CHAPTER 16

Religion

ANIMISMIs the belief that humans

share the world with a

population of extraordinary,

mostly invisible beings

E. B. Tylor (1871) – “Armchair Anthropologist” The first anthropologist to

define religion Demonstrated that members of

every society believe in the soul

ANIMISM IS THE SPIRITUAL BELIEF ORIGINATING FROM:

The experience of dreaming in which a phantom

version appears

Sleep, fainting, madness, and death all lead to the

notion of a world of spirits who enter and leave

human bodies at will

Other universal experiences that the soul explains:• Trances, visions, shadows, reflections, and death

The Ancient Egyptians had 2 souls, and so

do man West African cultures: 1 from the

mother’s ancestors and 1 from the father’s

The Dahomey say women have 3 souls and

men have 4: both sexes have an ancestor

soul, a personal soul, and a mawn soul. The

exclusively male 4th soul guides men to

positions of leadership in their households

and lineages

The Fang of Gabon have 7 souls: a brain

soul, a heart soul, a name soul, a life force

soul, a body soul, a shadow soul, and a

ghost soul

A LT H O U G H A N I M I S T I C B E L I E F S A R E U N I V E R S A L , E A C H C U LT U R E H A S I T S

O W N C O N C E P T O F T H E S O U L :

The J’varo of Ecuador have 3 souls: 1st

soul – the mekas – gives life to the body,

2nd soul – the arutam – has to be

captured thru drug-induced visions at a

sacred waterfall, 3rd soul – the musiak –

forms inside the head of a dying warrior

and tries to avenge his death (it is to

gain control over the musiak soul that

the J’varo cut off the fallen warrior’s

head, “shrink it”, bring it to the village,

where it is the focus of rituals designed

to transfer its powers to its captors

Animatism: is the belief in

diffuse impersonal power that

people can control under certain

conditions

Mana: is the possession of a

concentrated animatistic force

that gives certain objects,

animals, and people extraordinary

powers independent of the power

derived from souls and gods

ANIMATISM AND MANA

Robert Marett (1914)

ROBERT MARETT

Complained Tylor’s definition of religion was too

narrow

Introduced animatism to designate a supernatural

force that does not derive its effect from souls

Examples of objects that contain Mana:• An adze that makes intricate carvings• A fishhook that catches large fish• A club that kills many enemies• A horseshoe that brings good luck

Most cultures do not

distinguish between the

natural and supernatural

realm

The question of

whether a belief is

natural or supernatural

may have no emic

meaning

NATURAL & SUPERNATURAL

The Gururumba of the highlands of

western New Guinea, Phillip

Newman noted:• “they have a series of beliefs

postulating the existence of entities and forces we would call supernatural”

• Yet the contrast between natural and supernatural is not emically relevant to the Gururumba themselves

• They believe in using “lusu” to control some processes, a term denoting rituals relating to growth, curing, or the stimulation of strength

MAGIC & RELIGION

Sir James Frazer

“The Golden Bough” –

defined religion

For Frazer, the question of

whether a belief was

religious or not centered on

the extent to which the

participants felt they could

make an entity or force do

their bidding

Religion: refers to beliefs

and actions that are based on

the assumption that the

world is under the control of

supernatural forces that

humans must please

Magic: refers to a practice

intended to manipulate

supernatural forces to

achieve a specific result.

Magic is less spiritual and

less ethical than religion

If participants felt insecure and

humble and were inclined to

supplicate and request favors and

dispensations, their beliefs and

actions were essentially religious

If they though they were in control

of the entities and forces governing

events, felt no uncertainty about the

outcome, and experienced no need

for humble supplication, their beliefs

and practices were examples of

magic

Religion – emphasizes

explanation and is

practiced regularly

R E L I G I O N & M A G I C A R E B O T H S Y M B O L I C S Y S T E M S T H A T H E L P P E O P L E C O P E W I T H

E V E R Y D A Y L I F E

Magic – is a means of

manipulation that

targets specific,

immediate problems,

provides psychological

safety, allowing people

to perform tasks without

being distracted by fear

T H E O R G A N I Z AT I O N O F R E L I G I O U S B E L I E F S & P R A C T I C E S

Anthony Wallace (1966) –

distinguished 4 principal

varieties of religious cults:

