How Verbs Change Your Meaning Throughout Your Research Paper

Dr. Steve Wallace

Overview of Speech• How to report facts, opinions, and implications by using the

correct verbs and verb tenses.• How to use tentative verbs to express a probability,

possibility, or doubt. • How to use verbs in 5 parts of the Introduction, in 2 parts

of the Methods, in 4 parts of the results, and in 5 parts of the discussion.

• How to use the correct verb to show that you agree, disagree, or are neutral toward previous literature in your Introduction.

• How to indicate the strength or weakness of a previous study through your word use.

• How to avoid anthropomorphism in verb use.

Researchers are paper builders

• Research is our material • Writing is the building process• Grammar rules are the tools • Like a building, our research may a have far

reaching and long lasting impact • As teachers, our impact expands beyond our

work to the work of the next generation of scholars we teach – apprenticeship

Teaching writing to students

• Teaching requires something concrete to keep students awake

• Familiarity, Proximity, Reality, and Activity• Comparing to something concrete gives us a

feeling of accomplishment

Blue collar writing habits

Build in pieces Show up every day and follow a routineDo not wait to write

The act of writing improves creativityDo not criticize your rough draft

We write to make our bad ideas better “The best way to get good ideas is to have lots of ideas.” - Linus Pauling

Pride in our work and sharing our skills with others

Roof: Discussion

Foundation: Introduction

Walls: Results

Door: Methods

Tool box = English

Building material = researchBlue print = article structure

The editor and reviewers are building inspectors for our paper

• Poor paper building (English) is used as a common reason for rejection and major revisions

• Rejection and major revisions take time• Careless English suggests careless research• Editors and reviewers do not have time to

rebuild papers

Today’s Talk• We will discuss some fundamental tools that

you need in scholarly writing • We will skip details and exceptions to make

this memorable, practical, and applicable with the greatest benefit

• Verbs =

• Punctuation = Hammer and Nails

Why Discuss Verb Tense?• Verb tense is a fundamental tool that is used

in every sentence like a saw • Verb tense controls research impact and

meaning• Extremely high value area to focus our time• Nine years explaining in class, writing lab, to

editors, and to clients

Common tenses in academic writing (99% of tense usage)

Tenses not common in the research paper (1% - we won’t discuss today)

General Principles of Tense Use in Academic Writing

When to Use the Present Tense

Use the present tense when stating or referring to an established fact

• Fine motor skills require integrating muscular, skeletal, and neurological functions.

• The salt in most oceans is approximately 97% sodium chloride (Ritchie, 1999).

Use the present tense when explaining the essential details of

conventional (unmodified) materials

• The scanning electron microscope (SEM) generally contains a tungsten hairpin filament, which serves as an electron source.

• Silicon is the core component of most semiconductor devices, and demonstrates electrochemical properties in aqueous solutions.

Use the present tense for facts about a general population

• The population density of Shanghai is approximately 2,657 people per square kilometer.

• Nearly 80% of Singaporeans are literate in English as either their first or second language.

Use the present tense to explain and describe equations and variables

• This equation illustrates the expected behavior of the spin system as a function of time and initial conditions.

• Equation (3) shows how solitary waves are generated at the bump and run upstream.

Use the present tense to describe what your figures and tables show

• The vital signs upon presentation are summarized in Table 1.

• Figure 1 shows the relationship between age and incidence of dementia.

• Exception: X affected Y (Fig. 2).

Use the present tense when referring to your paper overall

• The aim of this paper is to determine the principal mechanical parameters of thin film deposited on a circular glass substrate.

Introducing the tentative present tense

Shows approximation, probability, and doubtby using

1) Modal auxiliaries2) Tentative words

Modal auxiliaries

• Will • Would • Should• May• Might• Could

Examples of the tentative present tense using modals

• Generalized results could substantially alter the course of research in this field.

• If applied as recommended herein, the proposed method would mitigate the uncertainties that have thus far hindered progress.

Examples of tentative words• Adjectives: apparent, consistent with, few, many, most,

possible, presumed, probable, several, some, supposed • Adverbs: about, apparently, arguably, fairly, generally,

largely, likely, more or less, mostly, often, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, quite, rather, somewhat, unlikely, usually

• Nouns: appearance, indication, inference, likelihood, possibility, probability, suggestion, tendency, to our knowledge

• Verbs: aim, appear, assume, can, could, estimate, indicate, infer, intend, may, might, presume, propose, seem, seen as, should, speculate, suggest, suppose, tend

Examples of the tentative present tense using tentative words

• “X appears to affect Y.”• “X has a tendency to affect Y.”• “This phenomenon indicates that X affects Y.”

