Adjectives

THE LEXICON AND ITS CLASSES Hlya YILDIZ Zehra ERFOLUCeylan AYANEsen AHNIn all known languages, both spoken and signed, the vocabulary of an individual language can be grouped into open and closed word classes.

Open word classes are typically lexical classes and are those where words can easily be added, for instance through derivation or other ways of forming new words, or through borrowing.

Closed word classes are typically functional classes and are those where words are not readily added; while there is change in these classes too, the change is much slower than with open classes.

1. WORD FORMATION There are two main ways for languages to form new lexemes: derivation and compounding. Compounding basically involves amalgamations of lexemes to form a new lexeme. For example, windmill wind + mill

Derivation relies on modifying a lexeme through various morphological processes to form a new lexeme. For example, healthy health and the suffix y

Compounding and derivation are not mutually exclusive. For instance,

Football is a compound foot + ballFootballer is a derivation football + er

a. DerivationDerivational morphology is different from inflectional morphology in that, very generally speaking, inflection carries grammatical information such as number, case and gender, while derivation does not. Derivation only serves to create new words; these new words may then take necessary inflectional morphology

For example, from trap , deriving the word entrapment ,using the prefix -en and the suffix -ment

There are many different ways in which languages can form new words through derivation, and any one language may employ several strategies. A common derivational device is affixing. Another very common derivational device is reduplication.

Apophony involves internal modification of the stem. For example, Derivation involving both a vowel and a consonant change is breach /bi:t/ from break /beik/ (Aikhenvald 2007:45)

Prosodic modification through stress or tone is another derivational device. For instance,permit (noun) and permit (verb) The difference between this noun and verb is only one of stress.

Less common are devices which involve removing something. With substraction a predictable part of the word is removed. An example can be found in French, where the masculine counterpart of the feminine adjective form is predictably shorter, namely lacking the final consonant: compare petite /ptit/ little.F versus petit /pti/ little.M and verte /vt/ green.F versus vert /v/ green.M (Bauer 2003: 39)

Other kinds of shortenings are truncation clipping and backformation. An example of clipping is pram from prembulator or phone from telephone. One way of thinking of truncations is that the suffix ate is cut off (tuncated) before the suffix ee is added to evacu-

A back-formation is when a part of a word which seems to be an affix (but might not be) is deleted an example is baby- sit from baby-sitter where er is conceived of as a suffix parallel to the suffix in singer and runner.

A blend involves merging to words that get partly truncated, as in smog which consist of the begining of the smoke and the end of fog ,or motel which consists of the begining of motor and the end of hotel

Conversion is when a word changes word class without any modification to the word itself. An example would be bottle, which in isolation is intuitively classed as a noun, but which by conversion can be used as a word,for instance in To bottle wine.

b. CompoundingA compound is not just two separate words, but that it actually constitutes its own phonological unit. This hold true irrespective of how the compound is spelled, as it is the pronunciation that is relevant. For example; In English, compound words are written as one one word, with a hyphen or two separate words such as, football, pie-eyed, and fire door. The essential thing about all these words is that they are pronounced as one phonological units, they all have only one primary stress : football /ftb:l/ , pie-eyed /paad/ , fire door /fad()/

There are exceptions to this general rule. Pacoh (Austro-Asiatic (Katuic): Vietnam) compounds may consist of phonologically free words but still function as one single lexeme, as in aat achq wilderness ( Anial+ Bird)(Watson 1976: 226).

Compounds are also generally inflected only once, as one word, as its head (main) lexeme. We would inflect for plural only once for the entire compound: fooballs (not *feetballs), fire doors (not *fires doors)

There are also exceptions to this rule, even in English. Both parts of the compound are inflected. tooth mark = teeth marks

Compound generally do not get broken up by, for example, modifiers.

a new football *a footnewball a metal fire door *a fire metal door

It should be kept in mind that none of these criteria are absolute universals.

Types of compoundsEndocentric compounds ( tatpurua compounds) refer to sub- class of the items denoted by one of ( the) elements. AB is an instance of B Like these compounds give extra information about head. The word class of these compounds are determined by their head. In English: school boytea potblack birdsea sickbed roomdiesel motor

In Maori : wharenui (whare house + nui big is a type of house (Harlow 2007: 130).

