How Can the Construction

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Copyright 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Sust. Dev. 17, 161173 (2009)

DOI: 10.1002/sd

framework developed with principles, strategies and methods offers tools for stakeholders of the constructionindustry, such as urban designers, architects, planners, contractors and suppliers. This framework also aims tohelp when developing the most appropriate assessment tool based on the priorities of critical conditions.

Contribution of the Construction Industry to Sustainable Development

Sustainable development has been defined in several ways, and the conceptualization of the term is an oxymoronand widely contested (Williams and Dair, 2007; Redclift, 2005; Rassafi et al., 2006; Hopwood et al., 2005;Springett, 2005; Yanarella and Bartilow, 2000). In fact, all the definitions aim at the same purpose: the survivalof the earth. According to the World Commission on Environment and Development Report in 1987 (WCED,1990), the definition contains two crucial elements. First, it accepts that the basic needs of the worlds poor peoplemust be provided to allow a reasonably comfortable way of life. Second, it accepts that the environments abilityto meet present and future needs must be sustained. The definition of the WCED also suggests that sustainabilityis often cast as the triple bottom line of environment, society and economics (Hall and Purchase, 2006).

According to David Pearce (2003, 2006), the starting point of all definitions must indicate the needs of theindividuals to generate their personal well-being. The capability to generate this well-being relies on their wealth,

which is owned personally and publicly also. Houses, machines, clothing and electrical goods are personally ownedor rented assets, while roads, public buildings, airports are publicly owned assets. Therefore, personal ownershipis not a crucial part of well-being; well-being of society is also crucial for sustainable development. In parallel withPearce, Dobson (2007) also suggests that each gain for the common good will also be a gain for each and everyindividual member of the society, so thoughts of environmental citizenship begin to emerge from the fog of policyoptions. Thereby, it is clear that the leading sectors that are contributing to the development of nations, such asconstruction, transportation, agriculture etc., have great potentials to achieve a sustainable future.

Sustainability is an overarching concept that affects, and can be affected by, every aspect of infrastructure devel-opment. According to Redclift (2005), each scientific problem resolved by human intervention using fossil fuelsand manufactured materials is conventionally viewed as a triumph of management and a contribution to economicgood; however, it is also seen as a future threat to sustainability. The construction industry, which is important toquality of life in terms of housing, workspace, utilities and transport infrastructure, is of high economic significanceand has serious environmental and social consequences (Burgan and Sansom, 2006). Both the existing builtenvironment and the process of adding to it have numerous environmental, social and economical impacts (Table1). Construction is directly and indirectly responsible for the emission of greenhouse gases, due to energy usedfor raw material extraction, transporting, constructing, operating, maintaining, demolition etc. (Sorrell, 2003;Rwelamila et al., 2000). Most of the energy is consumed by the construction sector and buildings are responsible

Environmental Social Economic

Raw material extraction and consumption, related resource depletion * *

Land use change, including clearing of existing flora * * *

Energy use and associated emissions of greenhouse gases * * Other indoor and outdoor emissions * *

Aesthetic degradation *

Water use and waste water generation * *

Increased transport needs, depending on site * * * Waste generation * *

Opportunities for corruption * *

Disruption of communities, including through inappropriate design and materials * *

Health risks on worksites and for building occupants * *

Table 1. Main impacts of construction industry and buildings


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for 50% of raw material consumption (Edwards and Hyett, 2001). Also, the waste produced by the constructionindustry changes between 15 and 50% depending on the region of the world (Rees, 1990; Roberts, 1994). TheKyoto Protocol in 1997 committed developed countries to lower their emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2%between 2008 and 2012. While most available statistics are for developed countries, experts believe that theseimpacts are worse in developing countries (UNEP, 2003).

Compared with other industries, the construction industry presents an unusual case in that it is long lasting.Structures in developed countries have an average life of 80100 years. In many countries there are buildings,bridges and other structures hundreds of years old. This means that the design of an office building will havelong-term repercussions on a structures environmental performance. To accomplish a high-performance, low-environmental-impact structure, it is vital to incorporate sustainability principles by the beginning of a project.

