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Morale and Motivation

• Introduction to Morale

• Morale Defined

• Importance of Morale

• Morale and Productivity

• Measurement of Employee Morale

• Indices of Low Morale

• Improving Morale

• Introduction to Motivation

• Motivation Defined

• Classes of Motivators

• Steps of Motivation

CONTENTS

• Rules of Motivation

• Eight Ways to Motivate Plant Employees

• Theories of Motivation

• Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

• Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory

• Employees and Motivation

• Distinction Between Moraleand Motivation

• Exercise

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CHAPTER 6

MORALE ANDMOTIVATION

Introduction to Morale

Morale is a widely used term in organizations.But in general, it refers to esprit de corps, afeeling of enthusiasm, zeal, confidence in in-dividuals or groups that they will be able tocope with the tasks assigned to them. Moraleis said to be ‘the ability of a group to work to-gether for a common objective’. If a group isable to work harmoniously for a common ob-jective, it is said the morale is high. The resultof high morale generally results in the highefficiency of the organization.

Morale Defined

Morale has been variously defined by differ-ent authors. Professor Ralph C. Davis says,“good organizational morale is a condition inwhich individuals and groups voluntarily makea reasonable subordination to the personalobjectives to their organization”. According toDale Yoder and Paul D. Standohar, “moralemeans evident commitment, that is, demon-strated spirit, enthusiasm, and confidence inthe organization’s policies, programs, andaccomplishments. Morale is revealed by whatindividuals and groups say and do to show aninterest in, understanding of, and personalidentification with work-team survival and suc-cess”. Edwin B. Flippo has described morale“as a mental condition or attitude of individu-als and groups which determines their willing-ness to cooperate. Good morale is evidencedby employee enthusiasm, voluntary conform-ance with regulations and orders, and a will-ingness to cooperate with other sin the accom-plishment of an organization’s objectives.Poor morale is evidenced by surliness, insub-ordination, a feeling of discouragement anddislike of the job, company and associates”.

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According to Haimann, it is “a state of mindand emotions affecting the attitude and will-ingness to work, which in turn, affect individu-al and organizational objectives”. Joseph D.Mooney describes morale as “the sum total ofseveral psychological qualities which includecourage, fortitude, resolution and above all,confidence”.

Importance of Morale

From the above definitions we can say thatmorale has a group discussion and refers di-rectly to the working of an individual in a teamtowards the common objectives. The build-ing of morale is not a mechanical problem thatcould be solved by either rewards or punish-ment or by issuing orders regarding morale.The content of morale, i.e. a specific issue thatoperates as pressures or separates, could bebroadly divided into three groups:

• the first concerns off-the job satisfaction thatis expected from work such as income, se-curity, and stature in the community;

• the second concerns on-the-job satisfaction,for example-job interest, opportunity for ad-vancement and prestige within the organi-zation;

• the third group concerns highly personalsatisfaction, for example-job interest, oppor-tunity for advancement and prestige withinthe organization, and personal satisfactionas derived from the job such as growth,

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achievement powers, job expertise etc.

Each group is important in its own way andany dissatisfaction in one will have adverseeffect on other groups.

Morale depends upon the relations betweenexpectations and reality. The closer the indi-vidual’s environment comes to providing thekinds of rewards he expects, the better will behis morale.

Morale might also be described as the spiritand confidence with which the employee per-forms his job. It is a complex psychologicalquality that is impossible to force on some-one, difficult to measure, and easily destroyed.The level of morale is a result of the degree towhich the overall needs of the individual arefulfilled.

The important factors which have a bearingon employee’s morale can be classified asrelating to:

1. The employee’s background -- whichincludes his levels of intelligence and edu-cation and his type of personality -- largely

determines the way in which he seeks tofulfill his needs for belonging, esteem, andself-realization. High morale hinges on thesatisfaction of these needs.

2. The employee’s personal environment en-compasses an employee’s relations withhis family, friends, and neighbors. The em-ployee brings his thoughts of his home andsocial life with him when he goes to workand they influence his thinking and attitudeswhile on the job.

