Human Cancer: Known Causes and Prevention by Organ Site
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Human Cancer: Known Causes and Prevention by Organ Site IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans and Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Oral cavity Alcoholic beverages Betel quid with tobacco Betel quid without tobacco Human papillomavirus type 16 Quitting smoking Smokeless tobacco Tobacco smoking Pharynx (oro-, hypo- and/or NOS) Alcoholic beverages Betel quid with tobacco Human papillomavirus type 16 Quitting smoking Tobacco smoking Salivary gland X-radiation, gamma-radiation Nasopharynx Epstein–Barr virus Formaldehyde Salted fish, Chinese-style Wood dust Nasal cavity and paranasal sinus Isopropyl alcohol manufacture using strong acids Leather dust Nickel compounds Radium-226 and its decay products Radium-228 and its decay products Tobacco smoking Wood dust Larynx Acid mists, strong inorganic Alcoholic beverages Asbestos (all forms) Opium (consumption of) Quitting smoking Tobacco smoking Lung Acheson process (occupational exposure) Aluminium production Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds Asbestos (all forms) Beryllium and beryllium compounds Bis(chloromethyl)ether; chloromethyl methyl ether (technical grade) Cadmium and cadmium compounds Chromium (VI) compounds Coal, indoor emissions from household combustion Coal gasification Coal-tar pitch Coke production Diesel engine exhausts Gamma-radiation Haematite mining (underground) Iron and steel founding MOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen mustard-procarbazine mixture) Nickel compounds Opium (consumption of) Outdoor air pollution Outdoor air pollution, particulate matter in Painter (occupational exposure as) Plutonium Quitting smoking Radon-222 and its decay products Rubber manufacturing industry Silica dust, crystalline Soot Sulfur mustard Tobacco smoke, secondhand Tobacco smoking Welding fumes X-radiation Oesophagus Acetaldehyde associated with consumption of alcoholic beverages Alcoholic beverages Absence of excess body fatness (adenocarcinoma) Betel quid with tobacco Betel quid without tobacco Quitting smoking (squamous cell carcinoma) Smokeless tobacco Tobacco smoking X-radiation, gamma-radiation Stomach Absence of excess body fatness (gastric cardia) Helicobacter pylori Quitting smoking Rubber manufacturing industry Tobacco smoking X-radiation, gamma-radiation Colon and rectum Alcoholic beverages Absence of excess body fatness Regular physical activity Processed meat (consumption of) Screening with gFOBT Screening with FIT Screening with sigmoidoscopy Screening with colonoscopy Tobacco smoking X-radiation, gamma-radiation Liver (hepatocellular carcinoma) Absence of excess body fatness Aflatoxins Alcoholic beverages Estrogen–progestogen contraceptives Hepatitis B virus Hepatitis C virus Plutonium Thorium-232 and its decay products Tobacco smoking (in smokers and in smokers’ children) Gall bladder Absence of excess body fatness Thorium-232 and its decay products Pancreas Absence of excess body fatness Quitting smoking Smokeless tobacco Tobacco smoking Upper aerodigestive tract Acetaldehyde associated with consumption of alcoholic beverages Uterine cervix Conventional cytology screening Diethylstilbestrol (exposure in utero) Estrogen–progestogen contraceptives Human papillomavirus nucleic acid (DNA or mRNA) testing Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Human papillomavirus types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59 Liquid-based cytology screening Quitting smoking Tobacco smoking Corpus uteri (endometrium) Absence of excess body fatness Estrogen menopausal therapy Estrogen–progestogen menopausal therapy Tamoxifen Ovary Absence of excess body fatness Asbestos (all forms) Estrogen menopausal therapy Tobacco smoking Vagina Diethylstilbestrol (exposure in utero) Human papillomavirus type 16 Vulva Human papillomavirus type 16 Pleura or