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http://www.ablongman.com/bee4e Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
6Prenatal Development And
BirthSocial and Personality
Development in Infancy
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
• Psychoanalytic Perspectives– Freud
• Oral Stage – derive satisfaction from the mouth• Symbiotic relationship between mother and child
– Erikson• Trust versus Mistrust
– Helping the infant get its needs met consistently– Social relationships go beyond feeding
Theories
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• Ethological Perspectives– John Bowlby
• The ability to make strong emotional bonds is innate.
• These bonds have survival value.
• Bonds are maintained by instinctive behaviors that
create and sustain proximity.
Theories
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• Ethological Perspectives– John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth
• Attachment– An attachment is an affectional bond in which a person’s
sense of security is bound up in the relationship.– The child can use the “mother” as a “safe base.”
• Ethologists believe the first 2 years constitute a sensitive period for attachment in human infants.
Theories
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• Synchrony– The opportunity for parent and infant to develop a
mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviors
– Takes practice over time to develop until each participant follows the other
– Highly synchronous 6 – 8-month-old infants• Have larger vocabularies at age 2• Have higher intelligence scores at age 3
The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant
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• Mother’s bond with the infant
– Mothers end up doing more routine caregiving than fathers.
– Talk to and smile at the baby more
The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant
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• Father’s bond with the infant– Fathers have the same repertoire as mothers.
• Touch, talk to, and cuddle just like Mom
– After first few weeks, fathers begin to spend more time playing with baby.
• More physical roughhousing
– Affectional bond rather than attachment, according to Ainsworth
The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant
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• Establishing Attachment – Bowlby suggests there are 3 phases
• Nonfocused orienting and signaling (0 – 2 months)– Uses an innate set of behavior patterns to signal needs– Proximity promoting behaviors
• Focus on one or more figures (3 – 6 months)– Smiles more at people who regularly care for her– Still uses proximity promoting behaviors with many
• Secure base behavior (6 – 7 months)– Proximity seeking behaviors– Most important person used as a safe base for explorations
The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents
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• Attachment Behaviors– Separation Anxiety
• Infants cry and protest when separated from mother.
– Social Referencing• Use cues from facial expressions of Mom or Dad
– Helps to figure out novel situations– Helps to learn to regulate emotions
The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents
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• Internal models– Child’s confidence concerning availability of
the attachment figure– Child’s expectation of rebuff or affection– Child’s sense of assurance in the safe base
• Internal models become elaborated from the time a child is 1 year until the age of 4 or 5.
Variations in Attachment Quality
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• Mary Ainsworth– The Strange Situation
• Series of eight episodes played in a laboratory• Children between 12 and 18 months
– Secure attachment– Insecure/avoidant attachment– Insecure/ambivalent attachment– Insecure/disorganized attachment
Secure and Insecure Attachments
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• Origins of Secure and Insecure Attachments– Emotional Availability
• Caregiver who is able and willing to form an emotional attachment
– Contingent Responsiveness• Caregivers who are sensitive to the child’s cues and
respond appropriately
– Both are essential to formation of a secure attachment
Secure and Insecure Attachments
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• Insecure/avoidant attachment– Mother rejects or regularly withdraws from the infant– Mother is overly intrusive or overly stimulating
• Insecure/ambivalent attachment– Primary caregiver is inconsistently or unreliably
available to the child
• Insecure/disorganized attachment– Likely when the child has been abused, and when a
parent has an unresolved childhood trauma
Secure and Insecure Attachments
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• Factors influencing secure attachment – Marital Status
• Higher educational background• Higher socio-economic status• Older parents
– Psychiatric Illness• Depressed mothers interact less.
Caregiver Characteristics and Attachment
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• What kind of attachment do you have with your parents? Has it changed since you were a child or does it reflect the type of attachment you had when you were younger?
• What factors will influence your choice of child care if the mother is working? What would be best for your child?
Questions to Ponder
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• Securely attached – More sociable– More positive in relationships with friends– Less clinging and dependent on teachers– Less aggressive– More emotionally mature
– Continues into adolescence• More likely to be leaders• Have higher self-esteem
Long Term Consequences of Attachment Quality
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• Securely attached – Increased sociability throughout early,
middle, and late adulthood
– Affects their parenting behaviors
– Demonstrates that the attachment relationship becomes the foundation for future social relationships
Long Term Consequences of Attachment Quality
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• Dimensions of Temperament
– Thomas and Chess• Easy child – 40%• Difficult child – 10%• Slow-to-warm-up child – 15%
Personality, Temperament, and Self-Concept
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• Origins and stability of temperament– Heredity
• Identical twins are more alike in temperament than fraternal twins.
• Adult personality studies support innate temperament.
– Neurological processes• Underlying physiological processes – Kagan
– Shyness
» Differing thresholds for arousal
» Dopamine and serotonin problems
» Frontal lobe asymmetry
Personality, Temperament, and Self-Concept
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• Origins and stability of temperament– Environment
• Sandra Scarr– Niche-Picking
» People of all ages choose their experiences that reflect their temperaments.
• May affect how a child interprets a given experience
• Tendency of parents to respond differently to each child depending on temperament
– Secure attachments tend to modify heredity effects.
Personality, Temperament, and Self-Concept
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• Long-Term Stability– Growing evidence of consistency in temperament over long
periods of time
• Temperament and Development– Emotionally negative infants are less likely to get the parental
support that encourages cognitive development.
– Difficult babies and slow-to-warm-up babies are less responsive to parents.
• Goodness of Fit– Temperament that matches the environment promotes
cognitive development
Personality, Temperament, and Self-Concept
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• The subjective self– Awareness by the child that he is separate from
others and endures over time
– Appears by 8–12 months at the same time as object permanence.
• The objective self– The toddler comes to understand that she is an
object in the world.
Self-Concept
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• Rouge Test
• Children at 21 months show self-recognition in the mirror.– This is the same age that children name
themselves, use “I,” “me,” and “mine.”
Studying Self-Awareness
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• The emotional self– Babies learn to identify changes in
emotional expression.• Starts at 2 – 3 months
– Perception of other’s emotions helps guide the child’s actions.
Self-Concept
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• Child-care arrangements
–12% By a parent, at home or at work
–32% Family daycare in another’s home
–33% By a relative, in a relative’s or child’s home
–39% Center care
Effects of Nonparental Care
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• Effects on cognitive development
– High-quality day care has beneficial effects, especially for children from poor families.
– Middle-class children who entered daycare in the first year of life had smaller vocabularies.
Effects of Nonparental Care
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• Effects on social development
– Infant daycare has negative effects on attachment if started under one year.
– Parents whose behaviors are associated with insecure attachment have children who are negatively affected by early day care.
– Belsky associates early day care with greater risks for social problems in school-age children.
Effects of Nonparental Care
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This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:• any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;• preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images;• any rental, lease, or lending of the program.