3. Management practices influencing moraleinclude policies on procedures with respectto wages, promotion methods, employeeservices and benefits, working conditions,handling grievances, disciplinary actions.

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Morale and Productivity

It is assumed that high morale and high pro-ductivity go hand in hand. Since morale man-ifests itself in the attitudes of workers, it is im-portant to know about the results of high andlow morale. One of the most unpredictableeffects of the level of morale is its impact onworker productivity. The productivity of a groupis a composite of many factors, at least one ofwhich is the general state of mind or the “mindto do” of the group.

Formerly it was thought that a high moraleresulted in high productivity. The more westudy the causal relationships in business, theless prone we are to oversimplify these rela-tionships. Various research studies have re-vealed that the group having the highest mo-rale may not always be the highest in produc-tivity.

As morale is made up of so many factors, sois productivity, the result of a series of com-plex factors. When a group is convinced thathigh productivity will result in its getting thethings it wants most, it is reasonable to be-

lieve that productivity will be high. It is like-wise reasonable to believe that if the groupssatisfactions in the work situation are high andhigh productivity will enable it to get the thingsit wants most, the productivity will be at leastas high as, if not higher than, it would be wheresatisfactions leave considerable to be desired.

Though high morale may not be the cause ofthe high productivity, a high-producing groupnearly always has a reasonably high morale,in terms of the company as a whole. Moraledevelopment is almost certain to accompanysuccessful operations where the individualscan relate their respective endeavors andobjectives to the success of the enterprise asa whole.

“A morale-building organization tends to uti-lize fully the skill, initiative, judgement, andtraining of its members, and through such uti-lization succeeds in building up these and oth-er qualities in everyone, so that the abilities ofall constantly expand, and the organizationthus is able to succeed and grow”.

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Measurement of Employee Morale

Morale can be measured by assessing atti-tude and job satisfaction. As it is an intangibleand subjective concept, it cannot be directlymeasured or evaluated. Employees may beunwilling to express their feelings of satisfac-tion or dissatisfaction with their job to the man-agement. Methods of measuring morale rangeall the way from the “hunch” or general “feel-ing”, appraisal to reasonably scientific efforts.

The most commonly used methods for mea-suring morale are:

1. The supervisor/executive’s impressions.

2. The guided interview.

3. The unguided interview.

4. A combination of the guided and unguidedinterview.

5. An analysis of company records.

6. The “listening-in” process.

7. The questionnaire.

8. A combination of any of the foregoingmethods.

General Impression of the SupervisorSome supervisors may not be able to tell youhow they know the morale of their men, butthey enjoy such an intimate relationship withthem that they do know what their attitudesare. They usually know how to get things doneaccording to the methods they have beentaught, but few of them have had any specialtraining in evaluating morale as such. Someexecutives are inspirational leaders and ca-pable of developing a high morale, but few ofthese are trained in observing and evaluatingmorale standards. Executives should be en-couraged to strive to sense the morale situa-tion and should be aided by more accuratetools that are available.

The Guided InterviewThe guided interview is based on the hypoth-esis that employees’ answers to certain ques-tions will reveal their attitudes. The questionsselected are presumed to be the ones that willcall forth a true picture of how the employeesfeel. This series of questions is usually ratherlarge. The interviewer seeks to direct the in-terview in such a manner as to secure the an-swers that will reveal the desired information.The guided interview is a useful method ofinvestigating the morale of supervisors or other

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groups that are small in comparison with theemployees as a whole.

The Unguided InterviewThis technique for measuring morale is pred-icated upon the theory that if employees areplaced in a position to talk freely, they will re-veal a true situation not so much by the exactthing complained of or discussed as by theinterviewer’s ability to relate what is said tobasic causes. It is also assumed that if theemployee himself is permitted to talk througha given problem or work situation without spe-cial prompting or questioning by the interview-er, he usually will become aware of the logicor lack of logic in the situation and choose forhimself the appropriate line of action.

