How can rocks be correlated? And Geologic Time Scale Interpreting Earth’s History.
How do geologic processes change the shape of Earth’s surface?
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Transcript of How do geologic processes change the shape of Earth’s surface?
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How do geologic processes change the shape of Earth’s surface?
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What do Earth’s layers consist of?
• Crust
• Mantle
• Core
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Crust
• Layer of rock that forms Earth’s “outer skin”
• Includes rocks, mountains, soil, water
• Thin: 5-40km thick
• 870◦C
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2 Types:
• Continental: Dry land (granite)
• Oceanic: Ocean (basalt)
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Mantle
• Layer of hot rock
• 2,900km thick
• 2,200◦C
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2 Sub layers:
• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere
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Lithosphere
• Rigid
• Much like the crust
• 100km thick
• Floats on top of the asthenosphere
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Asthenosphere
• Plastic like
• Material can flow slowly like hot tar
• Has both solid & liquid qualities
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Core
• Consists of iron & nickel
• 5,000◦C
• Makes up 1/3 of Earth’s mass
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2 sub layers:
• Outer Core
• Inner Core
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Outer Core
• Layer of molten material
• Covers the inner core
• 2,250km thick
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Inner Core
• Dense solid ball of metal
• Extreme pressure does not allow Fe & Ni to spread out to form liquid
• 1,200km thick
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What are the 3 ways that heat is transferred?
• Radiation
• Conduction
• Convection
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Radiation
• Heat transferred by EM waves through space
• EX: Sitting by the fire!
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Conduction
• Heat transferred through direct contact
• EX: Spoon in hot chocolate
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Convection
• Heat transferred through a fluid movement of either a gas or liquid
• EX: Chicken noodle soup heating on the stove!
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Which of these do you think happens in Earth’s mantle?
• Convection!
• Convection currents flow in the asthenosphere
• Heated material rises to the top of the mantle (lithosphere), cools, then sinks back to the bottom
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What does the Theory of Continental Drift state?
• 1910
• Alfred Wegener hypothesized that all the continents had once been a single landmass
• A super continent
called “Pangaea”
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Scientific Method
• Problem/Question
• Research
• Hypothesis
• Experiment
• Analyze
• Conclude
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Supporting Evidence of Wegener’s theory
• Landforms
• Fossils
• Climate
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Landforms
• South America & Africa have similar mountain ranges
• Europe & North America have similar coal fields
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Fossils
• Fossil-any trace of an ancient organism that has been preserved in rock
• Mesoaurus fossils have been found in places now separated by oceans
• Glossopteris (fern like plant) fossils have been in rocks in Africa, South America, Australia, India, & Antarctica
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Climate
• Spitsbergen Island lies in the Arctic Ocean, north of Norway, covered with ice
• Fossils of tropical plants have been discovered under the ice!
• South Africa-deep scratches in rock indicate glacier movement there!!!
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REJECTED!!!
• Scientists rejected Wegener’s theory of continental drift
• Most scientists in the 1900’s believed the Earth was cooling & shrinking causing the continents to move & mountains to form
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Is sea-floor spreading like continental drift?
• 1960
• Harry Hess, when studying the mid-ocean ridge, proposed that the ocean floor moved like a “conveyer belt” moving the continents with them
• Sea-floor spreading is the continually adding to the ocean floor
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Sea-floor Spreading
• Molten material rises up from the mantle
• It spreads out, cools off, & hardens
• It pushes the older rock out on both sides of the ridge
• New crust forms!
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Wait a minute…!
• Hess’ idea of sea floor spreading caused scientists to revisit Wegener’s idea of continental drift!
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So where does all of the old crust being pushed out go?
• Subduction: It is the process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep ocean trench & back into the mantle
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Sea Floor Spreading & Subduction…
• Can change the shape of the oceans!
• The ocean floor is renewed every 200 million years
(That’s the time it takes for new crust to form, move across the ocean floor, & sink into a trench)
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What is the Theory of Plate Tectonics?
• 1965
• Tuzo Wilson proposed that the cracks in Earth’s surface were broken into section called “plates”
• He combined the idea of sea-floor spreading, Earth’s plates, &
continental drift into a single
theory
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Plate Tectonics Theory
• A geological theory that states that pieces of Earth’s lithosphere are in constant, slow motion driven by convection currents in the mantle
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How does it work?
• Lithospheric plates float on top of the asthenosphere
• Convection currents rise in the asthenosphere & spread out under the plates
• No plate can move without affecting another plate
• Plates move extremely slow at 1-10cm per year
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• As the plates move, collide, or pull apart…it produces GREAT changes on Earth’s surface
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• Like volcanoes, earthquakes, mountain ranges, & deep sea trenches
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3 types of plate boundaries:
• Transform
• Divergent
• Convergent
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Transform
• Place where 2 plates slip past each other moving in opposite directions
• Earthquakes often occur along these boundaries
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Divergent
• Place where 2 plates move apart
• Most occur at the mid-ocean ridge
• Some occur on land creating a “rift valley” which is a deep valley
• Great Rift Valley in Africa is 3,000km long
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Convergent
• Place where 2 plates come together
• Collisions of 2 plates can cause:– Oceanic to oceanic– Oceanic to continental– Continental to continental
• When 2 plates collide the more dense plate comes out on top!