peritoneum (mesothelioma) Asbestos (all forms) Erionite Fluoro-edenite fibrous amphibole Painter (occupational exposure as) Biliary tract 1,2-Dichloropropane Clonorchis sinensis Opisthorchis viverrini Multiple sites (unspecified) Cyclosporine Fission products, including strontium-90 X-radiation, gamma-radiation (exposure in utero) All cancers combined 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo- para-dioxin Tonsil Human papillomavirus type 16 Anus Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Human papillomavirus type 16 Liver (angiosarcoma) Vinyl chloride Monographs 1-130, Handbooks 1-18, updated 11 November 2021 Agents classified as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) (in red) Interventions with sufficient evidence of a cancer-preventive effect (in green) Group 1 agents with less than sufficient evidence in humans 2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran Polychlorinated biphenyls with a WHO TEF (“dioxin-like”) 4,4′-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline) (MOCA) Alpha- and beta-particle emitters Areca nut Aristolochic acid Benzidine, dyes metabolized to Benzo[a]pyrene Ethanol in alcoholic beverages Ethylene oxide Etoposide Ionizing radiation (all types) Neutron radiation N′-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(N-nitroso-methylamino)-1-(3- pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) Ultraviolet radiation Skin (other malignant neoplasms) Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds Azathioprine Coal-tar distillation Coal-tar pitch Cyclosporine Methoxsalen plus ultraviolet A Mineral oils, untreated or mildly treated Shale oils Solar radiation Soot X-radiation, gamma-radiation Skin (melanoma) Polychlorinated biphenyls Solar radiation Ultraviolet-emitting tanning devices Brain and central nervous system X-radiation, gamma-radiation Absence of excess body fatness (meningioma) Eye Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Ultraviolet emissions from welding Ultraviolet-emitting tanning devices Thyroid Absence of excess body fatness Radioiodines, including iodine-131 (exposure during childhood and adolescence) X-radiation, gamma-radiation Bone Plutonium Radium-224 and its decay products Radium-226 and its decay products Radium-228 and its decay products X-radiation, gamma-radiation Penis Human papillomavirus type 16 Leukaemia/ lymphoma Absence of excess body fatness (multiple myeloma) Azathioprine Benzene Busulfan 1,3-Butadiene Chlorambucil Cyclophosphamide Cyclosporine Epstein–Barr virus Etoposide with cisplatin and bleomycin Fission products, including strontium-90 Formaldehyde Helicobacter pylori Hepatitis C virus Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus Lindane Melphalan MOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen mustard-procarbazine mixture) Pentachlorophenol Phosphorus-32, as phosphate Rubber manufacturing industry Semustine [1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-(4- methylcyclohexyl)-1-nitrosourea, or methyl-CCNU] Thiotepa Thorium-232 and its decay products Tobacco smoking Treosulfan X-radiation, gamma-radiation Urinary bladder Aluminium production 4-Aminobiphenyl Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds Auramine production Benzidine Chlornaphazine Cyclophosphamide Magenta production 2-Naphthylamine Opium (consumption of) Painter (occupational exposure as) Quitting smoking Rubber manufacturing industry Schistosoma haematobium Tobacco smoking ortho-Toluidine X-radiation, gamma-radiation Renal pelvis and ureter Aristolochic acid, plants containing Phenacetin Phenacetin, analgesic mixtures containing Tobacco smoking Kidney Absence of excess body fatness Quitting smoking Tobacco smoking Trichloroethylene X-radiation, gamma-radiation Endothelium (Kaposi sarcoma) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus Breast Alcoholic beverages Absence of excess body fatness (postmenopausal) Diethylstilbestrol Estrogen–progestogen contraceptives Estrogen–progestogen menopausal therapy Mammography screening (50–74 years) Regular physical activity X-radiation, gamma-radiation