When to Use the Tentative Present Tense

Use the tentative present tense for the implications of your

findings• This antigen seems to behave as an adhesion

molecule in NK-target cell interaction.• Spirochetes appear to grow preferentially on

the external surface of subgingival plaque.

Use the tentative present tense to express uncertainty, approximation,

and doubt• Managerial accountants seem to be generally

averse to outsourcing.• Managerial accountants might be generally

averse to outsourcing.

Use the tentative present tense when expressing expected outcomes or offering future recommendations

• This research may provide an alternative to the common field measurement of soil erosion and runoff.

How to Use the Past Tense

Use the past tense when describing the methods of your study

• A questionnaire was administered to evaluate the current impact of nursing innovation in neonatal intensive care units.

Use the past tense when describing materials in your study that you modified, altered, or changed

• “A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was modified by adding large-field vector deflection to examine remote radioactive specimens.”

• “The silicon used in this study was an n-type silicon obtained from 100-mm diameter ingots grown using the Czochralski method.”

Use the past tense when reporting data obtained through your research

or your literature review

• “According to a 2009 survey conducted by the Institute of Higher Education, Keio was the top-ranked private university in Tokyo; the next highest were Juntendo, Waseda, and Nihon.”

• “One-third of Internet users in Europe were infected by malware in 2010.”

• “The students surveyed in this study were not a randomly selected population and may not, therefore, be representative of all students at NCTU.”

Use the past tense to refer to the findings, results, or suggestions of a

single, previous study• “Johnson & Lin (2002) determined that

calcium, zinc, and iron levels were higher in wild rice than in white rice.”

• “Taggert (2007) reported that in 85% of cases, the kidneys are affected by Wegner’s glomerulonephritis.”

• Common verbs in the past tense: investigated, studied, compared, analyzed, found, and examined

When writing research-focused statements (referring to your own

study), use the past tense

• “The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not a genetic correlation exists between performance levels at high and low temperatures.”

When to Use the Present Perfect Tense

Use the present perfect tense when referring to multiple previous studies• Several researchers have studied the

relationship between classroom lighting and standardized test performance (Jens, 2006; Kirby et al., 2008; Milner, 2009).

• Hahn et al. (2009) and Thomas (2010) have investigated the economic performance and management quality of banks in Taiwan.

• Previous research on the superconductivity of degenerate materials has been rare.

How to Use the Future Tense

The future tense is rarely used in research submitted for publication

• Commonly incorrectly used• Possibly use for future work or projections• Should be used in proposals• Can be used in protocols and standard

operating procedures• Can be used in theses and dissertations

How to Apply Tenses Throughout the Research Paper

Overview of the tenses in the Introduction

Stage one: Motivation starting with current knowledge or previous studies - Present or Present perfect tense

Stage two: Literature review - Present, Present perfect, or Past tense

Stage three: Knowledge gap – Present or Present perfect tense

Stage four: Problem statement – Present or Past tense

Stage five: Rationale for study – Tentative present tense

Introductions Stage one: Present tense or Present perfect

• “Motor skills require action based on rapid change in the environment.”

• “Clean water is a basic human need.”• “Previous studies have indicated the need for

further research in X.”

Introduction Stage two: Literature Review

• Fact citation – Present tense- “In most deserts of the world, transitions between

topographic elements are abrupt (Kramer, 1993).” Multiple study citation – Present perfect tense- “Several researchers have studied the relationship

between classroom adjustment and mobility (Smith, et al. 2002; Johnson and Willard, 2003; Madsen, 2009).”

Single study citation-Past tense- “Allington (1998) found that teachers allocated

equal time to all groups.”

Tenses in single study citation: Present, past, or tentative present tense

• “Johnson found that X affects Y.”• “Johnson found that X affected Y.”• “Johnson suggested that X may affect Y.”

Introduction Stage three: Knowledge gapPresent or present perfect tense

• “However, few studies have reported on the effects of computer assisted instruction.”

• “However, few studies have investigated the effects of antioxidant seeds on the endocrine system.”

• No previous work on the relationship between X and Y currently exists in the literature.

Introduction Stage four: Objective Past or present tense

• “The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not genetic differences exist at low temperatures in pepper species.”

• “The aim of this paper is to determine whether an automatic measurement system can be applied to educational settings.”

Optional introduction Stage five: ImplicationsTentative present tense

• “This research may contribute an alternative approach to the problem of manually demonstrating instrumentation principles in classroom environments.”