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• Continental – Continental: mtns form• Oceanic – Continental: Oceanic dives
under the continent• Oceanic – Oceanic: the less dense of the
2 sinks into the trench
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What is an earthquake?
• Shaking & trembling that results from the movements of rock beneath Earth’s surface
• The movement of Earth’s plates creates stress that squeezes/pulls the rock in the crust
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Stress
• A force that acts on rock to change its shape & volume
• 3 types of stress– Shearing– Tension– Compression
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Shearing
• Stress that pushes a mass of rock in opposite directions
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Tension
• Stress that pulls on the crust stretching the rock so it becomes thinner in the middle
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Compression
• Stress that squeezes rock until it folds or breaks
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What is a fault?
• A break in the crust where slabs of rock slip past each other
• Faults usually occur along plate boundaries
• 3 types:– Strike-slip– Normal– Reverse
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Strike-Slip Fault
• Rocks on either side of the fault slip past each other sideways
• Ex: San Andres Fault
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Normal Fault
• The fault is at an angle
• One block is above the fault & the other is below it
• Ex: Rio Grande Rift Valley in New Mexico
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Reverse Fault
• Same structure as a normal fault, but the blocks move in opposite directions
• Ex: Appalachian Mts
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Where do earthquakes begin?
• Earthquakes occur in the lithosphere 100km below Earth’s surface
• The focus is point beneath the surface where the rock broke causing the earthquake
• The epicenter is the point on the surface right above the focus
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Seismic Waves
• During an earthquake seismic waves race out from the focus in all directions
• The seismic waves are greatest at the epicenter• Seismograph is the instrument used to record
ground movement caused by seismic waves• 3 types:
– P waves– S waves– Surface waves
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P waves
• Primary Waves
• 1st to arrive
• Compress & expand the ground like an accordion
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S waves
• Secondary Waves
• 2nd to arrive
• Vibrate the ground back & forth
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Surface Waves
• Come from P/S waves
• Move slowly
• Can cause the ground to roll like ocean waves
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How do they measure the size of the quake?
• Magnitude is the measurement of earthquake strength based on seismic waves & movement along faults
• 3 ways to measure magnitude:– Mercalli Scale– Richter Scale– Moment Magnitude Scale
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Mercalli Scale
• Measures the intensity
• Not precise
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Richter Scale
• Rates the size of seismic waves using a particular seismograph
• Accurate measurements for nearby earthquakes
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Moment Magnitude Scale
• Rates the total energy released by an earthquake near or far
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What types of damage can a quake cause?
• Damage/destroy buildings
• Topple power lines
• Break water & gas lines
• Cause landslides
• Can cause aftershocks days/months later
• Can cause tsunamis
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Tsunamis
• Large wave that occurs when an earthquake displaces water in the ocean
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What causes volcanoes?
• A volcano is a weak spot in Earth’s crust where magma comes to the surface
• They form at:– Divergent boundaries– Convergent boundaries– Hot spots
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Divergent Boundaries
• Most volcanoes occur here
Ex: Mid-ocean ridge
•Volcanic belts occur along plate boundaries where lithospheric plates are weak
Ex: Ring of Fire
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Ring of Fire• Major volcanic belt formed by volcanoes
that rim the Pacific Ocean
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Convergent Boundaries
•Island Arc-when 2 oceanic plates collide creating an arc of islands
Ex: Japan, New Zealand, Caribbean Islands
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Hot Spots
• Where magma rises up from the mantle melting Earth’s crust
• Often occur in the middle of a plate
Ex: Hawaiian Islands, Yellowstone National Park
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How do volcanoes erupt?
• Magma is under extreme pressure in the mantle
• It bubbles up through cracks in Earth’s crust
• Pressure decreases as magma nears Earth’s surface
• Lava bubbles out of the volcano
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What does the inside of a volcano look like?
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Magma Chamber
• Where magma is stored under the volcano
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Pipe
• Magma moves through this long pipe that connects the magma chamber to Earth’s surface
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Vent• Opening where gas and lava leave the volcano
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Crater• Hollowed-out area at the top of a volcano
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Volcanic Neck
• Magma that hardens inside the pipe
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Dike
• Magma that forces itself “across” rock
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Sill
• Magma that squeezes between layers of rock
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Batholith• A mass of rock formed when a large body
of magma cools inside the crust
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What are the different types of volcanoes?
• Shield Cone
• Cinder Cone
• Composite
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Shield Cone Volcano
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Cinder Cone Volcano
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Composite Volcano
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Volcanoes in the US
Mt. Hood
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Mt. St Helens
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Mt. Kilauea
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What are the stages a volcano goes through?
• Active→Dormant→Extinct
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Active
• It’s alive!
• It is erupting or shows signs of erupting
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Dormant
• It’s sleeping…
• It is expected to become active in the near future
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Extinct• Dead as a door nail.• Unlikely to erupt again
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The End!!!
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Sike…this is the end!