HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 1

Running Head: HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS

Homework Interventions

James Knorr

University of Utah

Training School Psychologists to be Experts in Evidence Based Practices for Tertiary

Students with Serious Emotional Disturbance/Behavior Disorders

US Office of Education 84.325K

H325K080308

August 11, 2010

Abstract

“Homework, defined as tasks assigned to students by teachers that are

intended to be completed during nonschool hours” (Cooper, 1989, p. 7), is a

common technique used to help students build upon skills that were taught in the

classroom. Interventions directed towards homework are strategies used to help

students complete their homework and complete it accurately. By completing their

homework, students will gain more time to practice the skills taught in the

classroom and theoretically extend their knowledge of educational materials. This

article further discusses the history, characteristics, attitudes, and future research

considerations of homework and homework interventions.

HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 3

“Homework is intended to establish effective study habits and skills; to help

children plan and be proactive; to aid in developing time management, self-control,

and discipline; to extend the learning environment from the classroom to other out-

of-school settings; and to demonstrate responsible behaviors” (Sheridan, 2009, p.

334). Homework has can also be used to “build student responsibility, fulfill

administrative directives, provide parents with information about the curriculum,

and to punish students” (Cosden, Morrison, Albanese, & Macias, 2001 p. 211).

While the face validity of homework seems promising, homework can be

detrimental to student’s who fail to master behavioral and environmental routines

that create conditions and patterns conducive for optimal performance. While some

students may gain greater information and develop performance skills through

homework, some students may lose motivation and fall behind their peers through

their lack of performance on homework assignments. Because of the possible

detrimental consequences to students who do not complete their homework, or fail

to complete it accurately, intervention procedures need to be implemented for the

students who struggle to provide a better opportunity to succeed.

Homework Controversy

Homework may be common in the lives of students today but throughout

history, homework has been, and remains, a controversial issue. In the early 1900’s,

many viewed homework as a waste of time for students (Bryan & Sullivan-Burstein,

1998). Throughout the century, homework was a debated topic due to a lack of

research on its effectiveness and when it should be used. More recent research has

shown homework to be an effective teaching method under certain circumstances

(Axelrod, Zhe, Haugen, & Klein, 2009; Cosden, Morrison, Albanese, & Macias, 2001;

Cooper, Lindsay, Nye, & Greathouse, 1998).

A predominant reason for teachers to assign homework is to promote

greater achievement and better attainment of classroom material for students

(Rhoades & Kratochwill, 1998; Trautwein, Niggli, Schnyder, & Ludtke, 2009). Recent

studies have shown that homework and achievement is moderated by grade level

(Cooper, Lindsay, Nye, & Greathouse, 1998; Axelrod, Zhe, Haugen, & Klein, 2009;

Olympia, Sheridan, Jenson, & Andrews, 1994). More specifically, homework is more

effective at promoting achievement at secondary grade levels when compared to

elementary levels. This is not to say that homework at the elementary level is not

effective. Cosden et al. (2001) reported that homework might serve many functions

at the elementary level including promoting greater study habits and establishing a

connection between the home and the school.

How students go about their homework is also a controversial issue. Chen

and Stevenson (1989) reported compared to two Chinese cities and one Japanese

city to American students. They found in elementary school, American students

receive the least amount of homework, as well as the least amount of family help.

Family support may serve a variety of functions in homework and can either be

positive or negative influence for the student. Miller and Kelley (1991) research on

parental involvement in the homework process found that parental support can be

positive, particularly when parents are taught to provide accurate and constructive

feedback and to interact in a reinforcing manner during homework sessions.

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Parental support can be harmful if parents do not have the time or skills required to

help their student with their homework; the student may experience frustration and

a reduction in the amount of external rewards for completing their homework.

Hill and Tyson (2009) found the effectiveness of parental influence on

homework is also moderated by the student’s grade level. They argue while direct

homework strategies, such as school-based involvement and direct homework

assistance, may be useful at younger ages, these direct strategies may be needed less

in older students. They go on to express that at older ages, indirect parental

involvement that creates an understanding about the purposes, goals, and meanings

of academic performance; communicates expectations about involvement; and

provides strategies that students can effectively use have the strongest positive

relation with achievement. Other factors that affect homework are the “home

environment; the influence of parents, siblings and friends; and the existence of

other activities that compete for attention and time of the children” (Rowell & Hong,

2002, p. 286).