• “This research may provide an alternative to the common field measurement of soil erosion and runoff.”

Overview of tenses in the Methods

• Describing multiple previous studies: Present perfect tense

• Describing conventional material: Present tense

• Describing modified material: Past tense• Describing general populations: Present tense• Specific samples: Past tense• Procedures: Past tense

Use the present perfect tense when referring to multiple previous studies• “Hahn et al. (2009) and Thomas (2010) have

investigated the economic performance and management quality of banks in Taiwan.”

• “Previous research on the superconductivity of degenerate materials has been rare.”

Findings, results, or suggestions of a single, previous study: Past

tense• “Johnson & Lin (2002) determined that

calcium, zinc, and iron levels were higher in wild rice than in white rice.”

• “Taggert (2007) reported that in 85% of cases, the kidneys are affected by Wegner’s glomerulonephritis.”

Describing conventional material: Present tense

• “The scanning electron microscope (SEM) generally contains a tungsten hairpin filament, which serves as an electron source.”

• “Silicon is the core component of most semiconductor devices, and demonstrates electrochemical properties in aqueous solutions.”

• “A typical chemical reactor includes a helical, tube-in-tube heat exchanger.”

Describing a modified material: Past tense

• “For the testing program, this collector was protected from weather by an outer window of .10-mm tedlar.”

• “A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was modified by adding large-field vector deflection to examine remote radioactive specimens.”

• “The silicon used in this study was an n-type silicon obtained from 100-mm diameter ingots grown using the Czochralski method.”

Describing populations: Present tense

• “All students who apply for admission to NCTU take the General English Proficiency Test.”

• “Nearly 80% of Singaporeans are literate in English as either their first or second language.”

Specific samples from a population: Past tense

• “The students surveyed in this study were not a randomly selected population and may not, therefore, be representative of all students at NCTU.”

• “The subjects were 18 Chinese-speaking students attending at NCTU.”

Explain and describe equations and variables: Present tense

• “This equation illustrates the expected behavior of the spin system as a function of time and initial conditions.”

Procedures: Past tense

• “Stress was applied to the rubber segments.”• “A questionnaire was administered to

evaluate the current impact of nursing innovation in neonatal intensive care units.”

Results

• Locating figures: Present tense• Presenting the findings: Past tense• Comparing results with the results of other

studies: Present tense and modals • Commenting on results: Present tense and/or

tentative verbs

Locating figures: Present tense

• “Results of the t-tests are presented in Table 1.”

• “Table II lists the results of the independent t-test.”

• “Figure 3(c) displays the chemical reaction scheme used to synthesize the copolymer.”

Presenting the findings: Past tense

• “Subjects in this study spent more time engaged in activities that matched their interests and skill levels.”

• “Participants in each reward trial selected the high-probability stimulus significantly more often than the low-probability stimulus (P < 0.05).”

• “As a group, divorced mothers spent over twice as much time in employment as married mothers (Figure 2).”

Presenting different types of results: Past tense

• “The highest incidence of Otitis Media was found among Australian Indians.”

• “Prices showed a tendency to increase over the three year period.”

• “Dry weight of top growth was not highly related to total nitrogen.”

Comparing results with other studies: Present tense

• “As opposed to previous research using noncontact specular microscopy, our Orbscan II measurements are significantly smaller.”

• “Conversely, our results demonstrate improved performance over previously proposed methods.”

Commenting on results: Tentative present tense

• “Hyperactive children may be generally responsive to amphetamines.”

• “Hyperactive children appear to be generally responsive to amphetamines.”

• “Managerial accountants seem to be generally averse to outsourcing.”

• “Managerial accountants might be generally averse to outsourcing.”

Overview of tenses in the Discussion

• Referring to the purpose, Referring to the hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past tense

• Explaining findings: Past or tentative present tense

• Limiting findings: Past or tentative present tense

• Comparing findings: Present tense• Implications: Tentative present tense• Recommendations and applications:

Tentative present tense

Referring to the purpose, Referring to the hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past

tense• “In this research, we attempted to assess two

theories of behavior.” • “We originally assumed that physical decrements

would be more apparent in speed jobs that in skill jobs.”

• “The principle of readability was not followed in the income tax booklet on any of the counties studied except Hsinchu.”

Explaining findings: Tentative present tense with past or present in second verb

• “These results indicate that microbial activity caused some immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.”

• “These results indicate that microbial activity cause some immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.”

Comparing findings to previous findings: Present tense

• “These results are in substantial agreement with those of Bates (2).”

