Training and Development

1Human Resource Management

OverviewModels of Learning

Reinforcement TheoriesCybernetic & Information TheoriesCognitive Theories & Problem SolvingExperiential Learning Cycle

The ‘learner’ and the organisation’ : transferModel of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) :

individual and organisational levels of analysisSpecial training and development needs :

diversity management

Learning‘Training and developmental activities are

designed to bring about changes in behaviour’ Arnold, Cooper & Robertson (1998)

Learning is ‘a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience’

Bass & Vaughan (1966)

How do we learn ? Psychological theories...

Reinforcement TheoriesPavlov (1904) ‘Classical Conditioning’ - making

dogs dribble

Skinner (1965) ‘Operant Conditioning’ - teaching pigeons ‘ping-pong’

Watson & Rayner (1920) ‘little Albert’

Nord (1969) application of Skinner’s ‘positive reinforcement’ principles to org./mgmt practices

N.B. Conditioning by punishment ?

Cybernetic & Information TheoriesHow information is received and monitored (‘’human thermostats’’ - Stammers & Patrick, 1975)

Power Source Monitoring Process(muscular action) (receipt of ‘cues’ through

the senses)

Feedback

Skills Analysis - what ‘cues’ or ‘stimuli’ an experienced worker is being guided by (e.g. typist : ‘hunt & peck’)

Cognitive Theories & Problem SolvingReflect the way in which we learn to

recognise and define problems or experiment to find solutions trial & errordeductive reasoning information seeking

Kohler (1973) Theory of ‘Insight Learning’ or ‘Discovery Learning’ (e.g. Chimps, bananas and sticks or Archimedes ‘Eureka!!’)

Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning

8 major varieties of learning, hierarchically related, each building on earlier, more simple abilities (which therefore act as prerequisites for more complex abilities)Signal Learning (classical conditioning)Stimulus-Response Learning (operant conditioning)Chaining (connecting sequence of 2+ S-R units)Verbal Association (learning ‘verbal’ chains)Discrimination Learning (different responses to similar stimuli)Concept Learning (common response to different stimuli in gp)Rule Learning (a chain of 2 or more concepts I.e. if ‘A’ then ‘B’)Problem Solving (recombining old rules into new ones)

Experiential LearningKolb (1974) : ‘Learning Cycle’

Concrete

Testing experience Observationsimplications of & Reflectionsconcepts in new situations Formation of

abstract concepts & generalisations

Honey & Mumford (1986, 1992) : ‘Learning Styles’activist : open-minded, actively involved, bored with implementationreflector : ponder experiences, cautious, ‘back-seat’, ‘bigger picture’ theorist : adapt & integrate observations, vertical, logical, hierarchicalpragmatist : try out new ideas to see if they work in practice

The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (I)Learner Motivation

Otto & Glaser (1970) : taxonomy of motivational factors in learning : achievement motivation, anxiety, approval, curiosity, acquisitiveness

Knowledge of results (feedback) form of reinforcementExtrinsic KR Intrinsic KRLearning curves & plateau

Attitude formation & changepredispose learners to actionhaving ‘harmonious attitudes’ (Festinger’s concept of cognitive

dissonance, 1957)group discussion, providing new information

The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (II)

Ageless brain cells, speeded performance declinesshort-term memory deteriorates (increased errors

in cognitively complex tasks)Welford (1962) older less able to cope with large

amounts of information and vocab. and comprehension increase (reasoning

and numerical ability test scores decreased)Vernon (1960) rate of decline slowest in originally

high scorers.StimulationEducation & Training offset decline in abilities

Transfer‘Training transfer occurs when new learning is used in new

settings beyond those employed for training purposes’ (Arnold, Cooper & Robertson, 1998)

Positive Learning Transfer ‘when learning that has already taken place on one task assists later

learning on another’vertical positive transfer : one subject acts as a basis for another (e.g.

maths to statistics) lateral positive transfer : occurs when the same type of stimulus

requires the same response (e.g. flight simulators)N.B. ‘On-’ vs ‘Off-the-job’ Training

Negative Transfer ‘when an old learning or past experience can hinder performance on a

new task; when the same stimuli requires a different response’ (e.g. driving on right hand side)

Factors that assist TransferIndividualUnderstanding of general principles

facilitated by discovery learning; issue of physical and psychological ‘fidelity’

Overlearningpractising beyond the level of minimum competence

Associationgetting the trainee to associate new learning with

other, previous, learning.OrganisationalSupportive culture ?Congruent norms/values/attitudes

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Introduction to Training

Training is the systematic process of altering employee behavior in a way that will achieve organizational goals It should be related to present job skills and

abilities It helps employees master the specific skills

and abilities needed to be successful

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Introduction to Training

A training program is an opportunity for employees to acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge Learning is the act by which an individual

acquires skills, knowledge, and abilities that result in a relatively permanent change in behavior

Any behavior that has been learned is a skill

Motor, cognitive, and interpersonal skills are training targets

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Introduction

Training and development are processes that provide employees with: Information Skills An understanding of the organization and

its goals The ability to make positive contributions in

the form of good performance

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High-Leverage TrainingLinked to strategic goals and objectivesUses an instructional design process to

ensure that training is effectiveCompares or benchmarks the company’s

training programs against training programs in other companies

Creates working conditions that encourage continuous learning

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What is Management Development? Development that uses behavioral science

knowledge to deal with problems of change It is a continuous process in the most effective firms

Management development should be planned because it requires: Systematic diagnosis Development of a program The mobilization of resources Top-management commitment for success

There is no best development approach

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Training & DevelopmentTraining & development

Represents ongoing investment in employees, and recognition that employees are assets