The method of employee-attitude analysis isdesigned both to correct an unfavorable situ-ation and to secure information regarding thestatus of morale within the group. Though it isa more expensive method of measurementthan the questionnaire method, it not only pro-vides a means of interpreting morale but atthe same time is used to build morale.

A Combination of the Guided and Unguid-ed InterviewTo combine the two methods, the interviewermay start with the guided interview, whichshould be not too long or cover too much ter-ritory. The interviewer is then invited to dis-cuss any subject that he may like to talk about.During the guided interview some personstend to bring in material that has no specialsignificance in relation to the informationsought. The interviewer should observe suchinstances and encourage the interviewee tofollow up these leads during the unguidedposition of the interview. As a matter of fact,few guided interviews are strictly kept on thedetailed subjects laid out in the formal programand a conscious effort has to be put forth toget the most out of the unguided phases ofthe interview.

Company Records and ReportsThese are usually prepared by the personneldepartment at regular intervals with the assis-tance of supervisors and department heads.Generally, grievances and complaints tend toreveal the state of morale of a group unlessthese are being artificially stimulated. Exces-sive absenteeism or tardiness may also serveas an index of general or specific morale con-

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ditions, particularly where certain departmentshave an especially unfavorable record. La-bor turnover is a fair index of labor unrest ormorale, particularly during a period of laborshortage. This type of analysis is difficult andis not always reliable as an index of moralebecause it may not be possible to reveal themanagerial deficiencies that are not directlyinterpretable in terms of morale.

Listening-in by a Trained ObserverWhiting Williams of Cleveland, Ohio has de-veloped the “listening-in” technique to the ex-tent that it would be appropriate to call it the“Whiting Williams method”. He associates withthe workers at work and during recreationalperiods. He personally possesses the abilityto make his observations largely objective,something that is unusual in men who mightbe available for such work. But it is difficult tosecure individuals who possess the requiredscientific approach to do this work. Such ob-servers are prone to report what they thinktheir employers want them to find rather thanthe true situation. As a whole, this type ofinvestigation of the morale status of employ-ees is not satisfactory.

The Questionnaire MethodThis method is generally used to collect em-ployee opinions about the factors which af-fect morale and their effect on personnel ob-jectives. Morale surveys are generally con-ducted with a view to:

• Finding out what employees really think

• Finding out about the kind of education andinformation they need

• Improving morale and keeping a check onthe effectiveness of personnel programs;

• Determining the training needs of employees

• Finding out what employees really like

In the questionnaire, questions may be askedin various ways. The interviewer has to deter-mine the type of questions to be used depend-ing on the objectives of the survey. These in-clude multiple choice, dichotomous (yes or no)and open-ended questions.

Conducting the SurveyManagement may engage an outside consult-ant to conduct the entire survey. In this event,the consultant must be introduced to the em-

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ployees, and they should be assured that hewill not reveal to anyone an individuals’ an-swer. In some cases the company’s repre-sentatives may give the employees the ques-tionnaires in a stamped envelope, plantingthem on a table and permitting the employ-ees to get them if they wish to, or having afellow employee distributed them. Thestamped envelopes are frequently addressedto some management consultant or collegeprofessor who tabulates the results.

Indices of Low Morale

Signs of low morale generally not noticed un-til it is obviously, low or when something hasgone amiss. By the time the management rec-ognizes the fact that morale has deteriorated,it is faced with one crisis or another. Percep-tive managers are, therefore, constantly on thelookout for clues to any deterioration in themorale of the employees.

Dale Yoder and others pointed out the follow-ing as signals of low morale:

• Employee unrest

• High rate of absenteeism

• Tardiness

• High employee turnover

• Need for discipline

• Fatigue and monotony

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Improving Morale

There are a number of measures which canbe used to control the warning signals of lowmorale. The following are the positive mea-sures to be taken to bring job satisfaction tothe employees and reconcile individual inter-ests with the interests of the organization:

• Creation of whole jobs

• Job enrichment

• Building responsibility into a job

• Modifying the work environment

• Flexing working hours

• Job sharing

• Rotation of jobs

• Profit sharing

Morale can also be improved by adapting sev-eral other measures such as employee con-test, special recognition and awards to longservice employees, videos shown to employ-ees during their lunch hour, free coffee duringbreaks, and training the supervisors in how tohandle people.