• “This outcome corresponds with that of Rundle et al. (2008).”

• “Our findings agree with those of both Cherundolo (2002) and Dempsey (2010).”

Limiting findings: Past or tentative present tense

• “The sample was small.”• “Other industries may produce different

results.”• “The sample involved only children aged three

to five years old.”

Implications: Tentative present tense

• “Squatter housing markets seem to behave as economically rational entities.”

• “This antigen could behave as an adhesion molecule in NK-target cell interaction.”

• “Spirochetes appear to grow preferentially on the external surface of subgingival plaque.”

Recommendations and applications: Tentative present tense

• “The approach outlined in this study should be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”

• “We recommend that the approach outlined in this study be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”

How to Use Reporting Verbs

Reporting Verbs

• A reporting verb introduces information that is written by another author

• An author's name is often the subject of the verb

• The object or complement of a reporting verb usually contains information from an academic text

• Common in the Literature Review

Three reasons for using a reporting verb

1) To present the aim of the study you are summarizing“Smith (2010) examined the relationship between research and

scholarly writing.”

2) To talk about the results that the author you are summarizing“Jones (2002) showed that deaths per capita in accidents are

particularly high in developing countries.”

3) To give the opinion of the author you are summarizing “Smith (2002:96) argued that the adoption of just-in-time

delivery systems was the decisive factor for Japanese economic success in the 1980s.”

Reporting verbs for the Aim of Study

• investigate• examine• analyze• focus on• identify• report (on)

Reporting verbs for the Results

• show (that)• find (that)• identify (x) as• reveal (that)• establish (that)• confirm (that)• conclude (that)*

Reporting verbs for Opinion

• state (that)• believe (that)• argue (that)• point out (that)• consider (that)• hold (that)• claim (that)

Reporting verbs for main points and supporting points

• Common verbs for reporting claims (i.e., statements) based on theory or research

• Main points Supporting points• assert note• claim observe• state point out

Example of reporting a main point followed with a supporting point

“Smith (2010) stated that poor diet was a key cause of obesity. He noted that obesity was a major issue in developing countries.”

Example of reporting a result followed with a conclusion drawn

from that result• “In a study to investigate obesity, Smith

(2012) showed that young people who ate fast food more than 3 times a week were heavier than young people who ate meals at home. This finding suggests that obesity is associated with eating fast food.”

Poor reporting verbs: Mention

• The verb 'mention' is unsuitable for reporting the results of experiments and studies.

• “Smith (2010) mentioned three factors which can lead to obesity.”

• The verb 'mention' makes the 'three factors' seem unimportant and not supported by evidence or analysis.

Poor reporting verb: Say

• Can use 'say' to introduce a direct spoken quotation.

• “Johnson says that further research into the causes of X is needed.”

• Frequent use of the verb 'say' can make writing informal.

Using Reporting Verbs to Show Opinion

Reporting verbs show your opinion of others’ ideas

1) A belief that the literature is correct (stronger position)

2) A belief that the literature is incorrect (weaker position)

3) A neutral attitude towards the veracity of the literature (i.e., neither correct nor incorrect – neutral position)

Positive reporting verbs for agreeing with an author’s opinion

• Acknowledges• Affirms• Certifies• Explains• Identifies• Observes

Example of expressing a positive opinion about cited information

• “Gardner (1994) observes that what turns good teaching material into good learning material is what teachers do with it.”

Negative reporting verbs for disagreeing with an author’s opinion

• Accuses• Claims• Guesses• Proclaims• Expects• Hopes

Example of expressing a negative opinion about cited information

• “Gardner (1994) claims that what turns good teaching material into good learning material is what teachers do with it.”

Neutral reporting verbs for citing an author’s opinion

AddsConcludesDescribesMaintainsSays (for spoken quote)States

Example of expressing a neutral opinion about cited information

• “Gardner (1994) states that what turns good teaching material into good learning material is what teachers do with it.”

