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How Biological Diversity Evolves The Origin of Species
The Evolution of Biological Novelty
Earth History and Macroevolution
Classifying the Diversity of Life
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Biology and Society: The Sixth Mass Extinction
• Over the past 540 million years, the fossil record reveals five periods of extinction when 50–90% of living species suddenly died out.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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A critically endangered species: the black and white ruffed lemur
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• Our current rate of extinction, over the past 400 years, indicates that we may be living in, and contributing to, the sixth mass extinction period.
• Mass extinctions pave the way for the evolution of new and diverse forms, but it takes millions of years for Earth to recover.
Biology and Society: The Sixth Mass Extinction
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 14.1
PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION
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• In the 150 years since the publication of Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, new discoveries and technological advances have given scientists a wealth of new information about the evolution of life.
• The diversity of life evolved through speciation, the process in which one species splits into two or more species.
THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
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Figure 14.2
Diversity within one speciesSimilarity between different species
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Species Species are groups of populations whose
members possess similar anatomical characteristics and have the ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Any organism which divides by asexual reproduction can only produce it’s own kind.
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Reproductive Barriers between Species
• Prezygotic barriers prevent mating or fertilization between species.
• Temporal isolation – timing doesn’t work
• Habitat isolation – species live in different places (note: animals of different species in a zoo, even if they can mate and have fertile offspring are still considered different species)
• Behavioral isolation – one species doesn’t like another ex: female fireflies only mate with males who emit light in a particular pattern.
• Mating attempts: mechanical or gametic isolation
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Figure 14.3
VIABLE, FERTILE OFFSPRING
Hybrid breakdown
FERTILIZATION (ZYGOTE FORMS)
INDIVIDUALS OF DIFFERENT SPECIES
MATING ATTEMPT
Reduced hybrid fertility
Reduced hybrid viability
Temporal isolation
Habitat isolation
Behavioral isolation
Mechanical isolation
Gametic isolation
Prezygotic Barriers
Postzygotic Barriers
No Barriers
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Figure 14.4
Temporal Isolation Habitat IsolationPREZYGOTIC BARRIERS
Mechanical Isolation Gametic IsolationBehavioral Isolation
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• Postzygotic barriers
• interspecies mating occurs but offspring are infertile. Like a mule.
Reproductive Barriers between Species
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Figure 14.5
Hybrid BreakdownReduced Hybrid FertilityReduced Hybrid Viability
POSTZYGOTIC BARRIERS
Donkey
Mule
Horse
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Mechanisms of Speciation
• A key event in the potential origin of a species occurs when a population is somehow cut off from other populations of the parent species.
• Species can form by
–allopatric speciation, due to geographic isolation, or
–sympatric speciation, The formation of a new species in populations in the same geographic area.
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Figure 14.6
Allopatric speciation Sympatric speciation
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Allopatric Speciation
• Geologic processes can
– fragment a population into two or more isolated populations and
– contribute to allopatric speciation.
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Figure 14.7
Ammospermophilusharrisii
Ammospermophilusleucurus
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• Speciation occurs with the evolution of reproductive barriers between
– the isolated population and
– its parent population.
• Even if the two populations should come back into contact at some later time, the reproductive barriers will keep them as separate species.
Allopatric Speciation
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Figure 14.8
Geographicbarrier
Populationsinterbreed
Time
Populationsbecomeallopatric
Populationsbecomesympatric
Populationscannotinterbreed
Reproductive isolation: Speciation has occurred
Gene pools merge: No speciation
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Sympatric Speciation
• Sympatric speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area.
• An accident during cell division that results in an extra set of chromosomes is a common route to sympatric speciation in plants.
• Many polyploid species arise from the hybridization of two parent species.
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• Many domesticated plants are the result of sympatric speciation, including
– oats,
– potatoes,
– bananas,
– peanuts,
– apples,
– coffee, and
– wheat.
Sympatric Speciation
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What Is the Pace of Speciation?
• There are two contrasting patterns for the pace of evolution:
1. the gradual pattern, in which big changes (speciations) occur by the steady accumulation of many small changes, and
2. the punctuated equilibria pattern, in which there are
– long periods of little apparent change (equilibria) interrupted (punctuated) by
– relatively brief periods of rapid change.
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Figure 14.10
Punctuatedpattern
Gradualpattern
Time
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THE EVOLUTION OF BIOLOGICAL NOVELTY
• What accounts for the dramatic differences between dissimilar groups?