Creation of whole jobsUnder this method, complete jobs are assignedto the workers. The complexity of a job shouldbe increased to that it may appeal to theirhigher needs.

Job enrichmentJob enrichment tries to deal with dissatisfac-tion by increasing job depth. Under this, indi-vidual employees may be given responsibilityfor setting their own work pace, for concerningtheir own errors, and/or for deciding on thebest way to perform a particular task.

Building responsibility into a jobEmployees should be encouraged to take riskdecision.

Modifying the work environmentThis can be achieved by:- developing work groups,- developing the social contacts of the

employees,- the use of music, and- regular breaks.

Flexing working hoursFlex time permits employees to arrange theirwork hours to suit their personal needs and

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life-styles. This is particularly suited to situa-tions with fluctuating work loads. Flextime em-ployees are responsible for coordinating theirfunctions with other employees and therebyhave more responsibility and autonomy.

Job sharingTwo workers divide a full-time job betweenthemselves splitting not only the hours of workbut also the salary. This reduces employee’sboredom which arises out of the monotonousnature of his work.

Profit sharingMorale can be improved by effective profitsharing schemes. In addition to its economicaspects, profit sharing has also psychologicalaspects relating to friendly move by the man-agement in providing the workers and oppor-tunity to participate in the profits.

Introduction to Motivation

The study of human motivation is of great im-portance in any theory of management. Manis by nature constantly motivated. He is an or-ganic system, not a mechanical one. The in-puts of energy such as food, water etc. areconverted by him into outputs of behavior. Hisbehavior is determined by relationships be-tween his characteristics as an organic sys-tem and the environment in which he moves.Management involves creation and mainte-nance of environment for performance of in-dividuals working together in groups towardsaccomplishment of common objectives andtherefore the manager cannot perform hisfunctions without knowing what motivates peo-ple.

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Motivation Defined

The personnel function is really all about mo-tivation. It is agreed that unless individuals aremotivated to make sufficient potential to per-form effectively, they may not achieve the lev-el of performance that is desired from them.Managerial people are always facing the prob-lems of motivating their subordinates to re-lease their potential most effectively and there-by permit the desired goals of the organiza-tion and the needs of employees to beachieved. Knowledge of the motivational pro-cess provides the basis for understanding whypeople do what they do.

Motivation is positively correlated with con-cepts of• level of aspiration,• degree of commitment, and• inclination towards action.

It is rightly said, “you can buy a man’s time,you can buy a man’s physical presence at agiven place, but you cannot buy his enthusi-asm, initiative and loyalty”. Motivation aims attransforming the ability to do into the will to

do. Motivated employees are in a state of ten-sion. To relieve this tension, they engage inactivity. The greater the tension, the greaterthe activity to bring about relief.

Therefore, when we see someone workinghard at some activity, we can conclude thatthe individual is driven by a desire to achievesome goal which he perceives as having val-ue to him.

Motivation has been defined as the act of stim-ulating someone to take a desired course ofaction -- to push the right button to get a de-sired reaction. It includes a stimulus and de-sired results. Motivation concerns itself withthe will to work. It seeks to know the motivesfor work and to find out ways and means bywhich their realization can be helped and en-couraged. Mr. Urwick has called it the dynam-ic aspect of management. According to Micha-el Jucius, motivation is an ‘act of stimulatingsomeone to get a desired course of action’.James Driver says that motivation means thephenomena involved in the operation of incen-tives and drives. In the words of P.T. Young,motivation is the process of• arousing or initiating behavior,• sustaining an activity in progress, and• channelling of activity in the given course.

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A man’s performance on a specific task is afunction of his skill and motivation. Thus it canbe said that P = F (S, M), where P is for per-formance, F for function, S for skill and M formotivation. Skill does not guarantee that theindividual will put forth his best effort. There isanother variable, namely motivation which fi-nally determines the effort which can be ex-pected from such employee. That differencein motivation affects performance has beendemonstrated very conclusively. In laborato-ry experiments it was found that other thingsbeing equal, performance level is higher if themotivation level is higher.

