Factors

Environment is ais0 a . important elanent influencing courtyard-housing forms.

The relationships between environment and courtyard housing fonns can be seen though

the cornparison of courtyard housing pians m the same scale (Figure 37).

Beijing courtyard house Indian courtyard house

- Baghdad courtyard house

Los Angeles patio house Gennun L-shuped house

GY& P d t y l e house Roman utnalnum hotrse

Figure 3 7. Site plans of courtyard houses

Figure 37 shows the Beijing courtyard house is bigger than the other styles.

Beijing and India courtyard houses m y have sunilar cultural backgrounds, but since the

climate is very different in both places, the courtyard housing form is dinerent. Beijing is

at the north of China, so the courtyard is big enough to d o w d g h t into mms directly.

Northern Europe is aiso cold in winter. However, becaaus courtyard houses are hi&-

density dwelhgs, the courtyards c m t be kept large. Buildings keep low stories to

avoid overshadowing, and m m s can be given large windows without any loss of

privacy. - By contrast, the courtyards are mail and deep in hot areas, such as Indian,

Baghdad, Cordoba, Greek and Roman courtyard houses. In these areas, exposure to the

sun is avoided by high wails and adjacent buildings. Fou~tains and plants can be used to

create cooling effects, though in very hot areas, because of the Iimiting size of the

courtyards, plants and fountains are hard to see.

Figure 38 shows the section drawings of Beijing and Cordoba courtyard houses

revealing that how climate Muences courtyard sîze-

Beijing courtyurd house

Cordoba couriyurd houre

Figure 38. -Clintate control in courtyard housing

The courtyard offers favorable microcIlmatic conditions to its inhabitants through

the modified size of courtyards, the height of buildings and architectural elements such as

corridors, arcades and haiiways. Moreover, air temperature and humidity cm be easily

modined by the use of plants or water fomtains. This courtyard housing creates a -

cornfortable microclimate for its inhabitants to live in.

Overall, the analysis of environmental factors reveals a relationship between

courtyard housing foms and climate. The courtyard plan works quite dinerently in hot

and cold chates. Climate mainly influences the size of courfyards, but also affects

vegetation, fountains and some architecturai features.

5.5 Summary

An anaiysis of territorial, social-psychological, cultural and environmental factors

elucidates a relationship between the courtyard housing form, environmental and cultural

traditions. The cornparison of Far Eastern, Islamic, traditional western and contemporary

courtyard housing can be summarizeci as foilows:

Temtorial factors

Far Eastern, Islamic and tractitional Western courtyard housing are ail

rectangular, and surrounded by high wds; contemporary courtyard housing

has various shapes.

The entrance of Far Eastern, Islamic, and traditional Western courtyard houses

is often though a narrow chamber or doorway.

Far Eastern, traditional western, and traditional Islamic courtyard housing are

divided into outer and inner quarters, guests c m only enter the outer quarter;

this division of space does not exist in contemporary courtyard housing.

Social-Psychological factors

The courtyard provides a private place for all styles of courtyard housing.

A screen wall is oflen placed at the entrance of Far East, Islamic and

traditionai Western courtyard housing to ensure privacy; in contemporary

courtyard housing, there is u d y a choice view into the courtyard.

The courtyard housing form reflects the owner's social status in Far Eastern,

Islamic, Roman and Greek settings; a resident's social status c m not be seen

fiom contemporary courtyard housing forms.

The merences indicate that privacy is more important in Far Eastem, Islamic

and traditional Westem courtyard housing that the abfity to ùidicate social statu with the

courtyard house is also important-

Cultural factors

Feng Shui or mandala is a tool in determing the fomi of a house in the Far

East. In Islam, it is preferred to situate the house facing towards Mecca In the

Western world, religion seldom influences the fonn of contemporary

courtyard housing.

The courtyard is mainly used by female members of the family in Far Eastem,

Islamic and traditional Westem courtyard housing; in contemporary courtyard

housing, the courtyard acts as an outdoor LiWig room for both gendea.