Examples of Strong, Neutral, and Weak Reporting Verbs by

Function

Verb function: agreement

• Weaker position: admits, concedes• Neutral position: accepts, acknowledges,

agrees, concurs, confirms, recognizes• Stronger position: applauds,

congratulates, extols, praises, supports

Verb function: argument and persuasion

• Weaker position: apologizes• Neutral position: assures, encourages,

interprets, justifies, reasons • Stronger position: alerts, argues, boasts,

contends, convinces, emphasizes, exhorts, forbids, insists, proves, promises, persuades, threatens, warns

Verb function: disagreement and questioning

• Weaker position: doubts, questions• Neutral position: challenges, debates,

disagrees, questions, requests, wonders • Stronger position: accuses, attacks,

complains, contradicts, criticizes, denies, discards, disclaims, discounts, dismisses, disputes, disregards, negates, objects to, opposes, refutes, rejects

Verb function: discussion

• Weaker position: comments• Neutral position: discusses, explores• Stronger position: reasons

Verb function: presentation

• Weaker position: confuses• Neutral position: comments, defines,

describes, estimates, forgets, identifies, illustrates, implies, informs, instructs, lists, mentions, notes, observes, outlines, points out, presents, remarks, reminds, reports, restates, reveals, shows, states, studies, tells, uses

• Stronger position: announces, promises

Verb function: suggestion

• Weaker position: alleges, intimates, speculates

• Neutral position: advises, advocates, hypothesizes, posits, postulates, proposes, suggests, theorizes

• Stronger position: asserts, recommends,

Verb function: emphasis

• Weaker position: (none) • Neutral position: accentuates,

emphasizes, highlights, • Stronger position: stresses,

underscores, warns

Verb function: believing

• Weaker position: guesses, hopes, imagines • Neutral position: believes, claims, declares,

expresses, feels, holds, knows, maintains, professes, subscribes to, thinks

• Stronger position: asserts, guarantees, insists, upholds

Verb function: evaluation and examination

• Weaker position: (none) • Neutral position: analyses, appraises,

assesses, compares considers, contrasts, critiques, evaluates, examines, investigates,

• Stronger position: blames, complains, ignores, scrutinizes, warns

Anthropomorphism

• “An interpretation of what is not human or personal in terms of human or personal characteristics.” (Merriam-Webster, 2010)

• "Do not attribute human characteristics to nonhuman animals or to inanimate sources." (APA; 2010, section 3.09)

• "An experiment cannot attempt to demonstrate, control unwanted variables, or interpret findings, nor can tables or figures compare (all of these can, however, show or indicate)." (p. 38).

APA (2010) manual provides the following examples:

• Correct: “Pairs of rats (cage mates) were allowed to forage together.”

• Incorrect: “Rat couples (cage mates) were allowed to forage together.” (p. 69)

• Problem: Rats cannot be rightly described as a couple; that term is used with reference to people.

• Incorrect: “This experiment will attempt to demonstrate that laughter leads to long life.”

• Correct: “The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate that laughter leads to long life.”

More APA examples

• Incorrect: “The community program was persuaded to allow five of the observers to become tutors.”

• Correct: “The staff for the community program were persuaded to allow five of the observers to become tutors.”

• Incorrect: “The National Education Association (NEA) feels that school reform is inappropriate.”

• Correct: “Officials of the National Education Association (NEA) feel that school reform is inappropriate.”

Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect: “The article discussed issues related to CBU in TFT-LCDs.”

• Correct: “Rogers (2010) discussed issues related to CBU in TFT-LCDs.”

Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect: “This experiment will attempt to demonstrate that X can affect Y.”

• Correct: “The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate that X can affect Y.”

Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect: “The statistics argued in favor of adding X to Y.”

• Correct: “The statistics indicated that X should be added to Y.”

Some anthropomorphisms found in student writing

• Incorrect: “The university wanted to discover a way to increase student enrollment.”

• Correct: “The university administrators wanted to discover a way to increase student enrollment.”

More examples of anthropomorphisms

• “When the drill string feels the weight,…” • “TSMC stock enjoyed a 2% rise

today”

Using the verb “feel” in academic writing

• “We feel that the best answer is X” • “We feel that this conclusion is

incorrect”

• “Feel” has an emotional and not rational meaning• Using this term can make you look uncertain, especially when

you use it with quantities or conclusions

Verb tense: Humanities (MLA)

• Books, Poems, Plays, Movies• When you are discussing a book, poem, movie, play, or song

the convention in the humanities is to use the present tense:

“In An Introduction to English Grammar (2006), Noam Chomsky discusses several types of syntactic structures.”

“In Paradise Lost, Milton sets up Satan as a hero who changes the course of history.”

Verbs for Historical Contrast/ Humanities

• To contrast ideas from different periods, you can use the past and the present or present perfect tense. The past tense implies that an idea has lost its validity, while the present tense conveys the current state of acceptance.

• “Stanley Fish (1993) maintained a reader-response stance in his analysis of Milton's L'Allegro and Il Penseroso. However, recent literary critics consider/have considered this stance to be inappropriate for the two poems.”

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