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Adaptation of Old Structures for New Functions
• Birds
– are derived from a lineage of earthbound reptiles and
– evolved flight from flightless ancestors.
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Figure 14.11
Wing claw(like reptile)
Teeth(like reptile)
Long tail withmany vertebrae
(like reptile)
Feathers
FossilArtist’s reconstruction
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• An exaptation is
– a structure that evolves in one context but becomes adapted for another function and
– a type of evolutionary remodeling.
• Exaptations can account for the evolution of novel structures.
• Ex: if a fish lives in a lake that dries up, they could use their fins to “walk” to another body of water.
Adaptation of Old Structures for New Functions
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• Bird wings are modified forelimbs that were previously adapted for non-flight functions, such as
– thermal regulation,
– courtship displays, and/or
– camouflage.
• The first flights may have been only glides or extended hops as the animal pursued prey or fled from a predator.
Adaptation of Old Structures for New Functions
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Evo-Devo: Development and Evolutionary Novelty
• Evo-devo, evolutionary developmental biology, is the study of the evolution of developmental processes in multicellular organisms.
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• Homeotic genes are master control genes that regulate
– the rate,
– timing, and
– spatial pattern of changes in an organism’s form as it develops from a zygote into an adult.
• Mutations in homeotic genes can profoundly affect body form.
Evo-Devo: Development and Evolutionary Novelty
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EARTH HISTORY AND MACROEVOLUTION
• Macroevolution is closely tied to the history of Earth.
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Geologic Time and the Fossil Record
• The fossil record is
– the sequence in which fossils appear in rock strata and
– an archive of macroevolution.
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Figure 14.14
A sedimentary fossil formedby minerals replacing theorganic matter of a tree
Trace fossils: footprints, burrows, or other remnants of an ancientorganism’s behavior
A 45-million-year-oldinsect embeddedin amber
Tusks of a 23,000-year-old mammothdiscovered in Siberian ice
A researcherexcavating afossilizeddinosaurskeleton fromsandstone
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Our current geologic era is the CENOZOIC
GeologicTime Period Epoch
Age (millionsof years ago) Some Important Events in the History of Life
Table 14.1 The Geologic Time Scale
Cenozoicera
Quaternary
Tertiary
Recent
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
0.01
1.8
5
23
34
56
65
Historical time
Ice ages; humans appear
Origin of genus Homo
Continued speciation of mammals andangiosperms
Origins of many primate groups, including apes
Angiosperm dominance increases; origins of mostliving mammalian orders
Major speciation of mammals, birds,and pollinating insects
145
200
251
Mesozoicera
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic Cone-bearing plants (gymnosperms) dominate landscape;speciation of dinosaurs, early mammals, and birds
Flowering plants (angiosperms) appear; many groups oforganisms, including most dinosaur lineages, becomeextinct at end of period (Cretaceous extinctions)
Gymnosperms continue as dominant plants;dinosaurs become dominant
Paleozoicera
Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Precambrian
299
359
416
444
488
542
600
635
2,100
2,700
3,500
4,600
Extinction of many marine and terrestrial organisms(Permian extinctions); speciation of reptiles; origins ofmammal-like reptiles and most living orders of insects
Extensive forests of vascular plants; first seedplants; origin of reptiles; amphibians become dominant
Diversification of bony fishes;first amphibians and insects
Early vascular plants dominate land
Marine algae are abundant; colonization of land bydiverse fungi, plants, and animals
Origin of most living animal phyla (Cambrian explosion)
Diverse algae and soft-bodied invertebrate animals appear
Oldest animal fossils
Oldest eukaryotic fossils
Oxygen begins accumulating in atmosphere
Oldest fossils known (prokaryotes)
Approximate time of origin of Earth
Relative Time Span
Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
Pre-cambrian
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PANGEA The name of the supercontinent which
formed near the end of the Paleozoic era.
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Plate Tectonics and Macroevolution
• The continents are not locked in place.
– Continents drift about Earth’s surface on plates of crust floating on a flexible layer of hot, underlying material called the mantle.
– When these plates move, they cause earthquakes
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Figure 14.16
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• About 250 million years ago,
– plate movements formed the supercontinent Pangaea,
– the total amount of shoreline was reduced,
– ocean basins increased in depth,
– sea levels dropped,
– the dry continental interior increased in size, and
– many extinctions occurred.