The ciifferences show that Far Eastern, Islamic, traditional Westem courtyard

housing forms are strongly influenceci by religion, as well as culturally-determined

gender roles. It also shows the separation of women h m public Me where the courtyard

provides the physical section for a woman's social sphere.

Far Eastern, Islamic, and traditional Westem courtyard housing retain their

traditional roots. Cultural traditions deeply influence the courtyard housing fom nom

site planning to architechaal details. As these cultures require that women are isolated

fiom public We, these courtyards are built with great privacy and security.

Environmental factors

The courtyard is open and big in Beijing; by contrast, they are s m d and deep

in Indian, Baghdad, Cordoba, Greek and Roman-

Fountain and planthg elements are often used to create cooling effects in hot

areas.

The relationships between culturey environment and courtyard housing can be

seen in the ma& shown below (Table 3). The matrix shows that secwity and privacy are

the most common elements in ai l of courtyard housing types. In traditional courtyard

houses, temtorial factors deeply influence the housuig forms. Gender piays an important

role in the courtyard housing fomis that are deeply infIuenced by religion and tradition,

and these courtyard-houshg types are easier to control and idene ' giving occupants a

strong sense of belonging. The more difncult is the access to these courtyards, the greater

is their enclosure-

The traditional courtyard housing forms also reflects the occupant's social status.

In those courtyard houses where religion and tradition have Iess or no inauence on the

housing fom, gender is not an influencing factor. As well, in these cultures, the housing

fonn seldom reflects occupant's social status.

The courtyard has two major hctions. It serves as a . outdoor living room for

family activities, such as reading' eating, gathering or just reiaxing. Another function is

for household activities, including cookingy washing, hanging clothes to dry or sewing.

Courtyards used for household activities are mainly used by women. In all courtyard-

housing types, the courtyard is a safe place for children's play.

Climate influences the size of traditionai courtyards. The courtyard house in Los

Angeles is mutt i - fdy type. As well as in northern Europe, courtyard houses are high-

density dweilings. As a result, climate does not influence the size of contemporary

courtyard houes. These courtyard houses respond to climate through the height of

buildings or architectutal elements.

Highly relevant 0 Partly relevant 0 Notreievant

Courtyard housing types

Muencing factors

Territorial factors Security Control

Identity Social-Psycho10 e;icaI factors Privacy Social status Cultural factors Religion Tradition Gender Daily routine

Outdoor living room Household activities ChiIdren's play

Environmental factors

Far Eastern

Traditional

Western

Table 3. Relationships between inauencing factors and courtyard housing fom

6.0 CONCLUSION

6.1 Summary of Research Findings

By cornparing four types of urban courtyard housing. this study explains how

human needs, cultural traditions and environmental factors support and S u e n c e

particular urban courtyard housîng forms.

The comparison suggests that housing design must satisQ basic human needs,

including physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization

needs. Basic human needs are important in creating a '%orne" as they affect shelter.

security, control, personalkation, identity, privacy, and social statu. This prïnciple c m

be applied in housing design in all cultures.

Generaliy, the resuits show that culture deeply influences courtyard housing

foms, and courtyard housing form responds to the local culture. In different cultures, the

courtyard house takes quite d.erent forms, dthough they are all tend to look inward and

provide privacy. Gender has played an important role in courtyard foms influenced by

religion and tradition. While pnvacy is a common characteristic of ali types of courtyard

housing, some types of courtyard housing have more enclosed foms as the culture has

greater respect for privacy.

The study also makes a comparison between traditional and contemporary

courtyard housing. Contemporary courslard housing satisfies the need for lowtost high

density housing in urban areas, but it brings little consideration of cultural traditions into

the housing design. This shows a lack of understanding of the relationship between

cultural traditions and housing forms. Understanding cui tud ciifference is very important

in contemporary housing design, and it can benefit architects and landscape architects in

deveioping contemporary designs.

Environmental factors also influence the fbrm of the courtyard house- The most

significant results can be seen in the size of courtyard, the height of the building, the

architectural details, as weU as vegetation and fountain design. In coIder areas, the

courtyard is bigger to allow sunlight into moms directly- By contrast, in hot dry areas,

courtyards are kept small and are overshadowed by high walls, comdors or foliage to

m o w the high temperatmes.