A truly sustainable construction project should incorporate economic, social and environmental issues in theplanning, construction and demolition stages, with the aim of providing a building that is affordable, accessibleand environmentally conscious (Kibert, 1994; Wyatt, 1994). While traditional design and construction activitiesfocus on cost, performance and quality issues, sustainable design and construction adds the issues of minimiza-tion of resource consumption, environmental degradation and the creation of a healthy built environment as wellas ensuring human health and comfort. Designers and constructors must approach each project not only with theinitial capital investment but with the entire lifecycle of the buildings as well. Instead of considering the built

environment as an object separate from the natural environment, it should be viewed as part of the flow andexchange of matter and energy that occurs naturally within the biosphere (Yeang, 2000).

Social and political forces are bringing additional pressure for more environmentally conscious technologicalsolutions. Companies and facilities also recognize that initiatives such as proper materials and waste management,efficient process and product design, resource efficiency and recycling will be both profitable and environmentallypreferable. In addition, new standards and mandates are encouraging companies to manage their environmentalcosts and considerations better. International standards are now requiring companies to develop environmentalassessment and management systems (Lerario and Maiellaro, 1999; Owens and Cowell, 2002).

Sustainable Design Principles, Strategies and Methods for the Framework

Sustainable construction principles can be differentiated according to the three dimensions of sustainabledevelopment, which are environmental, social and economic (Figure 1). The aim of this framework is to arouseinterest in the construction sectors potential for contributing to sustainable development by highlighting the

Sustainable construction principles and strategies

Principles

Resource management Life-cycle design Design for human

Strategies

Efficient use of energy

Efficient use of water

Efficient use of materials

Efficient use of land

Pre-building strategies

Building strategies

Post-building strategies

Preservation of natural conditions

Conserving cultural resources

Protecting health and comfort

Figure 1. Framework for evaluating the sustainability of the construction industry


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environmental problems and prospects and defining the relationship between construction activities and environ-mental, social and economic problems.

Sustainable construction must rely on three basic principles:

(1) resource management,(2) life-cycle design and

(3) design for human and environment.

Resource Management

Around 50% of all global resources are consumed by the construction industry (Edwards and Hyett, 2001). Allbuilding activities involve the use, redistribution and concentration of some components of the earths resources,such as water, energy and materials. During these activities effects occur, changing the ecology of that part of thebiosphere (Hudson, 2005). The continued existence and maintenance of the built environment involves depend-ence on the earths resources and environment, which must supply it with certain inputs. The inputs into the builtenvironment include not only construction materials but also the energy derived from non-renewable sources forthe transportation of materials, their assembly and construction on the site as well as the energy required to sustain

indoor environmental conditions. The consequences of the consumption of resources act on the local site as wellas on the global environment. For these reasons the design team, together with the contractor and occupants, mustregard the creation of a building as a form of resource management. For example, the supply of electricity involvesthe conversion of fuel into energy and this process depletes non-renewable resources and hazardous gas emissionsoccur, negatively affecting the environment.

Resource management provides the reduction, reuse and recycling of natural and finite resources that are inputto a building. Since the non-renewable resources that play major role in the creation of a building are energy,water, material and land, the conservation of these non-renewable resources has vital importance for a sustainablefuture. Resource management yields specific design methods, as defined in Figure 2.

Principle 1. Resource management

Efficient use of water Efficient use of materialsEfficient use of energy Efficient use of land