(forms of organization of

religious doctrines &

activities)• Individualistic• Shamanistic• Communal• Ecclesiastical

INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTS

Do not make distinctions between specialists and laypeople, “do-it-yourself”

religion

In individualistic cults, all people are their own specialist

Common among Native North and South Americans, individuals acquire a

personal guardian spirit or supernatural protector—typically by means of a

visionary experience induced by fasting, self-inflicted torture, or hallucinogenic

drugs• Inuit: hunters must be vigilant to deal with wandering human & animal

souls, place spirits, Sedna (keeper of the sea animals), the Sun, the Moon, and the Spirit of the Air. Each hunter has his hunting song, a combination of chant, prayer, and magic formula that he inherits from his father or purchases from another hunter or shaman

• Crow: Young men need hallucinatory experience to be successful in love, warfare, horsestealing, trading, and all other important endeavors. In keeping with their code of personal bravery and endurance, they seek these visions primarily through self-inflicted torture.

SHAMANISTIC CULTS

Shamans: are women and men who are socially recognized as having

special abilities for entering into contact with spirit beings and for

controlling supernatural forces

There are broad similarities in the techniques used by shamans to cure

their patients:• Go into a trance by smoking tobacco, taking drugs, beating a drum,

dancing monotonously, or simply by closing the eyes and concentrating• The trance begins with rigidity of the body, sweating, and heavy

breathing• While in the trance, the shaman may act as a medium, transmitting

messages from the ancestors• With the help of friendly spirits, shamans predict the future, locate lost

objects, identify the cause of illness, battle with spirits on behalf of the patient, prescribe cures, and give advice on how clients can protect themselves against the evil intentions of enemies

!Kung: use a method of healing

based on the principle of n/um: healing

energy that originates from the gods• Accessed during an all-night dance• As dancing intensifies, the n/um of

the healers is activated in the healers thru the kia (trance) – is said to boil fiercely within the healer

• In the kia, healers express the wishes of the living by entering into a struggle with the spirits to rescue the souls of the sick

• To become a healer, a person must undergo intense training, by the time they reach adulthood, about half the men and 10% of women have become healers

SHAMANISTIC CULTS, CONT’D.

Tapirape: a village people of central

Brazil, shamans derive their powers

from dreams in which they encounter

spirits who become their helpers• Dreams are caused by the soul

leaving the body and going on a journey

• Frequent dreaming is a sign of shamanistic talent

• Mature shamans, with the help of spirit familiars, can turn into birds or launch themselves though the air in gourd “canoes”, visit with ghosts and demons, or travel to distant villages forward and backward in time

COMMUNAL CULTS

Use rituals to strengthen group continuity by communicating

socially constructed meaning signifying the continuity of the group

Communal rites fall into 2 major categories:• 1. Rites of Solidarity: participation in dramatic public rituals

enhances the sense of group identity, coordinates the actions of the individual members of the group, and prepares the group for immediate or future cooperative action

• 2. Rites of Passage: celebrate the social movement of individuals into and out of groups or into or out of statuses of critical importance to the individual and to the community (examples: reproduction, the achievement of manhood or womanhood, marriage and death)

Rituals: are formal, stylized, and

repetitive acts that are performed in

special, sacred places at set times

Rites of Solidarity: are directed

toward the welfare of the

community, rather than the

individual. They reaffirm the power

of the group, which transcends

individuals

COMMUNAL CULTS, CONT’D.

Rites of solidarity are common among

clans and other descent group

Such groups usually have names and

emblems that identify group members and

set one group off from another

Totems: are objects, such as animals and

plants, that serve as the emblems or

symbols of a kinship group or a person• Members of each group believe they

were descendents of their totem• They refrain from harming or eating

their totem• The group sees their totem as their

companion and protector

COMMUNAL CULTS, CONT’D.