Transcript of Human Cancer: Known Causes and Prevention by Organ Site
Human Cancer: Known Causes and Prevention by Organ SiteIARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans and Handbooks of Cancer Prevention
Oral cavity Alcoholic beveragesBetel quid with tobaccoBetel quid without tobaccoHuman papillomavirus type 16Quitting smokingSmokeless tobaccoTobacco smoking
Pharynx (oro-, hypo- and/or NOS)
Alcoholic beveragesBetel quid with tobaccoHuman papillomavirus type 16Quitting smokingTobacco smoking
Salivary gland X-radiation, gamma-radiation
Nasopharynx Epstein–Barr virusFormaldehydeSalted fish, Chinese-styleWood dust
Nasal cavity and paranasal sinus
Isopropyl alcohol manufacture using strong acids
Leather dustNickel compoundsRadium-226 and its decay productsRadium-228 and its decay productsTobacco smokingWood dust
Larynx Acid mists, strong inorganicAlcoholic beveragesAsbestos (all forms)Opium (consumption of)Quitting smokingTobacco smoking
Lung Acheson process (occupational exposure)
Aluminium productionArsenic and inorganic arsenic compoundsAsbestos (all forms)Beryllium and beryllium compoundsBis(chloromethyl)ether; chloromethyl methyl ether
(technical grade)Cadmium and cadmium compoundsChromium (VI) compoundsCoal, indoor emissions from household combustionCoal gasificationCoal-tar pitchCoke productionDiesel engine exhaustsGamma-radiationHaematite mining (underground)Iron and steel foundingMOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen mustard-procarbazine mixture)Nickel compoundsOpium (consumption of)Outdoor air pollutionOutdoor air pollution, particulate matter inPainter (occupational exposure as)PlutoniumQuitting smokingRadon-222 and its decay productsRubber manufacturing industrySilica dust, crystallineSootSulfur mustardTobacco smoke, secondhandTobacco smokingWelding fumesX-radiation
Oesophagus Acetaldehyde associated with consumption of alcoholic beverages
Alcoholic beveragesAbsence of excess body fatness (adenocarcinoma)Betel quid with tobaccoBetel quid without tobaccoQuitting smoking (squamous cell carcinoma)Smokeless tobaccoTobacco smokingX-radiation, gamma-radiation
Stomach Absence of excess body fatness (gastric cardia)Helicobacter pyloriQuitting smokingRubber manufacturing industryTobacco smokingX-radiation, gamma-radiation
Colon and rectum Alcoholic beveragesAbsence of excess body fatnessRegular physical activityProcessed meat (consumption of)Screening with gFOBTScreening with FITScreening with sigmoidoscopyScreening with colonoscopyTobacco smokingX-radiation, gamma-radiation
Liver(hepatocellular carcinoma)
Absence of excess body fatnessAflatoxinsAlcoholic beveragesEstrogen–progestogen contraceptivesHepatitis B virusHepatitis C virusPlutoniumThorium-232 and its decay productsTobacco smoking (in smokers and in
smokers’ children)Gall bladder Absence of excess body fatness
Thorium-232 and its decay products
Pancreas Absence of excess body fatnessQuitting smokingSmokeless tobaccoTobacco smoking
Upper aerodigestive tract Acetaldehyde associated with consumption of alcoholic beverages
Uterine cervix Conventional cytology screening Diethylstilbestrol (exposure in utero)Estrogen–progestogen contraceptivesHuman papillomavirus nucleic acid (DNA or mRNA)
testingHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1Human papillomavirus types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45,
51, 52, 56, 58, 59Liquid-based cytology screeningQuitting smokingTobacco smoking
Corpus uteri (endometrium)
Absence of excess body fatnessEstrogen menopausal therapyEstrogen–progestogen menopausal therapyTamoxifen
Ovary Absence of excess body fatnessAsbestos (all forms)Estrogen menopausal therapyTobacco smoking
Vagina Diethylstilbestrol (exposure in utero)Human papillomavirus type 16
Vulva Human papillomavirus type 16