Research has shown that homework completion is not the only important

factor with homework; a reasonable level of accuracy is needed to promote greater

achievement in homework and in the classroom (Miller & Kelley, 1991). Moreover,

students who spend large amounts of time on homework are not necessarily

benefitting from the extended amount of time they put into completing it (Rowell &

Hong, 2002). Due to the many factors that affect a student’s homework abilities, and

the positive outcomes proper homework completion can have on a student’s

achievement, adequate homework interventions may be needed for students who

struggle to complete their homework, or to complete their homework accurately.

Characteristics of Homework Interventions

Interventions are any type of research-validated procedures that are

designed to change a behavior by teaching a new skill or by manipulating the

antecedents or consequences of the behavior (Jenson, 2010). Homework

interventions intend to change behaviors relating homework. Prominent reasons for

applying homework interventions are due to a student’s subpar level of completion

of homework or the lack of accuracy with homework. Interventions may be applied

to help students learn to complete their homework in more productive ways or to

manipulate what comes before/after the student engages in the homework

behavior. According to Gureaski-Moore, Dupaul, and White (2007), there are three

primary categories which homework interventions can be placed: Parental

Management, School-Based Management, and Self-Management.

Parental Management

Parental management interventions, or strategies directed towards parents

to help their student’s homework behaviors is moderated by grade level (Hill &

Tyson, 2009). This indicates that interventions directed towards the parents of the

student’s who are struggling with homework should take into account the student’s

grade level; different interventions will be effective at different grades. Miller and

Kelley (1991) also found parental support to be positive when it is correctly

HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 7

provided to the student. Their research stressed the importance of providing

“accurate and constructive feedback and to the student and to also interact in a

reinforcing manner during the homework sessions” (p. 181). This can be difficult

with parents who lack the skills and/or resources to adequately provide support to

their student. This research also suggests that staff implementing homework

interventions consider the student’s home situation before being implemented.

Academic socialization, or parental involvement in education process, is

more positively correlated to achievement than home- or school-based involvement

(Hill & Tyson, 2009). Academic socialization may entail communicating parental

expectations for education and its value and utility, linking school work to current

events, fostering educational and occupational aspirations, discussing learning

strategies with students, or making preparations and plans for the future. By

promoting these strategies, parents can instill a sense of internal motivation in their

student to better succeed in the classroom.

School-Based Management

School-based management interventions are any techniques implemented to

alter the school environment to provide for better achievement for a student. School

personnel look for fast-acting interventions for students that are effective at

improving the student’s ability to complete their homework. Therefore, school-

based management interventions should be effective, not time consuming, and

economically friendly to have a greater chance of being implemented in the school

(Axelrod, Zhe, Haugen, & Klein, 2009). Because parents should be inundated into all

decisions regarding homework intervention for their students, staff and parents

have the challenge of sharing information about the student and of developing

strategies to be used at school and at home to attain a better link between what the

child likes/needs to do to succeed (Rowell & Hong, 2002). For students with

persistent homework difficulties and negative attitudes toward homework, an

individual or small-group counseling intervention approach may be helpful.

Self-Management

The final category of homework interventions is self-management. Self-

management strategies include “monitoring one’s own behavior; evaluating one’s

own behavior relative to an objective standard; and rewarding one’s own behavior

contingent on behavior reaching a specific goal” (Gureasko-Moore, DuPaul, & White,

2007, p. 648). Axelrod et al. (2009) studied the effects of a home-based intervention

directed to the on-task behavior and homework completion rates of adolescents

with attention and behavior problems. They used a self-monitoring strategy: a

multistep process of observing and then recording one’s own behavior. They found

after having the student self-monitor in 3- or 10-minute intervals, the student’s

percentage of incomplete homework assignments decreased.