Exocentric compounds (bahuvrihi compounds ) not refer to a sub- category of any of the compounded elements. A+B denotes a special kind of an unexpressed semantic head. A+ B is not an instance A or B In English: pie-eyed drunk ( neither a type of pie nor a type of eye) redneck illiterate ( neither a type of red nor a type of neck) In Lango: wan t window ( neither a type of wan eye nor a type of t house) In Maori : ihipuku sea elephant ( neither a type of ihi nose nor a type of puku swollen)

Copulative or coordinatve compounds ( dvandva compouns) refer to an entity made up of the two elements mentioned in the compound together (Bauer 2003: 43). A+ B denote the sum of what A and B denote

In English : bitter-sweet (both bitter and sweet) actor-director ( both actor and director) blue- green ( both blue and green) In Malto: pesa- taka ( both pesa coin and taka bank- note, rupee) (Steever 1998: 384).Syntactic compounds ( verbal compound ) the head element is a verb and modifying element is something which could have functioned as the verbs argument in a phrase.

In English: hair-dryer ( the head is the verb DRY and HAIR is an argument of the verb DRY) earmark, head hunt In Russian: sneg-o-pad snowfall(sneg snow+ o linker+ pad falling; Aikhenvald 2007: 32).

- Incorporation is a special type of syntactic compound because it involves not only the word-formation process of combining two lexemes, but also involves a host of other proceses, both morphological and syntactic.

- Noun incorporation is, the most common type of incorporation, a noun incorporated into a verb. Yucatec (Mayan (Mayan): Mexico)(52) a. t-in-po?--ahnook Comp-1sg-wash-it-perf cloths I washed (the) clothes. b. po?-nook-n-ah-en wash-clothes-antipass-prf-1sg.abs I clothes-washed. (= I washed clothes) (Bricker 1978: 15) In (52a) nook clothes ia an object of the verb po?. It refers to specific clothes. In (52b) the incorporation refers to a unitary activity, general action, but it doesnt refers to specific entity.

Incorporation consists of not only the full form of the noun but also the stem form of the full, free noun.Huasteca Nahualt (Uto-Aztecan (Aztecan). Mexico)(53) a. askman ti-?-kwa nakalt never 2sg-it-eat meat You never eat meat b. na? ipanima ni-naka-kwa 1sg always 1sg-meat eat I eat meat all the time. ( lit. I always meat-eat) (Merlan 1976: 185)Turksh balk tutmakkitap okumakseyahat etmek (fish- catch) ( book-read) (trip-take)

2. PART OF SPEECH Parts-of-speech (or word classes), which in essence are major categories of words that group together grammatically.

Languages differ radically in how many classes they have and in the proportions of these classes. Some languages have an extremely limited set of closed class words (or functional categories), while others have a high number of such words.

Some languages have only two open word classes (or lexical categories), others, like English, have as many as four separate such classes. Furthermore, a word class found in one language will not necessarily be found in another language. In other words, while it seems to be universal that languages actually do group their words into categories of some kind, the categories themselves are languages dependent.A. Lexical classesThe open classesConsist of content words, i.e. words with more or less concrete, specific meanings.

- Languages may have up to four major open class parts-of-speech, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The definitions of these categories rely on a cluster of features, both semantic (denoting meaning), grammatical and syntactic (how items are combined).

In English, nouns can be subcategorized into mass and count nouns, depending on whether they can take the plural (e.g. sand/*sands versus chair /chairs); or proper and common nouns, depending on whether they can take the article (e.g. Peter/*the Peter versus chair/ the chair), or abstract versus concrete (e.g. emotion versus chair),

Other languages subcategorize depending on whether or not the item is possessable.

In Maasai, for example, nouns are either possessable or non-possessable. Such things as tools, money, houses, kin, and so on can be marked for possession grammatically, but such things as meat, water, land and stars cannot. In Mamaind, Subcategorize their nouns depending on, among other things, physical properties such as consistency (whether the item in question is solid or liquid) and shape (Eberhard 2009). In other words, the potential sub categorizations of each major part-of-speech category are language dependent. NounsRefers to things, persons and places, but also includes abstract notions such as feelings, ideas.Grammatically, nouns may typically be marked for number (how many of the item (s) are being referred to), case (what role the item has in the sentence), gender (what sub-category the item belongs to)definiteness (whether it is a specific entity referred to or not), for instance through morphological processes, but also, especially in the case of languages with predominantly analytic strategies, through syntactic processes.

Combine with demonstrative pronouns (e.g. this/that as in this/that house) and many function as arguments (that is, participants, e.g. Subject and object) in a clause.

English has two numbers; singular (one entity) plural (more than one of the same entity); as in chair versus chairs.

Lavukale, specify for dual (two of the same entity), as in funfun firefly (singular)-funfunil (two) fireflies (dual) funfunaul fireflies (plural).

- While English hardly has any case marking at all, the exception being the genitive s as in chairs, many languages do mark for case.

In Dime; (Afro-Asiatic (South Omotic): Ethiopia): compare ziti ox (nominative case) with zitim ox (accusative case) (Seyoum 2008).