6.2 Limitations of the Study

The most restrictive Lùnitation of this study Lies in the fact that Little prior research

has been done in this area The examples are based on available data, which is not fidly

docurnented. As secondary data, the published Lterature may not be accurate or complete.

The eight courtyard houses representing four types of urban courtyard housing must be

chosen carefully. The examples should be typical of the urban courtyard housing type

they represent,

The k e w o r k of this study is based on the litmature review. The influencing

factors are derived fiom available secondary data, including territorial, social-

psychological, cultural and environmental factors. There may be other factors or

indicators ùinuencing the courtyard housing for- but they could not be examined in this

study based on available data.

The cornparisons of urban courtyard housing foms in this study are based on

drawings and description. Drawing is a helpfid study tool for the understanding of mass

and space. In this study, the drawing of the courtyard housing forms in the same scale is a

major method to help reach the research goal. Other drawings, such as perspectives,

sections and elevations are dso used. The limitations are that these drawings were

derived fiom secondary data or photos taken by other people, and they represent

particular cases ody-

6.3 Futare Research

Courtyard housing exists widely all over the world. Through this comparison of

different courtyard housing forms, it has been concluded that there is a need to make a

wider-ranging comparison. Further research in this area might include typical examples

of northem f i c a n , South Asian and South Amencm courtyard housing. A wide-ranging

cornparison will allow refiement of the research results.

Due to the lack of available data, the contribution technical considerations make

to the cornparison is very Limited. For example, an understanding of the particular

building structure and materials used for creating favorable microclimates is limited in

this study. Future research in this area should consider the technical component to assist

in the development of the research goal.

Additionally, the contemporary courtyard housing examined in this study focuses

on only two examples, one buiit at the beginnuig of this century, the other in the 1920s

and the 1930s. Much courtyard housing has been built in recent years. One new research

direction may be to compare newer contemporary courtyard housing and early traditional

courtyard housing forms. Research in this area will enable us to better understand the

relationship between traditional and contemporary courtyard housing, and to inspire

modem architects and landscape architects in contemporary design.

6.4 Implications For Design

This research shows that culture adapts the courtyard housing form; the courtyard

housing form in hirn responds to cdture and environment. SpecXc design implications

derived fiom this mdy are:

Temtoriai factors

Territorial factors are more important in traditional countries. These factors can be

achieved by high walls surzounding the courtyard, the personalized decoration on the

s d a c e of the buiIdhg, and the vegetation in the courtyard. The entrance of the building

should give guests the feeling of entering the home of another. Furthemore, the

courtyard house can be divided into two parts, one part for meeting guests, and the other

part for family activities.

Social-Psychological factors

Privacy is achieved by preventing fiom neighbors or passengers by overlooking

or peering into the courtyard. Widows of houses are designed to face into the courtyard

instead of to the outside, preventing direct views nom outside. A privacy wall located at

the entrance wiIl also ensure privacy. Social statu can be reflected by the character of

materials and the landscaping of the house, as well as decoration styles.

Cultural factors

Religion and tradition are very important in traditional countries. Designers must

consider them in housing design as they influence site planning9 architectural form to

room arrangement. In IsIarnic countries, housa are prefmed to face Mecca In China or

India, Feng Shui or the mandala must be considered in housing design.

Environmental factors

Housing form responds to the environment. In hot and dry areas, the courtyards

should be s m d and deep. In cold areas, the courtyards should be big and open to aIlow

sunlight into rooms directly. Other elements, such as fountains or plants can be used to

monifi, microclimate.

Design process

Architects and landscape architects should consider basic human needs, culture,

and environment duruig the design process. The big challenge to designers is that

contemporary design must not only satisfy the local culture and environment, but also

provide housing for many people in a Iunited area at relatively low cost, particdarfy for

lower income residents. Through this study, we can see that a better design process wouid

start fiom a comprehensive understanding of human needs, local culture and

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