Strategies

Methods

Potable water reduction

Utilizing non-potable

water subsititution

systems

Recycling water

Designing low-demandlandscaping

Collecting rainwater

Adapting existing

buildings to new uses

Incorporating recycled

or reclaimed materials

Reducing material use

by properly sizing thebuilding

Selecting durable

materials

Selecting materials that

are recyclable

Reducing waste

material

Low-energy urban

development

Passive heating and

cooling through

orientation

Using alternativeenergy sources

Choosing materials with

low embodied energy

Avoidance of heat gain

and loss through

insulation and additional

devices

Utilizing energy

efficient equipments

Using existing

built environment

Respecting the

natural landscape

Preventing the

expansion of thebuilt environment

Figure 2. Methods to achieve the resource management principle


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Efficient Use of EnergyThe type, location and magnitude of environmental impacts caused by energy consumption depend on the typeof energy used. Burgan and Sansom (2006) suggest that the operational energy consumption of most buildingsfar outweighs their embodied energy. For example, for an air-conditioned office building over a 60-year designlife, the ratio of embodied to operational energy is around 1:10 (Burgan and Sansom, 2006). It is for this reason

that legislative effort is needed to improve the energy efficiency of buildings.The main goal in energy conservation is to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels, as well as increasing the useof renewable energy sources, and the methods to achieve this goal are as follows (Figure 2).

Low-energy urban developmentimproves the quality of life in a city, including ecological, cultural, political, insti-tutional, social and economic components. Low-energy cities have zoning laws favourable to mixed use in orderto develop energy-consciousness that depends not on transportation with motor vehicles, but on public transporta-tion and pedestrian walkways. Integrating land-use, transport and environmental planning is important to mini-mize the need for travel and to promote efficient and effective modes of transport, including walking. Accordingto Herala (2004), integrating land use planning promotes sustainable development and prevents environmentalproblems. Urban form and location of activities together with economic incentives and well organized publictransport have a significant impact on traffic flows. The settlement formation of a city, which determines orienta-tion and clustering of buildings, also affects the microclimatic conditions.

A remarkable example of this method is the Elephant and Castle Master Plan by Foster and Partners in the UK.The master plan restructures the 200-acre southeast London and proposes radical changes based on sustainabilitycriteria. The area is a transport and traffic hub with above- and below-ground train lines and bus routes. It restorespublic space to the community and banishes traffic from the site (Gissen, 2002).

Passive heating and cooling through orientation maximizes the use of renewable resources from the site, such assolar energy and wind power (Karolides, 2002). When designing a building, the designer must look at the greaterenvironmental impact and contextual implications of the building in relation to the site, and must search foralternatives to orient the building according to the sun path for passive solar gain and daylighting (Yeang, 1997;Gordon, 2005). Windows facing east allow for early warming of spaces during winter, while south-facing windowswill aid afternoon warming. West-facing windows need to be carefully designed so they do not add to overheatingthe spaces. Vegetation can also be an effective solution for passive heating and cooling. For example, evergreentrees planted on the north of a building will protect it from winter winds, and trees on the south face will prevent

summer heating. For example Eastgate designed by Pearce Partnership in accordance with Arup Services Ltd. isthe largest retail and commercial project in Zimbabwe, utilizing passive heating and cooling methods withoutmechanical air-conditioning. By studying termite mounds, the project team discovered a natural form of air-con-ditioning by the help of solar and wind power. During the day the tops of the mounds are warmed by the sun,and at night the warm tops create suction, drawing cool air in at the base. The air chills the concrete slabs underthe office floors and keeps the interior comfortable during the day. The sun is also used to light the offices andthe central atrium of the complex (Gissen, 2002; Hawkes and Forster, 2002).

Using alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, water and geothermal energy will eliminate dependence onfossil energy sources. While active energy generation is usually considerably more resource intensive than alterna-tive power sources, sun and wind driven systems are renewable and eco-friendly since they do not emit pollutants,thus being sustainable. A remarkable example is the City Hall in London by Foster and Partners. The buildingboasts energy consumption that is less than half of what today is considered to be good practice by utilizing natu-rally chilled borehole water brought up 125 m from the aquifer below the London clay. The boreholes use lessenergy than conventional chillers and cooling towers (Burgan and Sansom, 2006).

Choosing materials with low embodied energywill help to reduce energy consumed through mining, processing,manufacturing and transporting the materials. The embodied energy of a material attempts to measure the energythat goes into the lifecycle of the materials. For instance, aluminium has a very high embodied energy because ofthe large amount of electricity consumed to mine the raw material.