- Gender refers to which subclass the noun belong to.

In French; nouns are either masculine (le cadeau the gift)or feminine (la table the table),

In German; nouns are either masculine (der Stuhl the chair), feminine (die Mtze the hat, cap) or neuter (das Buch the book). Definiteness indicates whether we are referring to a general example of an entity or a specific entity, as in the difference between a man, the man. Verbs Verb refers to actions and processes (e.g. Dance, grow, etc.), but also states (e.g. Know, exist, etc.).

Verbs may typically be marked for tense (placing the event in time),

Aspect (specifying the perspective taken on the event),

Mood (indicating the speakers attitude toward a situation or a statement),

Voice (e.g. Whether an event is active or passive)

Polarity (whether the statement is in the affirmative or the negative)

Verbs may also be marked for person agreement, where a grammatical marker indicates the number and person of an argument, most commonly the subject.

Verbs typically function as predicates, typically form the core of the sentence or clause and typically have a relational meaning, relating one or more participants to an event (Anward 2006:408).

Types of Verbs in TurkishVERB TYPEEXPLANATIONEXAMPLESIntransitive verbs

Require no object (complement)

Uyumak,mek,yrmek..

Transitive verbs

Require direct object

Yemek,imek,tlemek

Ditransitive verbs

Require both direct and indirect objects

Dayamak,sormak,gndermek, yollamak, vermek

Verbs that require oblique objects

Require one indirect object or another complement

Bakmak, holanmak, nefret etmek

Copular verbs (Linking verbs)

Link the subject and the predicate of a sentence

-mek, olmak,zero copula,etc.e.g. Ali geen yl renci idi.

Tense, Aspect, and Mood in TurkishTense;

Okul-lar pazartesi al-d. school-PL Monday open-PF The schools started on Monday.

Okul-lar Pazartesi al-acak -FUT The schools will start on Monday.

Aspect;Ahmet bir elma ye-di. an apple eat-PF Ahmet ate an apple.

Ahmet bir elma yi-yor-du. -IMPF-P.COP Ahmet was eating an apple.

Ahmet sabahlar bir elma ye-r-di. -AOR-P.COP In the mornings Ahmet used to eat an apple.

Mood Markers in Turkish-sADenotes conditional meanings; bilsen, bilseydin, bilseymi, okusaydn-(y)AOptative mood marker. Which is the expression of speakers wish; yapaym, yapalm-mAIIModal functions of obligation/necessity, and assumption; Aliye olmal-(y)Abilmodal category that marks ability and possibility.; okuyabilirim

English has three tenses, two of which are marked morphologically and one that is marked syntactically.

The present tense (placing the event in the present, the now) is marked with a suffix s for third person singular, as in He walks.

The past tense (placing the event in the past) is also marked morphologically, with a suffixed -ed, as in He walked

The future tense (placing the event in the future) is marked analytically with the use of an auxiliary verb, as in He will walk.

It is common for languages to have some kind of aspect marking. In English, marks for progressive (denoting that the event is on-going) with the suffix ing, as in He is walking.

Languages may also make a grammatical difference between perfective and imperfective (again extremely simplified, if an event is seen as an ongoing process).

In French, where the difference between ll a pay he paid (perfective) and ll payait he paid (imperfective) is one of aspect.

English has two voices, active and passive.Active; He opened the door,Passive; The door was opened by him.

Languages also mark for polarity one way or another, and often that is done in connection with the verb. English contrasts affirmative and negative sentences with not,as in He walked versus He did not walk.

The only form of person agreement that English has is the present tense third person singular suffix s, as in He walks versus I walk.

Other languages, however, grammatically indicate agreement for all three persons, and all the numbers that the language has.

In Italian, the verb is inflected for three persons and two numbers:

Italian (Indo-European: (Romance):Italy) 1SG mangio I eat 2SG mangi you eat 3SG mangia he/she/it eats 1PL mangiamo we eat 2PL mangiate you eat 3PL mangiano they eat

Other languages may inflect for dual, and even trial and paucal, depending on their systems. A cluster of characteristics that may serve to identify whether a given word is a noun or a verb. For example; In Mwotlap (Austronesian (Oceanic): Vanuatu) koyo ma-tayak ke, to ke ni-ente-yo togolgol 3du pfct-adopt 3sgthen 3sg aor-child-3du straight They have adopted him, so that he (became) their legitimate son.

In example; ente chid is marked both for tense/aspect with the aorist prefix ni- and for agreement with the 3rd person dual subject with the suffix yo, just as if it had been a verb.

AdjectivesAdjectives typically modify nouns, and denote qualities and attributes.