Importance of training & developmentRapid technological changes cause skill

obsolescenceRedesign of work brings need for new skillsMergers and acquisitions have increased need for

integrating employees into different culturesGlobalization of business requires new knowledge

and skills

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Benefits of Training & DevelopmentIndividual employee

Increased employee marketabilityIncreased employee employability security

OrganizationImproved bottom line, efficiency and profitabilityIncreased flexibility in employees who can assume

different and varied responsibilitiesMakes employees more accountable for results

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Employee Training

Determining training needs Specific training goals should be based on:

organization’s needs type of work to be done skills necessary to complete the work

Indicators of need for more training: drops in productivity increased rejects inadequate job performance rise in the number of accidents

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Principals of Learning

Learner Attention Importance/Relevance to job

Positive Reinforcement/Corrective Feedback

Transfer of Learning Knowledge of Progress Practice

Whole vs Part

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Learning Theory and Training

Learning principles can be applied to job training: The trainee must be motivated to learn The trainee must be able to learn The learning must be reinforced The training must provide for practice of the

material The material presented must be meaningful The material must be communicated

effectively The training taught must transfer to the job

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Training Process

Identify Training Needs Set Training Objectives

Evaluation Criteria

Choose Training Materials and Methods

Conduct Training Evaluate Training

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Needs Assessment

Needs assessment is a process used to determine if, and what type of, training is necessary Organizational analysis: examining a firm’s

mission, resources, and goals Person analysis: determining who needs

training and their readiness for training Task analysis: identification of the tasks,

knowledge, skill, and behaviors that should be included in a training program

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Assessing Current Employees’ Training Needs

Performance Appraisals

Job-Related Performance Data

Observations

Interviews

Assessment Center Results

Individual Diaries

Attitude Surveys

Tests

Methods for Identifying

Training Needs

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Needs Assessment The information gathering provides a

profile of: What type of training is needed Who should be trained When training should be conducted Whether training is the preferred approach

Instructional objectives lead to the selection and design of instructional programs: If assessment and program design are done

carefully, training and development can be monitored and evaluated

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Training Needs and Objectives

Needs assessment involves analyzing: The organization’s needs The knowledge, skill, and ability

needed to perform the job The person or jobholder’s needs The firm’s long- and short-term

objectives

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Instructional Methods

This phase of training includes: Selection of content and training methods

The actual training

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On The Job Training Methods

Job instruction training (JIT)CoachingMentoringJob rotationApprenticeship trainingCommittee assignments

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Off The Job Training Methods

Vestibule trainingRole playingLecture methodConference or discussion methodProgrammed instruction

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Methods of executive development1.Decision-making skills

2.Interpersonal skills

3.Job knowledge (a) On-the-job experiences

(b) Coaching

(c) Understudy

4.Organisational knowledge (a) Job rotation

5.General knowledge (a) Special courses

(b) Special meetings

(c) Specific readings

6.Specific individual needs (a) Special projects

(b) Committee assignments

(a)In-basket

(b)Business game (c)Case study

(a)Role play(b)Sensitivity training(c) Behaviour Modelling

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On-The-Job Training

This is the most widely used method of training Although OJT is simple and relatively

inexpensive, hidden costs can include: Damaged machinery Unsatisfied customers Misfiled forms Poorly taught workers

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Computer-Based InstructionBenefits

Self-pacedAdaptive to different

needsCan be customizedEasy to deliverUsually less

expensive to administer

Can be conducted when convenient for employee

DrawbacksLearners must be

self-motivatedCost of producing

online, interactive materials

Lack of interaction with others may work against needs and preferred learning styles

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Case Method The case method uses a written description of a

real decision-making situation Managers are asked to study the case in order to:

Identify the problems Analyze the problems Propose solutions Choose the best solution Implement it

More learning takes place if there is interaction with the instructor

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Role Playing

Each person is assigned a role in a situation and is asked to react to other players’ role-playing

The player is asked to react to the stimuli as that person would

Players are provided with background information on the situation and the players

A script is usually provided The success of this method depends on the ability

of the players to play the assigned roles believably Role-playing can help a manager become more

aware of, and more sensitive to, the feelings of others

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In-Basket Technique The participant is given typical items from a

specific manager’s mail, email, and telephone list Important and pressing matters are mixed in with

routine business matters

The trainee is analyzed and critiqued on: The number of decisions made in the time

allotted The quality of the decisions The priorities chosen for making them

To generate interest, in-basket materials must be: Realistic, job-related, and not impossible to make

decisions on 39Human Resource Management

Behavior Modeling

There are four steps in this process:Modeling of effective behavior (films) Role playingSocial reinforcement (role playing)Transfer of training to the job

Modeling offers promise for developing leadership skills, if used in conjunction with videotape methods Research evidence is generally positive

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Programmed Learning

Advantages Reduced training time Self-paced learning Immediate feedback Reduced risk of error for

learner

Presenting questions, facts, or problems to

the learner

Allowing the person to respond

Providing feedback on the

accuracy of answers

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Choosing the Best T&D MethodChoice of delivery method depends on:

Organizational culture and valuesT&D objective and contentProfiles of trainees and trainersFinancial and technological resource

availabilityTimeLocation

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Choosing the Best T&D MethodDevelopments occurring with regard to delivery methodsShift toward on-the-job trainingIncreased efficiencyExploitation of technology to aid

learningIncreased emphasis on teamsFocus on mentoring

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EvaluationIntegral part of overall training program

Provides feedback on effectiveness of training program

Evaluation criteria should be established in tandem with and parallel to training objectives

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Four Levels of Training Evaluation

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Impediments to Effective T & D

Commitment lacking

Inadequate budget allocation

Universities award only degrees, not skills

Poaching of trained workers

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