Avoidance of heat gain and loss through insulation and additional devices reduces heating and cooling loads, result-ing in energy consumption through the operation of the building. For example, high-performance windows andwall insulation prevent both heat gain and loss, so the building requires HVAC equipment with lower capacity,and the initial investment will be decreased (Yeang, 1997; Barnett et al. 1995). Adding devices for solar shading


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will also reduce the heat gains in summer, whereas wind wings protect the building from prevailing winds andheat loss in winter.

Utilizing energy efficient equipmentwill reduce the operational energy consumption of the building, which con-stitutes the greater part of energy costs during the lifecycle. Careful selection of high-efficiency heating, coolingand ventilation systems together with a high-performance shell becomes critical (Williams and Dair, 2007). High-

efficiency condensing boilers are more efficient than conventional boilers, and convert more than 88% of the fuelthey use to heat (Energy Saving Trust, 2005). The initial investment for this equipment may be higher; however,this will be paid back by future savings (Storey and Baird, 2001).

Efficient Use of WaterWater is an increasingly precious and scarce source all over the world. Methods for improving water efficiencyfocus on reducing the output as well as the input. The reduction in use also decreases the amount of waste water.The methods to achieve the efficient use of water can be stated as follows (Figure 2):

Potable water reduction can be achieved by utilizing efficient plumbing fixtures such as water saving,vacuum-assisted and bio-composting toilets, low-flow shower heads, automatic shut-off sinks, waterless urinals,re-circulating dishwasher for commercial applications and steam trap programs.

Non-potable water substitution systems collect and use by-product water to replace potable water for various uses.Some of the uses for non-potable reclaimed water are cooling system heat sinks, irrigation systems, toilet flushingand process cooling (Armstrong, 2002).

Recycling wateris another method for conserving water, which is consumed in two ways: gray water and sewage.Gray water is produced by activities such as hand washing, and does not need to be treated intensively as sewage.It can be recycled in a building to irrigate ornamental plants or flush toilets.

Designing low-demand landscaping: using plants native to the local ecosystem also reduces water consumption onsite, since these plants have been adapted to the local rainwater levels, thus eliminating additional watering(Mendler and Odell, 2000). The efficiency of water can also be improved by means of underground drip irrigationsystems, which reduces water loss caused by evaporation of surface water during watering or after rain.

Collecting rainwaterfor irrigation greatly reduces the consumption of treated water. Rainwater can also be usedfor household applications including drinking water. In fact, people in many regions of the world have traditionally

relied on harvested rainwater for their water supply.

Efficient Use of MaterialsConcurrent with the depletion of fossil fuels and water is the rapid depletion of other material resources. At least3 billion tones of materials are used in buildings each year, which is equivalent to about 40% of total global mate-rial flows and building material waste is estimated to be about 2 billion tones per year (Kim and Rigdon, 1998a).Therefore, the reduction in the amounts of resources that are used to construct the buildings is a necessity. Themethods to achieve material efficiency can be stated as follows (Figure 2).

Adapting existing buildings to new uses is an effective method to reduce the material consumption, and preservethe embodied energy of the building. Renovating abandoned structures could be considered the ultimate form ofrecycling (Gordon, 2005). It results in far less construction waste than demolition, and is usually completed more

quickly than new construction. This method also contributes to energy efficiency by reducing the need for trans-portation of goods.

Incorporating recycled or reclaimed materials in the construction projects significantly reduces the use of rawmaterials, as well as reducing the waste disposal by converting waste into useful new products. Furthermore,recycling usually needs less energy than producing new materials.

Reducing material use by properly sizing the buildings will result in tremendous resource savings. A building thatis oversized for its design purpose, or has oversized facilities, will excessively consume materials. This methoddirectly relates to the programming and design phases of the architectural process.

Selecting durable materials is an effective way of extending the life of existing buildings as well as reducing mate-rial consumption. This reduces the natural resources required for manufacturing and the amount of capital spent


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on installation and the associated labour. Durable materials also need less maintenance, thus reducing the operat-ing budget of the building (Kim and Rigdon, 1998a).