Plate Tectonics and Macroevolution
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Figure 14.17
Pangaea is formed.
Pangaea splits intoLaurasia and Gondwana.
India collides with Eurasia. Cen
ozo
icM
eso
zoic
Pal
eozo
ic251
mil
lio
n y
ears
ag
oP
rese
nt
135
65
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• Plate tectonics helps to explain
– why Mesozoic reptiles in Ghana (West Africa) and Brazil look so similar and
– how marsupials were free to evolve in isolation in Australia.
– http://youtu.be/cC8k2Sb1oQ8
Plate Tectonics and Macroevolution
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Mass Extinctions Mass extinctions are typically followed by
explosive diversification
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CLASSIFYING THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE
• Systematics focuses on
– classifying organisms and
– determining their evolutionary relationships.
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CLASSIFYING THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE
• Taxonomy is the
– identification,
– naming, and
– classification of species.
• Systematics includes taxonomy.
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Naming Species
• Each species is assigned a two-part Latinized name or binomial, consisting of
– the genus and
– a name unique for each species.
• The scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens,
– a two part name, italicized,
– given a Latin ending, and
– with the first letter of the genus capitalized.
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Figure 14.19
Jaguar (Panthera onca)
Lion(Panthera leo)
Tiger(Panthera tigris)
Leopard(Panthera pardus)
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• The taxonomic hierarchy extends to progressively broader categories of classification, from genus to
– family,
– order,
– class,
– phylum,
– kingdom, and
– domain.
Hierarchical Classification
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Figure 14.20
Leopard (Panthera pardus) Species
Pantherapardus
GenusPanthera
FamilyFelidae
OrderCarnivora
ClassMammalia
PhylumChordata
KingdomAnimalia
DomainEukarya
Know these in general
Domain-Kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species
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Classification and Phylogeny
• The goal of systematics is to have classification reflect evolutionary relationships.
• Biologists use phylogenetic trees to
– depict hypotheses about the evolutionary history of species and
– reflect the hierarchical classification of groups nested within more inclusive groups.
– Analogous structures are evidence of convergent evolution
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Figure 14.21
Panthera pardus
(leopard)
SpeciesGenus
Felidae
Order
Carnivora
Family
Canis
Lutra
Panthera
Mephitis
Canidae
Mustelidae
Canis lupus(wolf)
Canis latrans
(coyote)
Lutralutra
(Europeanotter)
Mephitis mephitis
(striped skunk)
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Molecular Biology as a Tool in Systematics
• Molecular systematics
– compares nucleotide and amino acid sequences between organisms and
– can reveal evolutionary relationships.
• The more recently two species have branched from a common ancestor, the more similar their nucleotide and amino acid sequences should be.
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Molecular Biology as a Tool in Systematics
• Some fossils are preserved in such a way that DNA fragments can be extracted for comparison with living organisms.
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Figure 14.22
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The Cladistic Revolution
• In cladistics, organisms are grouped by common ancestry.
• A clade consists of an ancestral species and all its evolutionary descendants and forms a distinct branch in the tree of life.
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Figure 14.23
Hair, mammaryglands
Long gestation
Gestation
Duck-billedplatypus
Iguana Outgroup(reptile)
Ingroup(mammals)
Beaver
Kangaroo
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• Cladistics has changed the traditional classification of some organisms, including the relationships between
– dinosaurs,
– birds,
– crocodiles,
– lizards, and
– snakes.
The Cladistic Revolution
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Figure 14.24
Lizardsand snakes
Crocodilians
Saurischiandinosaurs
Ornithischiandinosaurs
Pterosaurs
Birds
Commonancestor ofcrocodilians,dinosaurs,and birds
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Classification: A Work in Progress
• Phylogenetic trees are hypotheses about evolutionary history.
• Linnaeus divided all known forms of life between the plant and animal kingdoms.
• This two-kingdom system prevailed in biology for over 200 years.
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Classification: A Work in Progress
• In the mid-1900s, the two-kingdom system was replaced by a five-kingdom system that
– placed all prokaryotes in one kingdom and
– divided the eukaryotes among four other kingdoms.
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• In the late 1900s, molecular studies and cladistics led to the development of a three-domain system, recognizing
– two domains of prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea) and
– one domain of eukaryotes (Eukarya).
Classification: A Work in Progress
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http://youtu.be/fQwI90bkJl4