The key to understanding motivation lies inthe meaning and relationships between needs,drives and goals. This is demonstrated through‘the motivation cycle’ given below:

Needs Drives Goals

(Deprivation) (Deprivation (Reduction ofwith direction) drives)

1. Needs:The best one-word definition of a need isefficiency. In the homeostatic sense, needsare created whenever there is a physiolog-ical or psychological imbalance. For exam-ple, a need exists when a cell in the bodyis deprived of food and water or when thehuman personality is deprived of other per-sons who serve as friends or companions.

2. Drives: Drives are set up to alleviate needs.A drive can be defined as deficiency withdirection. Drives are action-oriented andprovide an energizing thrust toward goalaccomplishment. The examples of theneeds for food water are translated intohunger and thirst drives, and the need forfriends becomes a drive for affiliation.

3. Goals:At the end of the motivation cycle is thegoal. A goal in the motivation cycle can bedefined as anything which will alleviate aneed and reduce a drive.

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Motivation may range from a threatening ges-ture to a tradition-inspired activity. Thus theatmosphere of a working situation, the pasthistory of human relations in a company, ex-pectations about the future as well as a wageincentive plan can be stimuli to action.

It is believed that the full force of motivationlies in the person doing the motivating. In thecase of management, it is the magnetic per-sonality of the executive which induces highloyalty and production. If the executive doesnot have this quality, he is obviously at a dis-advantage. However, he can develop effec-tive plans of motivation.

Classes of Motivators

The range of stimuli which motivates peopleis very wide. Motivators may be either finan-cial or non-financial. Again non-financial mo-tivators may be individual, group or company.As regards individual motivators, it is obviousthat as human beings people have some basicneeds. Unless these are satisfied, life is notworth living. So in various ways people try tosatisfy these needs. Food, shelter, clothing,sex are such basic needs. These needs areserved through work. We earn money to pur-chase particular commodities and serviceswhich will satisfy our basic needs.

In the second place, equally powerful as mo-tivators are the stimuli which arise out of so-cial interactions. We are powerfully affectedby what others think of us and our actions.Even the basic wants are affected by groupapproval or disapproval. That we live in par-ticular communities, put on particular kinds ofclothing and prefer certain types of occupa-tions are due to adherence to group opinionof our families, neighbors or working associ-ates. As man is becoming more and more

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civilized, the power of group motivators grows.Simply by inveighing against them, one can-not undermine their importance. Managementshould utilize group pressures and if possible,should improve their quality and standards.

In the third place, attention should be given tothe specific relation of non-financial motiva-tors to the business situation. Sometimes thegoals of life may come into conflict with thegoals of business. Some adjustment is nec-essary. A man has to give up a large part oflife to earning his living.

Steps of Motivation

Following Michael Jucius, let us see how man-agement may proceed to motivate employees.This activity may be divided into two parts: (a)what is to be done and (b) how and why it isdone. The former are steps in motivation andthe latter are rules governing the steps. Bothare performed simultaneously. The steps ofmotivation are listed below:

1. Size up situation requiring motivation:The first stage of motivation is to make sureof motivational needs. Every employeeneeds motivation. However, all people donot react in exactly the same way to thesame stimuli. Keeping this in mind, the ex-ecutive shall size up how much and whatkind of motivation is needed and when andby which individuals.

2. Prepare a set of motivating tools:Having determined the motivational needsof a particular person or group an execu-tive must have a list from which he shouldselect and apply specific tools of motiva-tion. An executive from his personal expe-

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rience should prepare a list of what devic-es are likely to work with what type of peo-ple and under what circumstances.

3. Selecting and applying the appropriatemotivator:Proper application of a motivational plan isvery important. This involves selection ofthe appropriate technique, the method ofapplication and the timing and location ofapplications. Having selected appropri-ate techniques, thought must be given toits application.