Olympia et al. (1994) incorporated a cooperative learning process with self-

management techniques to improve homework completion and accuracy. They

found using four different types of self-management strategies (self-monitoring,

self-instruction, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement) and incorporating those

HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 9

into a team format where each student was assigned a specific role on a team,

improvements in homework completion were made.

There have also been numerous studies evaluating the effectiveness of self-

management strategies with disabled students (Bryan & Sullivan-Burstein, 1998;

Langberg, Epstein, Urbanowicz, Simon, & Graham, 2008; Merriman & Codding,

2008). These will be discussed in greater detail later.

Students and Homework Interventions

There are no defined assessment guidelines of students who are in need of

homework interventions. Some students may be more susceptible to homework

problems due to their disability, a lack of skills in academic areas, a lack of

motivation, or a lack of adequate study habit skills; to name a few (Langberg,

Epstein, Urbanowicz, Simon, & Graham, 2008; Cosden, Morrison, Albanese, &

Macias, 2001; Rowell & Hong, 2002; Lynch, Theodore, Bray, & Kehle, 2009). These

factors should be evaluated when assessing the necessity of a homework

intervention, as they can be valuable indicators of what may be the most effective

homework intervention for that particular student (Anesko, Schoiock, Ramirez, &

Levine, 1987).

Defining when a student needs a homework intervention may also be at the

discretion of the teachers and parents of the student. There are no required

guidelines for monitoring the progress of students’ homework achievement but

such a strategy can be useful in determining the necessity of an intervention.

Assessment tools such as the Homework Problem Checklist may also be useful in

determining if a student is struggling with homework and if an intervention may be

warranted (Anesko, Schoiock, Ramirez, & Levine, 1987).

There have been no research studies to date on the prevalence rates of

homework interventions in schools. The lack of research in this area can be partially

attributed to the lack of adequate information of what characterizes a homework

intervention. It may also be attributed to the lack of monitoring of homework

interventions. With more adequate progress monitoring of students who are at-risk

for homework difficulties and students who are in need of homework interventions,

research can become clearer on the prevalence and need for homework

interventions within schools. What research has shown is that students of all

different ethnicities, religions, socioeconomic statuses and gender are susceptible to

homework difficulties and it will become increasingly important to provide

adequate support to students in need (Hill & Tyson, 2009).

Research on Homework Interventions

Grade Level

Meta-analytic research suggests a larger positive association between

homework completion and achievement for secondary students in comparison to

younger students (Cooper, Robinson, & Patall, 2006). This indicates although

interventions can be important at younger ages, a student’s ability to complete their

homework will be more associated with their achievement at secondary grade

levels. Research has shown that interventions at younger ages should be tailored to

aspects other than content material (Cosden, Morrison, Albanese, & Macias, 2001).

HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 11

Study skills and self-monitoring interventions have been shown to be effective ways

of intervening with younger aged students who are struggling with homework.

These techniques help improve skills directly and indirectly related to homework

such as organizational and classroom preparation skills (Axelrod, Zhe, Haugen, &

Klein, 2009; Gureasko-Moore, DuPaul, & White, 2007). Cosden et al. (2001) also

suggests it may be more important to provide emotional, social, and behavioral

support at younger ages because these supports may enhance future academic

functioning.

Attention- Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) students have “difficulty

with attention, persistence, and organization. Behavioral problems, including lack of

self-control and emotional/behavioral regulation, often interfere with children’s

abilities to benefit from academic instruction and productivity” (Sheridan, 2009, p.

334), resulting in a student struggling to complete homework. She states there are

two types of homework problems ADHD students experience: inattention/

avoidance of homework and poor productivity/nonadherence with homework rules

(referring to issues with inputs and outputs required for accurate homework

performance). Diagnosing the problem area is important to provide adequate

assistance to the struggling student.

If a student is experiencing homework problems due to their inattention/

avoidance of homework, it will be important to build the student’s motivation to

complete their homework (Cosden, Morrison, Albanese, & Macias, 2001). A student

with ADHD may also experience poor productivity/nonadherence with homework

rules. Langberg et al. (2008) states that self-management strategies, such as skills

training interventions, “seem particularly appropriate for students with ADHD,

because these students may have significant impairments in organization and

homework management that may contribute to the observed difficulties in

academic achievement” (p. 408).