Communal Rites of Passage: are ceremonies that mark changes in a

person’s social position that are of general public concern

Examples of this: birth, puberty, marriage, death

Rites of passage are important public rituals that recognize a wider set of

altered social relationships

The 3 phases of Rites of passage are:• 1. Separation – separated from the routines associated with their

earlier life and prepare to move from one place or status to another

• 2. Transition – Liminal Phase: a temporary ritual state, during which the individual is cut off from normal social contacts to demarcate a contrast from regular social life

• 3. Incorporation – sometimes passage rites are collective, collective liminality, called communitas, creates a community spirit and feeling of togetherness

ECCLESIASTICAL CULTS

Ecclesiastical religion: is found in highly centralized political systems

They have professional clergy or priesthood organized into bureaucracy

This bureaucracy is usually associated with and under the control of a

central temple

At a secondary or provincial temple centers, the clergy may exercise a

considerable amount of independence

Ecclesiastical specialists are formally designated persons who are elected

or appointed to devote themselves to conducting rituals at regular intervals• These rituals usually include a wide variety of techniques for reinforcing

support for the supremacy of the ruling class

RELIGION & POLITICAL ECONOMY: HIGH GODS

The level of political economy influences the way in

which gods are thought to relate to each other and

to human beings

The belief that superordination and subordination

characterize relationships among the gods helps

obtain the cooperation and submission of the

commoner classes in stratified societies

The relationship of religion to structure

and infrastructure can also be seen in the

process known as revitalization

Revitalization movements: occur during

times of change, in which religious leaders

emerge to bring forth positive change

Anthony Wallace defines it as “deliberate

and organized attempts by some members

of a society to construct a more satisfying

culture through rapid acceptance of a

pattern of multiple innovations”

REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS

Most revitalization movements follow

a fairly uniform process:• A society is in the state of

equilibrium• A society is pushed out of

equilibrium by various forces, such as climatic or biotic change, epidemic disease, war and conquest

• The society becomes disillusioned and disorganized

• Social deterioration sets the stage for a revitalization movement to appear in an effort to bring about a more satisfying society

• An individual or group constructs a new, idealistic image of culture that forms the basis for social action

WOVOKANative American Revitalization

Provoked by European invasion and

conquest and expulsion of the Native

American peoples, and the

destruction of their natural resources

The Piute prophet became the leader

of the Ghost Dance: which they

believed would place dancers in

contact with the spirit world and

hasten the time when people would

be reunited with their dead ancestors.

This meant that they would

outnumber the Whites and hence be

more powerful

Emile Durkheim believed the essence of religion is a moral

system that enables individuals to function as coordinated

units

He saw the fundamental psychological aspect of religion as

the elimination of the self and the denial of individuality for

the purpose of the social group, which is greater than the self

Religion is a symbolic representation of society

Religion emerges through the distinction between sacred

and profane• Sacred: is the realm of human experience that evokes an

attitude of awe and reverence• Profane: is the realm of the secular, it is the world of

everyday domestic duties that are essentially utilitarian• Sanctity: is the quality of unquestionable truthfulness

credited by the faithful to unverifiable propositions

RELIGION & SOCIETY

INCEST TABOO

By surrounding incest prohibitions with the aura

of sacredness, the long-term individual and

collective interest comes to prevail, and the

ambiguities and doubts that the individual feels

about renouncing the prohibited relationship are

resolved more decisively than would otherwise be

possible

This does not mean that incest does not occur or

that all psychological doubts are removed but that

such doubts are brought under effective social

control

A tension between short-run and long-run costs

and benefits may also explain the origin of certain

food taboos that are regarded as sacred obligations

The ancient Israelite prohibition on the

consumption of pork:• Pigs require shade and moisture to regulate their

body temperature• Unlike the domesticated ruminants, such as

cattle, sheep, and goats, pigs don’t give milk• Pigs can’t pull carts or plows, nor can they

subsist on grass• With the progressive deforestation and

desertification of the Middle East caused by the spread and intensification of agriculture and stock raising and by population growth, habitat zones suitable for pig rearing became scarce

TAB OOS AGAINST EATING PORK

Hence, an animal that was once reared and consumed as a relatively inexpensive source of fat and protein could no longer be reared and consumed by large numbers of people

THE SACRED COW

The case of the sacred cattle of India conforms to the

general theory that the flesh of certain animals is made

taboo when it becomes very expensive as a result of

ecological changes

With the rise of the state and of dense rural and urban

populations, cattle could no longer be raised in sufficient

numbers to be used both as a source of meat and as the

principal source of traction power for pulling plows

The Hindu doctrine of ahimsa puts the full power of

religion in support of the command not to kill cattle or eat

beef, even in times of extreme food scarcity