4. Follow-up the results of the application:The last stage of motivation is to follow-upthe results of the application of the plan.The primary objective is to ascertain if anemployee has been motivated or not. Ifnot, some other technique should be tried.A secondary purpose of follow-up is to eval-uate motivation plans for future guidance.

Rules of Motivation

In following the steps of motivation, a managershould be guided by some fundamental ruleswhich should be based upon the following prin-ciples:

1. Self-interest and motivation:Undoubtedly, motivation is mainly built onselfishness. Psychologically speaking,selfishness is a part and parcel of life.To deny this is to build the theory on unre-alistic foundation. To seek some otherbasis of motivation would be to ignorethe real nature of man. The aim shouldbe to learn more about selfishness.

2. Attainability:Motivation must establish attainable goals.What is prescribed for a particular personmust be attainable by him. This does notmean that the goal is realized at once. Suchgoals as promotion or desirable transfermay take years to attain. But it must be with-in reach.

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Eight Ways to MotivatePlant Employees

Based on a fact-finding study conducted atseveral manufacturing plants of the GeneralElectric Company, Sorcher and Meyer havemade the following recommendations for im-proving the motivation of employees in rou-tine jobs:

1. Provide assembly line employeeswith more than minimum training.Providing some sort of formal training fora factory employee beyond the requiredminimum should result in greater person-al involvement in the job.

2. Create sub-goals to measureaccomplishment.A sense of competition is important forgood motivation. When people work to-wards clearly defined goals they performbetter. Moreover, they are likely to be moreinterested in the work which will reducemonotony and mental fatigue.

3. Provide regular feedback onperformance.Psychological studies show that peopleperform better when they receive positiveas well as negative feedback about theirperformance on a regular basis.

4. Maintain a neat and orderly work area.If the foreman does not care about neat-ness, employees may feel that they neednot care about it and this attitude may alsoaffect the quality of their work.

5. Arrange work situation so as conver-sation between employees is easy.Experienced workers can do routine jobswith little attention to the task. Conver-sation while working may reduce monot-ony and fatigue and thus have a favor-able effect on output.

6. If possible, increase the number ofoperations performed by one employee.This can be done by the simplification ofmanual operations. It offers several advan-tages, namely:• the risk of errors is reduced;• training costs are minimized;• management can hire employees at lower

wages.

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7. Structure jobs, so that workers can,at least occasionally, move aboutthe work area.Besides job rotation, there are other waysto provide for physical movement such asletting employees secure their own toolsor by adding operations which require somephysical activity.

8. Explore ways to assign greaterpersonal responsibility.Increased responsibility means greater self-esteem and greater job meaningfulness.One way to enlarge responsibility is to letan employee inspect his own work.

Theories of Motivation

The importance of motivation to human life andwork can be judged by the number of theoriesthat have been propounded to explain peo-ple’s behavior. They explain human motiva-tion through human needs and human nature.Prominent among these theories are Maslow’sNeed Hierarchy Theory, McGregor’s TheoryX and Theory Y, and Herzberg’s (et al) Moti-vation-Hygiene Theory.

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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Maslow’s theory of basic needs provides valu-able insights about human motivation. Maslowviews an individual’s motivation as a prede-termined order of needs which he strives tosatisfy. His model of ‘Hierarchy of Needs’ in-dicates the following propositions about hu-man behavior.

1. Physiological needs:These are basic to life: hunger for food,thirst, shelter and companionship amongothers. They are relatively independent ofeach other and in some cases can be iden-tified with a specific location in the body.These needs are cyclic. In other words,they are satisfied for only a short period;then they reappear.

2. Safety needs:If the physiological needs are relativelysatisfied, a set of needs emerge for pro-tection against danger and threats. In anordered society, a person usually feels salefrom extremes of climate, tyranny, violenceand so on.

3. Social needs:If the physiological and safety needs arefairly satisfied, the needs for love and af-fection and belongingness will emerge andthe cycle will repeat itself with this new cen-ter. If he is deprived of these needs he willwant to attain them more than anything elsein the world. An individual desires affection-ate relationships with people in generaland desires to have a respected place inhis group.