Selecting materials that are recyclable is also an effective method for material efficiency. Searching for ways to usematerials that can be recycled preserves the natural resources and the energy embodied in their manufacture aswell.

Reducing waste materialby prefabrication and modular coordination techniques enables material conservationby preventing cutting and dimensioning activities on site.Greenpeace Headquarters in Washington, DC, designed by Kendal Wilson in accordance with Bill Richardson,

presents a remarkable case for energy and material efficiency by utilizing renewable and regional materials, aswell as solar energy. Reusing five existing buildings, the architects established an office space with an open plan,maximizing occupant access to daylight and natural ventilation. They used solar energy by emphasizing daylight-ing, automatic dimmers and placing photovoltaic cells and water heating panels on the roof. The offices are locatednear a major underground commuter train station and include space for bicycle storage (Leventhal, 2001; Gissen,2002).

Efficient Use of LandLand is one of the limited resources on our earth. In many places, the land is more damaged than previously

believed. Soil erosion, groundwater contamination, acid rain and other industrial pollutants are damaging thehealth of plant communities, thereby intensifying the challenge and necessity to restore habitats. Sustainabledesign must develop a respect for the landscape and expend more effort understanding the interrelationships ofsoils, water, plant communities and associations, and habitats, as well as the impacts of human uses on them.Adaptive reuse of an existing building may also eliminate the need for new construction, thus preventing theexpansion of built environment and occupation of agricultural and eco-sensitive areas.

Life-Cycle Design

Improving the sustainability of a building requires a systematic and comprehensive understanding of all the social,environmental and cultural impacts that occur throughout the buildings life cycle (Tshudy, 1996). The conven-

tional model of a building life cycle consists of design, construction, operation and maintenance, and demolition(Kim and Rigdon, 1998a, 1998b). This model does not address the sustainability issues related to procurementand manufacturing of materials, or reuse and recycling of architectural resources. However, the cradle-to-gravedesign approach recognizes environmental consequences of the entire life cycle of the building from the acquisi-tion of all materials, energies and natural resources that go into a building to the point in time when the buildinghas completed its useful life and is demolished (Figure 3). The life-cycle approach seeks to balance environmentalconcerns with traditional issues that always affect the decisions and choices in the design phase.

The life cycle of a building can be handled in three stages: pre-building, building and post-building. Analysingthe building processes in each of these stages provides a better understanding of how a buildings design, construc-tion, operation and disposal affect the natural environment. Each stage involves a series of methods, which willimprove the sustainability of the product (Figure 4).

Pre-BuildingDuring the pre-building process site selection, flexible and durable design, selecting sustainable materials andproducts are the main strategies, and the methods to implement these strategies are as follows.

Selecting the appropriate site initiates the process of calculating the degree of resource use and disturbance ofexisting natural systems that will be required to support a buildings development (Dines, 1996). The infrastructureof a site is as important as environmental issues, such as access to daylight and integration of renewable resources.Selecting sites that are serviced adequately by public transportation and utilities reduces site development costsand lessens environmental impacts. Moreover, the design team must analyse site resources, relationships andconstraints to maximize energy efficiency while conserving and restoring ecological and cultural resources ( HighPerformance Building Guidelines, 1999).


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Flexible design, which can be achieved with modular design techniques and standardization, supports futurechanges cost-effectively and resource-efficiently. For instance, a standardized plan with uniform office sizes pro-vides an organizational framework that can be reconfigured as required, even the company changes. The design

should also support technological changes (Kohn and Katz, 2002).Selecting sustainable materials and products substantially improves environmental performance. Raw material

sources, production and transport to the site, installation and use, and finally disposal or reuse must be questionedand evaluated prior to selecting the materials. Nontoxic materials from local, renewable, sustainably acquiredresources that minimize pollution during manufacturing, installation and maintenance are preferable. Selectingregional materials minimizes the energy needed for distribution, thus reducing the embodied energy of thematerial.