Pleura or peritoneum (mesothelioma)
Asbestos (all forms)ErioniteFluoro-edenite
fibrous amphibole Painter (occupational
exposure as)
Biliary tract 1,2-DichloropropaneClonorchis sinensisOpisthorchis viverrini
Multiple sites (unspecified)
CyclosporineFission products, including strontium-90X-radiation, gamma-radiation (exposure in
utero)
All cancers combined
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin
Tonsil Human papillomavirus type 16
Anus Human immunodeficiency virus type 1Human papillomavirus type 16
Liver (angiosarcoma) Vinyl chloride
Monographs 1-130, Handbooks 1-18, updated 11 November 2021Agents classified as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) (in red)Interventions with sufficient evidence of a cancer-preventive effect (in green)
Group 1 agents with less than sufficient evidence in humans
2,3,4,7,8-PentachlorodibenzofuranPolychlorinated biphenyls with a WHO TEF (“dioxin-like”)4,4′-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline) (MOCA)Alpha- and beta-particle emittersAreca nutAristolochic acid Benzidine, dyes metabolized toBenzo[a]pyreneEthanol in alcoholic beveragesEthylene oxide EtoposideIonizing radiation (all types)Neutron radiationN′-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(N-nitroso-methylamino)-1-(3-
pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)Ultraviolet radiation
Skin (other malignant neoplasms)
Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compoundsAzathioprineCoal-tar distillationCoal-tar pitchCyclosporineMethoxsalen plus ultraviolet AMineral oils, untreated or mildly treatedShale oilsSolar radiationSootX-radiation, gamma-radiation
Skin (melanoma)
Polychlorinated biphenylsSolar radiationUltraviolet-emitting tanning devices
Brain and central nervous system
X-radiation, gamma-radiationAbsence of excess body fatness (meningioma)
EyeHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1Ultraviolet emissions from weldingUltraviolet-emitting tanning devices
Thyroid Absence of excess body fatnessRadioiodines, including iodine-131
(exposure during childhood and adolescence)X-radiation, gamma-radiation
Bone PlutoniumRadium-224 and its decay productsRadium-226 and its decay productsRadium-228 and its decay productsX-radiation, gamma-radiation
Penis Human papillomavirus type 16
Leukaemia/lymphoma
Absence of excess body fatness (multiple myeloma)
AzathioprineBenzeneBusulfan1,3-ButadieneChlorambucilCyclophosphamideCyclosporineEpstein–Barr virusEtoposide with cisplatin and bleomycinFission products, including strontium-90FormaldehydeHelicobacter pyloriHepatitis C virusHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirusLindaneMelphalanMOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen
mustard-procarbazine mixture)PentachlorophenolPhosphorus-32, as phosphateRubber manufacturing industrySemustine [1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-(4-
methylcyclohexyl)-1-nitrosourea, or methyl-CCNU]
ThiotepaThorium-232 and its decay productsTobacco smokingTreosulfanX-radiation, gamma-radiation
Urinary bladder Aluminium production4-AminobiphenylArsenic and inorganic arsenic compoundsAuramine productionBenzidineChlornaphazineCyclophosphamideMagenta production2-NaphthylamineOpium (consumption of)Painter (occupational exposure as)Quitting smokingRubber manufacturing industrySchistosoma haematobiumTobacco smokingortho-ToluidineX-radiation, gamma-radiation
Renal pelvis and ureter
Aristolochic acid, plants containing
PhenacetinPhenacetin, analgesic mixtures
containingTobacco smoking
Kidney Absence of excess body fatnessQuitting smokingTobacco smokingTrichloroethyleneX-radiation, gamma-radiation
Endothelium(Kaposi sarcoma)
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus
Breast Alcoholic beveragesAbsence of excess body fatness
(postmenopausal)DiethylstilbestrolEstrogen–progestogen contraceptivesEstrogen–progestogen menopausal
therapyMammography screening (50–74 years)Regular physical activityX-radiation, gamma-radiation