4. Esteem needs:Everyone has a need for self-respect andfor the esteem of others. This results in thedesire for strength, confidence, prestige,recognition and appreciation. These ego-istic needs are rarely completely satisfied.The typical industrial and commercial or-ganization does not offer much opportuni-ty for their satisfaction to employees at thelower levels.

5. Self-actualization needs:The term “self-actualization” was coined byKurt Goldstein and means, to become ac-tualized in what one is potentially good at.A person may achieve self-actualization inbeing an ideal fitter, supervisor, mother of

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an eminent artist etc.

People who are satisfied with these needs arebasically satisfied people and it is from thesethat we can expect the fullest creativeness. Asound motivational system -- in order to besuccessful -- must be productive in the senseof inducing subordinates to work efficiently,must be comprehensive, i.e., it must coverbasic as well as higher needs and it must beflexible to suit changes in the environment.

McGregor’sTheory X and Theory Y

The character of an enterprise depends on theassumptions of the management in control-ling its human resources. Professor DouglasMcGregor presented two opposite sets of as-sumptions about employees, about manage-ment views and about the nature of man atwork. These have been represented by The-ory X and Theory Y. Theory X stands for theset of traditional beliefs held, while Theory Ystands for the set of beliefs based upon re-searches in behavioral science which is con-cerned with modern social views on man atwork. These two theories represent the ex-treme ranges of assumptions, there are a num-ber of possible combinations on the continu-um. The managerial attitudes and superviso-ry practices resulting from such assumptionshave an important bearing on employee’s be-havior.

Theory X is based on assumptions and be-liefs which are based on the study of manypeople at work, and the nature and structureof many organizations and their styles of

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supervision. These assumptions imply that thesupervisor has a low opinion of the workersand still lower expectations from them. Suchbeliefs reduce the supervisor’s efforts to en-hance satisfaction in work, which in turn con-firms a worker’s view that work is a necessaryevil.

Theory Y puts forward the opposite assump-tions which provide a totally different pictureof human nature and therefore call for a dif-ferent managerial strategy in dealing withemployers. Theory Y implies that need satis-faction is necessary at the workplace.

The following items are important:

1. Both theories X and Y make certain not-so-valid judgments.

2. They may not reflect man’s inherent nature;rather such behavior in man is in part theresult of management philosophy and prac-tices.

3. Theory Y particularly unduly emphasizesself-actualization and freedom, implyingthat all people seek freedom, while thereare definite indications that not all people

feel comfortable with freedom, becausefreedom entails responsibility and indepen-dent decision-making which people maynot subscribe to.

4. In an organization, depending on the situ-ation, either theory X or theory Y could beeffectively applied. However, in choosingone or the other, managers have to bearthe implications in mind so that problemssuch as interpersonal or interdepartmentalconflicts can be avoided.

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Herzberg’s (et al.)Motivation Hygiene Theory

In one group of needs are such things as com-pany policy and administration, supervision,working conditions, interpersonal relations,salary, status, job security, and personal life.These were found by Herzberg and his asso-ciates to be only dissatisfiers and not motiva-tors. In other words, if they exist in a workenvironment in high quantity, they yield no dis-satisfaction. Their existence does not motivatesatisfaction; their lack of existence would, how-ever, result in dissatisfaction. These werecalled hygiene factors and were found to job-context variables. In the second group,Herzberg listed certain satisfiers and thereforemotivators all related to job content. Theseinclude the factors of achievement, recogni-tion, challenging work, advancement, andgrowth in the job. Their existence will yieldfeeling of satisfaction or no satisfaction.

The first group of factors Herzberg called‘maintenance’ or ‘hygiene ‘ factors. Their pres-ence will not motivate people in an organiza-tion; yet they must be present or dissatisfac-

tion will arise. The second group, or the job-content factors, are found to be the real moti-vators because they have the potential of yield-ing a sense of satisfaction.

The following points are worth noting aboutthe motivation hygiene theory:

1. Job content and job context factors are dis-crete aspects of work and are neither dif-ferent points on the same continuum nordifferent levels in the motivation hierarchy.Absence of one does not mean the pres-ence of another.