One of the most important responses of the construction industry to sustainable development is product certi-fication, through which industry endorses efficient use of resources, and provides accreditation that meets definedstandards of compliance (Redclift, 2005). An example is the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in the UK, which

Nature

Raw materials

acquisition

Operation,maintenance

and repair

Product

manufacture

Construction

Renovation

Demolition

Reuse

Recycle

Waste

reclamation

Pre-building phase Building phase Post-building phase

Figure 3. Sustainable building life cycle

Principle 2. Life-cycle design

Building Post-building

Strategies

Methods

Selecting the appropriate site

Flexible design

Selecting sustainable materials

and products

Pre-building

Minimizing site impact

Using nontoxic construction

materials and products

Waste management

The adaptive reuse of an

existing building

Reusing building materials

and components

Recycling materials

Figure 4. Methods to achieve the life-cycle design principle


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established the 1995 group of companies, in an effort to make the timber industry more sustainable. The manage-ment systems define targets and devise a system of informal self-regulation, under the control of managersappointed for the purpose. The benefits of achieving sustainable production of wood, via the Forest StewardshipCouncil (FSC), included the right to use the logo of the FSC on appropriate products (Redclift, 2005; WWF,1996).

BuildingDuring construction, operation and maintenance, minimizing site effects, using nontoxic materials and wastemanagement must be the priority task to improve the sustainability of buildings. The methods to achieve thesetasks are as follows.

Minimizing site impactcan be achieved by a proper planning and management of construction activities as wellas preventing invasion of heavy equipment, which damages the actual formation and the ecosystem of the site.Excavations should not alter the flow of groundwater throughout the site. Finished structures should respect sitetopology and existing drainage. Trees and vegetation should only be removed when absolutely necessary for access.For sensitive sites, road-building and heavy trucks must be avoided, and materials must be hand-carried.

Using nontoxic construction materials and products is vital to the health and safety of construction workers and

occupants, who usually spend more than three-quarters of their time indoors (Kim and Rigdon, 1998b). Nontoxicmaterials and products exhibit limited or no hazardous gassing tendencies, have minimal or no toxic properties,do not shed dust and fibre, and do not absorb pollutants that are later released. The construction contaminantsmust also be prevented from accumulating in HVAC systems and in absorbent products, such as carpet and fur-nishing. The previously mentioned building, Greenpeace Headquarters, presents a significant example by utilizingnontoxic materials and products. The designers made great efforts to eliminate polyvinyl chloride (PVC) from thebuilding and also specified low-volatile-organic-compound (VOC) adhesives and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)certified wood products. They used formaldehyde-free wheatboard and particleboard in the doors and built-infurniture. They chose countertops, tiles and flooring with high recycled content (Leventhal, 2001).

Waste managementis a critical high performance strategy. Providing dedicated areas for recycling bins, chutesand other accommodations to promote ease of waste management as well as ensuring that there is adequate storagespace for and access for removal of recyclables will help waste management, thus minimizing resource con-

sumption. Pollution prevention is also an effective method for waste management, which has been successfullyimplemented in factory fabrication applications (Vanegas et al., 1995).

Post-buildingThe post-building process begins when the useful life of a building ends. In this stage, building materials and/orcomponents become resources for other buildings or wastes to be returned to nature. From the perspective of thedesigner, the least considered phase of the building life cycle occurs when the buildings useful life has beenexhausted. The demolition of the building and disposal of the resulting waste significantly impacts the environ-ment. Degradable materials may produce toxic waste, whereas inert materials consume increasingly scarce landfillspace. The methods to be implemented to reduce or eliminate waste in this phase are as follows.

The adaptive reuse of an existing buildingsignificantly reduces waste and conserves the energy used for materialmanufacturing and construction. The energy embodied in the construction of a building and the production ofmaterials will be wasted if the existing resource is not properly utilized. This approach may also preserve culturalheritage by keeping a historical building in use and maintained.

Reusing building materials or components is a way of minimizing waste production, if an old building is not com-pletely available for reusing. In such cases, it may be preferred to renovate and reuse individual components, suchas windows, doors and interior fixtures.