Failing to accurately record homework assignments and a lack of

organization of school materials, may contribute to the academic difficulties many

students with ADHD experience (Langberg, Epstein, Urbanowicz, Simon, & Graham,

2008). Other self-management strategies such as coaching (goal setting, self-

monitoring, performance feedback, and/or contingency management with the

assistance of a coach) have also been shown to be effective in improving students’

completion and accuracy in mathematics homework (Merriman & Codding, 2008).

Learning Disability

Many students with learning disabilities have problems completing

homework assignments. Many have “difficulty with tasks that demand voluntary,

selective, and sustained attention, problems in self-monitoring and developing

learning strategies, and a tendency to have an external locus of control” (Bryan &

Sullivan-Burstein, 1998, p. 263-4). Lynch et al. (2009) reported, coupled with

attention problems, learning disabled students experience academic deficits,

HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 13

disorganization and need to be prompted more times to start/complete homework

assignments, placing these students at a greater risk for homework problems.

Bryan and Sullivan-Burstein’s (1998) two-year study used selected

reinforcement, real-life assignments (homework directed to make a link between

school and ordinary activities in their home lives), and a self-recording/graphing

system to find evidence-based interventions that can be directed to improve

homework completion and accuracy in students with a learning disability. They

found that overall, disabled students in the intervention group completed more

homework than their disabled peers in a control group. The real-life plus

reinforcement condition had the most significant effects when compared to baseline

in homework completion and test performance. They also found a self-recording

system had a positive effect while the self-graphing system had an additive effect for

the recording system.

Group Contingencies

Group contingencies can be valuable reinforcing or punishing intervention

techniques. They can conserve both time and resources by applying teaching

techniques to many students simultaneously. Stage and Quiroz’s (1997) meta-

analysis found group contingencies to be the most effective interventions at

decreasing disruptive behaviors in a public education setting. Because of its value, it

has been applied to students with homework difficulties (Lynch, Theodore, Bray, &

Kehle, 2009; Olympia, Sheridan, Jenson, & Andrews, 1994). There are three types of

group contingencies: independent contingencies are when the criteria, behaviors,

and rewards are the same for the class but reinforcement is based upon individual

performance of students; interdependent contingencies require the entire class to

meet a criterion, resulting in all students receiving the reinforcement; and

dependent contingencies are when the entire class is rewarded based on the

performance of one or a few of students (Lynch, Theodore, Bray, & Kehle, 2009).

Along with randomization, Lynch et al. (2009) studied the effects of group

contingencies on 5th grade students in a self-contained special education classroom.

They found all group contingencies (independent, interdependent, and dependent)

were successful in improving homework completion and accuracy rates; no group

contingency procedure was superior to one another for increasing homework

completion. With regard to homework accuracy, the interdependent group

contingency resulted in slightly better results than the independent and dependent

contingencies.

After School Assistance

For many students, extracurricular activities are a way of remaining

connected to friends at school in a structured environment. “Participation in

structured extracurricular activities, including athletics, drama, hobby clubs, youth

groups, student government, church activities, or academic-vocational clubs, in

contrast, have been positively associated with academic and social-emotional

functioning for high school students (Cosden, Morrison, Albanese, & Macias, 2001, p.

212). Research on such programs that offer academic support have also shown

HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 15

positive, yet interesting, results in reading, language arts, and mathematics subject

areas.

Cosden et al. (2001) studied after school academic support programs. Their

research reported, along with the academic benefits of completing homework, there

are also qualitative outcomes beneficial to students who complete homework. These

include a greater sense of esteem and confidence in academic abilities. They also

found the development of personal responsibility, the reinforcement of school

attachment and belonging, improvement of study skills and cognitive strategies, and

motivation to complete homework are mediating factors that are related to

homework completion and may be improved in an after school assistance program.