2. A satisfactory situation can also have ele-ments of job context just as a dissatisfac-tory situation can have elements of job con-tent. However, a satisfactory situation willbe context-oriented.

3. Some doubts have been raised on themethodology. Since it involves recallingevents, how can we guarantee its authen-ticity? Despite this drawback, the theoryhas been supported across various kindsof samples, organizations and cultures.

4. The theory implies that to generate satis-faction, attempts have to be made to im-prove the job content.

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Employees and Motivation

A common question that is raised is whetheremployees can at all be motivated. To many,it is obvious that neither direct pressure norgood treatment can effectively motivate em-ployees to do a job satisfactorily. There areno ready-made remedies for bringing aboutan effective motivation but certain factors asanalyzed by research scientists could be usedas guidelines.

Basically, people motivate themselves and areseldom motivated directly by other people. In-stead of direct manipulation, creation of anatmosphere that will help the individual toreach greater achievement is important.

Secondly, motivation of people depends ontheir image of themselves and their expecta-tion of what that image should be. A person’spsychological needs affect his self-image.

Thirdly, achievement is always a result of moti-vation, i.e. ability to achieve. Therefore, bothability and desire to achieve must be consid-ered in any program aimed at motivation.

Fourthly, a person’s desire to modify or con-trol his behavioral pattern when they interferewith positive achievement. It is the responsi-bility of the management in such a situation tohelp and understand his motivational patternand provide the environment in which he canachieve his goal.

Even if the employees have a high potentialfor self-motivation, it shall be the duty of themanagement to provide the climate in whichit will flourish. The following suggestions wouldbe very helpful in developing an atmosphereconductive to sustained motivation:

1. Establish clear-cut objectives and standards.The individual must know what is expect-ed of him.

2. Evaluate the man’s progress against theseyardsticks.

3. Discuss his progress or lack of it with himas often as is possible -- help him to makenecessary adjustments.

4. Take prompt corrective action when nec-essary. Good discipline is essential to anyhealthy environment.

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5. Use rewards promptly and apply when re-sults are good. Rewards must be tied tothe specific result and be commensuratewith the contribution.

6. Encourage and appreciate excellenceamong people.

7. Consider your expectations for the man interms of his capacity. Encourage the manwith high talent who produces much, butbe appreciative of the less talented manwho lives up to the last ounce of his capacity.

8. Try to assign intermediate goals to give thefeeling of achievement. A series of smallsuccesses can build confidence and ex-pand horizons.

9. Give a man a difficult challenge on occasion,particularly in less critical areas, and buildup his ego.

10.Give him an understanding of the organi-zation’s total goals and the part that he iscontributing. This provides him with asense of involvement essential to his needto grow and develop.

Distinction betweenMorale and Motivation

Morale and motivation even though interrelat-ed are NOT synonyms.

Motivation is individualistic while morale is agroup instinct. An employee may be motivat-ed to do a job well even if the morale is low.Morale is on account of various favorable atti-tudes and congenial climate available in anorganization. Motivation is intrinsic and can beimproved by external factors. Industrial mo-rale is the composite expression of attitudesof the various individuals employed by the or-ganization which is ultimately reflected throughthe generalized feelings of the individual em-ployee, both as an individual as well as themember of his group. It is generated by thegroup and its leadership through the develop-ment and maintenance of adequate interper-sonal relationships.

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Exercise

I. Define Motivation.

Distinguish between motivation andmorale.

II. Explain the views of Herzberg andMaslow on motivation.

III. Critically examine Maslow’s NeedHierarchy Theory with examples.

IV. Bring out the relationship betweenMorale and Productivity.

V. What are the various methods availableto measure employees’ morale?

Illustrate with examples.

VI. Enumerate and explain different stagesof motivation.

VII. Explain McGregor’s Theory of X and Y.

What are its limitations ?

VIII. Write Notes on:

a) Indices of low morale

b) Hygiene factors

c) Improving morale

d) Job satisfaction