Recycling materials, after demolition, enhances the sustainability of construction industry. Waste means newresources for new constructions. In most cases, making products by recycling demolition wastes creates less airpollution and water pollution than making new products. Recycling also creates jobs as well as saving valuableresources, thus protecting the natural environment.


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Design for Human

A sustainable construction industry must balance human needs with the carrying capacity of the natural andcultural environments. In a modern society, more than 70% of a persons time is spent indoors. An essential roleof architecture is to provide occupants safety, health, physiological comfort, physiological satisfaction and produc-tivity. Many building designers have been preoccupied with style and form-making, disregarding environmentalquality and human satisfaction in and around the built environment. For example a product may save energy andperform well; however, if it does not positively affect the occupants comfort and enhance productivity, it is not asustainable product.

The following three strategies enhance the coexistence between the environment, buildings and their occupants

(Figure 5).

Preservation of Natural ConditionsIt would be a mistake to consider the human apart from the natural environment, so the natural conditions suchas topographic features, vegetation, water drains, wind patterns, other species and habitats must be preserved. Themethods are as follows.

Respecting topographical conditions is of vital importance, since it mitigates the negative impacts of the producton the natural conditions. Radical formations are not only expensive, but they devastate the sites microclimate bychanging existing air quality, water drains and wind patterns.

Preserving the water table is also important to be in tune with the environmental conditions. Buildings that donot require excavation below the local water table are suitable for this task. If the water table is exposed during

construction activities, it also becomes more susceptible to contamination from polluted surface runoff.Reducing the urban heat island effect through planting and pavement selection improves environmental quality

and mitigates negative impacts on the natural conditions.Preserving existing flora and fauna will make the finished product a more enjoyable space for human habitation.

Local wildlife and existing vegetation should be recognized as part of the site, and preserved to not damage theecosystem of the environment and occupants well-being.

Conserving Cultural ResourcesCultural resources are those tangible and intangible aspects of cultural systems, both past and present, that arevalued by or representative of a given culture, or that contain information about a culture. Although material

Principle 3. Design for human

Conserving cultural resources Protecting health and comfort

Strategies

Methods

Respecting topographical

conditions

Preserving the water table

Reducing the urban heat

island effect

Preserving existing flora and

fauna

Preservation of natural conditions

Conserving the urban context

Preserving historical buildings

Thermal comfort

Daylighting

Natural ventilation

Acoustic comfort

Selecting non-toxic, non-outgassing furniture, flooring,

wall finishes, and cleaning and

maintenance materials

Figure 5. Methods to achieve the design for human principle


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evidence of past cultures is finite, cultural resources in general are not, but are produced by each successive gen-eration. Conserving cultural resources is of vital importance to sustain human life. From an architectural point ofview, the two ways to conserve tangible and intangible cultural sources are as follows.

Conserving the urban contextpreserves the community life as well as contributing to sustainable urban develop-ment. There is a strong relationship between the natural environment, community life and urban context. Cultural,

behavioural, socio-economic and spatial characteristics formed in the process of urbanization are the componentsthat compose building patterns. Designing a building contrary to the urban context will damage the existing city-scape and skyline.

Preserving historical buildings is significantly important, since these buildings are tangible cultural resourcestransmitting knowledge from generation to generation.

Protecting Health and ComfortEvery sustainable building strategy must enhance the mission of the building, which is to provide quality condi-tions. Sustainable buildings must provide a healthy and comfortable indoor environment while conserving resourcesand protecting the nature. The factors affecting the indoor environmental quality include, but are not limited to,indoor air quality, thermal property, humidity, natural light and ventilation, noise level and furnishing.

Thermal comfortimproves the occupants health, comfort and productivity. The space inside a building providesconditions that allow occupants to survive freezing cold or blistering hot outdoor conditions. Air temperature,humidity, solar radiation, velocity of air flow and human metabolism are determinants of thermal comfort. Build-ing envelope considerations, such as reflective roofing, low-E windows, window tinting and solar shading are someof the tools that enable designers to optimize thermal comfort as well as improving energy efficiency. Siting thebuilding according to seasonal heat gain and use is another key to thermal comfort, as is landscaping. Individualcontrol over a space is also important for comfort.