Cosden et al. (2001) dealt with students who were considered “at-risk” based

on their family’s income level. Their research indicated after school programs

offering homework assistance served as protective factors for low-income students

who participated. The low-income students in the intervention group showed an

arrested negative trajectory of school performance; the control at-risk students

showed a decrease in school performance. Interestingly, the research also reported

that middle-class students participating in the intervention group showed a

decrease in school performance. This was theorized to have occurred because the

after school program prevented the middle-class children from participating in

other after school enrichment activities that are often unavailable for low-income

children. Overall, after school academic assistance programs may provide a safety

net for students who have little structure or supervision but may produce iatrogenic

effects for students who are not in need of such a program.

Attitudes Towards Homework

It should be no surprise teachers’ viewpoints on homework can heavily

influence the amount of homework assigned to a student. Cooper et al. (1998)

studied teachers and students’ attitudes towards homework. Their research showed

a negative correlation between the amount of homework a teacher reported they

assigned and the attitude towards homework expressed by the student. Their study

also found, as students grow older, their own attitudes about homework play an

increasingly important role in how much homework they complete and in their class

grades. Moreover, at lower grades, more homework assigned by teachers may cause

poorer attitudes in student. This indicates if students do not form positive attitudes

about homework at younger ages, the students’ achievement levels may suffer later

in their education.

As indicated earlier, students’ attitudes towards homework is an important

factor in the homework they complete. Rowell and Hong’s (2002) homework model

broke down students’ individual differences in completing homework into two

categories: motivation and preference. Motivation is the “strength of motives that

explain the initial activation of the process of doing required homework

assignments and the strength of the learner’s motivation to perform homework.”

Preference “involves the degree to which the learner will proceed and continue

homework efforts until finished” (p. 287). When students have motivation to

HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 17

complete homework, and apply their own preferences to the homework process,

they are more likely to agree with the use of homework as a teaching technique.

During a student’s education experience, it is important for teachers, parents, and

the students themselves to both, build motivation in the student to complete

homework, and to recognize the student’s learning preferences.

Considerations of Future Research

There is much research to be done with homework interventions and ways of

making existing interventions more effective for students. An area that can receive

future research consideration is the prevalence rate of homework interventions in

schools. Determining the amount of students currently receiving interventions for

homework struggles can help determine issues such as delineating funding and time

resources to students in need. It is also important for professionals to monitor the

progress of students currently receiving homework interventions to more

accurately detect if specific interventions are being effective.

It is also important to create measures that better detect students in need of

homework interventions. Such measures as the Homework Problem Checklist have

been used in the past to determine if students are at-risk for homework problems

but there has yet to be firm guidelines established to determine when a student

should be receiving homework interventions. By setting such guidelines, more

effective procedures, along with better research, can take place.

Future research in providing interventions to differing ethnic populations

should also be completed to determine any differences in the way different ethnic

populations view and perform homework. This also can be completed for different

socioeconomic statuses and detecting any differences in homework between public,

charter, and private schools.

Conclusions

There has been a plethora of research completed on homework

interventions. Much research has given credibility to homework’s effectiveness in

improving a student’s achievement at upper grade levels while homework can serve

differing functions at younger grade levels such as developing study skills and

promoting communication between a student’s home and school. Homework can

also serve other functions such as building a relationship between a students’

interests and what is learned at school, expanding a student’s creativity, while also

being used as a punishing technique for inappropriate behaviors.

Research on attitudes of homework have shown that students who build

motivation and apply their own preferences to complete homework generally agree

with the use of homework as a learning technique and are better at completing their

homework. This makes these students less susceptible for developing future

homework difficulties and achievement problems.

Homework interventions have shown promise in effectively improving

students’ abilities to complete homework. Such interventions as group

contingencies, self-management, and after school assistance programs can help

HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 19

certain groups of students with their homework problems. Interventions have also

been shown to be effective with students who are more susceptible for developing

homework problems due to a psychological disorder such as attention-

deficit/hyperactivity disorder or a learning disorder.

As the body of research grows on effective interventions for homework

problems, it will be important for this research to be practiced. Factors such as time,

cost, and effectiveness of an intervention should be considered when putting

research-validated interventions into practice, as these are important characteristic

evaluated by teachers and parents. With homework becoming more prominent in

students’ lives, interventions tailored to a student’s individual needs will become

increasingly important to assist any students struggling to complete their

homework.

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HOMEWORK INTERVENTIONS 21

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