Quantitive or limitating adjectives (like many, a little) never form an open class

Descriptive adjectives may form open class in many languages, but it does not universal Grammatically adjectives may be specified for degree, either morphologically or syntactically. Also grammatically adjectives cannot combine with nouns or verbs

In English: too cold is acceptable *too book or *too follow is unacceptable

In some languages adjectives show agreement in form with the noun they modify.

In German: ein roter Stuhl (masculine) a red chair eine rote Blume (feminine) a red flower ein rotes Haus (neuter) a red house The adjective (rot) is marked morphologically to agree with the gender of the noun its modifies. There are three degree modifications; positive, comparative, superlative

Degree or comparison may be expressed either morphologically or syntactically.

English has both options tall (positive), taller (comparative) , tallest (superlative) : the adjective (tall) is marked morphologically

beautiful (positive) , more beautiful (comparative), most beautiful (superlative) : the adjective (beautiful) is marked analytically. The use of adjective separate into two groups; 1) modification of a noun > a big apple

2) predication (denoting a property of the subject of a clause) > the apple is big While nouns and verbs form near-universal open class categories, this is not the case with adjectives.

153 languages for adjectives are mapped. 66 (43.1 %) have an open class30 (19.6%) have a closed class 57 (37.3%) do not have any separate class for adjectives

Igbo has a very small closed class of adjectives which counting only 8.

Four properties value, dimension, age, colour are found in a closed class adjectivesOther properties like position (high), speed (fast), physical characteristics (hard) are expressed with nouns or verbs in languages with a closed class of adjectives

VALUECOLOURDIMENSIONAGEOma goodOj? black,darkUkwu largeOhu?ru newOjo?o badOca white,lightNta smallOcye oldIn Hause, properties (value, dimension, age, colour) are expressed by nouns. Hausa (Afro Asiatic (West Chanadic): Nigeria)Mutum mai alheri b. Mutum mai doki person having kindness person having horse a kind person a person having a horse c. Yana da alheri d. Yana da doki he.is with kindness he.is with horse he is kind he has a horse (describe properties are expressed by possession of nouns)

In Bemba language, adjectival notions are expressed with verbs.

Adjectival notions are expressed with verbs whether relativized or not

Bemba (Niger- Congo (Bantoid) : DR Congo)Umuuntu uashipa c. Umuuntu aashipa person who.is.brave person is.brave a brave person the person is brave

Umuuntu ualemba d. Umuuntu aalemba person who.is.writing person is.writing a person who is writing the person is writing

Adverbs Adverbs may constitute an open class, also it is the most heterogeneous of all word classes.

Adverbs typically modify categories other than nouns. run quickly (modify verbs) quite happy (modify adjectives) very quickly (modify other adverbs) well with (modify prepositions) *Dog quickly (NOT modify nouns) That was quite [a party] (modify noun phrases)

Five main subclasses of adverbs - setting adverbs of space and time (here, below, never) - manner adverbs/predicate adverbs (well, badly) - degree adverbs (very, extremely) - linking adverbs / text adverbs (however, thus) - sentence adverbs (probably, frankly)

Setting, degree and linking adverbs form closed subclasses of adverbs.Only manner adverbs constitute open subclasses of adverbs.

It is quite common for languages to form manner adverbs from adjectives. In English: slow (adjective), slowly (adverb)

As with adjectives, languages differ in whether adverbs form an open, closed, or no class at all.

Adverbs form a closed class and most adverbial meanings are conveyed by adjectives or nouns in the accusative case.

In Modern Standard Arabic, sarisan swiftly is the accusative form of the adjective saris swift

There are also languages without any seperate class for manner adverbs

Swedish (Indo- European (Germanic): SwedenTaget ar langsamt train.DEF.NEUT. is slow.NEUT. the train is slow

Han laser langsamt Manner adverb expressions are he reads slow.NEUT. expressed with the adjective in neuter form he reads slowly Ainu (Isolate: Japan)- The stative verb pirka be good Pirka menoko a stative verb may be modify another stative verb good woman is used as an adj. pretty women c. Tunasno pirka quick good b. Pirka inu Get well quickly good listen is used as an adv. listen well

Ainu has neither a special class for adjectives nor a special class for adverbs; the stative verb is used in both cases.There are various lexical classes, and they can overlap each other. So Hengeveld et al.(2004) propose implicational hierarchy.

Verbs Nouns Adjectives (Manner) Adverbs

This hierarchy implies that- verbs exist its own lexical classes in a languageif a language has a separate open class for nouns, it also has a separate category for verbsa language with a separate open class for adjectives necessarily has a separate open class for nouns and verbs.if a language has a separate open class for adverbs, then it also has a separate open class for adjectives

This hierarchy is not universal, it only illustrates tendencies