Daylighting is an important issue providing quality of light and improving the productivity of occupants, andincludes controlling and distributing light for uniform levels, avoiding glare and reflections and controlling artifi-cial light to achieve energy efficiency. Edwards (2006) suggests that natural conditions are of significance inachieving not just a comfortable working environment but also a productive one. Occupants of spaces havingdaylight are certainly happier, and evidence shows that they are more productive (Armstrong and Walker,

2002).Natural ventilation is the use of fresh air of sufficient volume and air-change to ventilate enclosed spaces without

the use of mechanical means. Ventilation conditions inside a space have a direct influence on the health, comfortand well-being of the occupants. Natural ventilation has the potential of reducing the energy needed for coolingand ventilating commercial buildings, while providing acceptable thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Theclimate suitability, window orientation and operable windows are the key factors for natural ventilation. Examplesinclude providing cross-ventilation to make use of wind chimneys to induce stack ventilation, and using water-evaporation systems in hot dry climates to induce air movement.

Being able to open a window, to sit in the sun or shade and to have contact with nature appear to be key char-acteristics in sustainable building design (Edwards, 2006; Raw and Roys, 1993). Over-engineered buildings, nomatter how energy efficient, can be counterproductive if occupants are denied power to intervene in the quality ofliving and working spaces (Battle, 2000).

Acoustic comfortmust be achieved by controlling sources of noise from mechanical and electrical equipment andfrom sources exterior to the building. Proper selection of windows, wall insulation and wall framing, and materi-als are essential to reducing noise from outside. Some sound insulating materials, such as acoustic ceiling tilesand straw-bale construction, can offer the advantages of recycling and using natural materials. Hard versus absorb-ent surfaces also have a major impact on noise level inside a space. Noise elimination, control or isolation fromHVAC equipment should also be addressed through acoustic zoning, equipment selection, construction andappropriately designed ducts, piping and electrical systems.

Selecting non-toxic, non-outgassing furniture, flooring, wall finishes and cleaning and maintenance materials alsoaffects occupants health and comfort. Long term exposure to chemicals can have a detrimental effect on humanshealth. The availability of green items is widespread and growing (Childs, 2005).


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Discussion and Conclusions

As we look forward into the new millennium, sustainability seems to be the only solution to environmental prob-lems. If the human population is to survive on earth, sustainability must be applied to every sector, such as con-struction, transportation and agriculture. Since the major energy consumer is the construction sector, it has asignificant role to contribute to sustainable development.

In striving to achieve sustainability in the built environment three principles emerge: resource management,life-cycle design and design for human. There is a myriad of considerations sometimes conflicting with eachother including resource consumption, indoor environmental quality, durability, renewable resources, environ-mental impact and life-cycle considerations. No project will be designed and constructed perfectly according to allsustainable construction principles and strategies. However, the designers and owners must determine the prin-ciples having priority related to their conditions.

Sustainable building design and construction is an integrated and holistic process with the aim more than thesum of the individual components. Much more important than agonizing over the significance of each strategy isthe process of creating environmentally conscious and healthy spaces that provide human contact to the naturalenvironment, supporting the local economy and culture.

The framework proposed in this paper provides a brief overview of sustainability principles, strategies andmethods, and emphasizes the need for an integrated approach and understanding of the different components ofa sustainable system. Rather than focusing on individual components of this framework, the priorities must bedetermined according to local conditions and the product must be assessed according to these priorities. The newdesign approach must recognize the impacts of every design choice on the natural and cultural resources of thelocal, regional and global environments.

In order to achieve sustainable development for society as a whole and for construction predominantly, intelli-gent decision making is required, which includes full consideration and knowledge of impacts associated witheach alternative.

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to Professor Aydan Ozgen and Dogan Ozgen for their valuable suggestions and support in thisresearch.

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