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(S>m∞. gm°. eHwß$Vbm A. qgh)‡^mar ‡mMm`m©,

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8gßJUH$ AmU _amR>r

9gßJUH$ AmU _amR>r

AZwH´$_UH$m

"gßJUH$ AmU _amR>r' `m MMm©gÃm¿`m Z_ŒmmZo ... ‡m. Xm_moXa _moao 3

y_H$m S>m∞. dO` ~oS>oH$a 5

"gßJUH$ AmU _amR>r' MMm©gÃ - EH$ H´$mßVrH$maH$ nmD$b ! S>m∞. gm°. eHwß$Vbm A. qgh 7

_amR>r ^mfm a. H•$. Omoer 11

Marathi and Computer Alka Irani 12

_amR>r ^mfoMm _m°IH$ BVhmg AmU d°eÓR>Áo ‡m. Xm_moXa _moao 18

_amR>r ^mfoMm BVhmg d d°eÓQ>Áo S>m∞. _ßJbm gfiaH$a 27

_amR>r bnr ‡m. ¡`moVH$m AmoPaH$a 48

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g⁄:‡MbV A›` _amR>r \$m∞›Q> d h[ae XodZmJar ‡emßV Y_m©YH$mar 65(Hardv01) \$m∞›Q> `mßMo VwbZmÀ_H$ A‹``Z

JßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aU AmU _amR>r ‡m. Zmam`U gß. ~mago 66

_amR>r AmU BßQ>aZoQ> : g_Ò`m AmU g_mYmZ ‡drU h. ^mbogB©Z 70

Multi-lingual Software Development Sachin Gandhe 73

JUnwÒVH$ Z_©VrVbm AZw d ‡m. gm°. Zrb_m AemoH$ emÛr 76

_amR>r gm∞‚Q>doAa_Yrb ‡_mUrH$aU Ö ZZmX nYmZ 78g_Ò`m AmU Cnm` `moOZm

Challenges in implementation of Marathi Unicode M. S. Sridhar 88

Marathi as a Formal Language and development of Prof. Mukund Dhaygude 92a Marathi Compiler

Open Source Software Movement and Koustubha Kale 95its relevance to Marathi on computers

JßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aUm gß~ßYmV _amR>rMm dmna n´m. _mohZ nmR>H$ 98

_amR>r ^mfm ≠ KS>U, n[adV©Z AmU n[a^mfmZ_©Vr n´m. AZb ^m~S> 100

10gßJUH$ AmU _amR>r


UNDP defines human development asexpanding the choices for all people in society.This ensures the creation of an enablingenvironment in which all can enjoy long,healthy and creative lives. IT can be used topromote education, learning, communicationand networking, neither technology norproducts can be taken off-the-shelf from othercountries, because the conditions, needs andlanguages are radically different.

Given the present financial, technical andlinguistic constraints there is an urgent needto improve the conditions for equitable andaffordable access to computers so that thebenefits of IT are distributed across all sectionsof the society.

It is said that ‘No man is an island’. In thesame way, according to me, the days of stand-alone computers are over. Computers all overthe world are networked to form Internet. Thisnew, dynamic, flexible, powerful medium called`Internet’ is dominated by one language.According to a survey, 85 % of the contentson Internet are in English while less than 5 %of people speak English as their first language.

Collaborative content development forMarathi – The need

We Indians are proud of EasternCivilization but are in great danger of losingthe advantage our rich civilization has if wedon’t preserve our cultural heritage.

Language and culture go hand in hand.Currently, Indian software professionals arebusy making unbelievable progress on allfronts of computerisation all over the world butas far as our own cultural repository isconcerned our contribution is naganya(insignificant).

Marathi and Computer

Alka IraniChief Investigator IndiXII, Senior Research Scientist, C-DAC, Mumbai, [email protected]

with implementation support from Swapnil Hajare et al ofjanabhaaratii (funded by TDIL, MC&T, Govt of India)

C-DAC, Mumbai (formerly NCST) • [email protected]

Marathi, computer and InternetMarathi is a language with rich heritage

and abundant literature. For most of thepeople in rural Maharashtra (educated oruneducated) this is the only language ofcommunication. Therefore when one thinksof using computers for public health, ruraldevelopment, education, e-governance andmedia along with enabling computers to read,write, print Marathi text, the interactions withcomputer, the help material etc. and mostimportant the contents to share amongcommunity members need to be in Marathi andin the script used by Marathi i.e. Devanagari.

We can see quite a few websites inMarathi. Most of the Marathi newspapers –Loksatta, Maharashtra Times, have their e-copy on Internet.

A question to ponder over is how manyMarathi speaking people are using Computersfor interaction (chat) in Marathi or for sendingmails (e-mail) in Marathi.

Education and ComputerThe conventional education system is

unable to cope with the rapidly changinginformation needs of the education domain.The vast Knowledge Base available in foreignlanguages can reach masses only if it is madeavailable in local languages. Currently, theeducators are unequipped to handle the rapidpace at which the Information world is moving.If the current model of teaching is to besustained continuous input to the educator’sknowledge and a continuous collaborativelearning mechanism must be available tothem. Getting familiar with this new mediumwill make their job easy and enjoyable. Oncethey have their lessons neatly organised andkept, it will not be necessary to go through the


process of preparing presentation all overagain. They can make incremental changes.Many of the mundane day-to-day jobs likekeeping track of students, their activities,progress can be minimal. Email is a cheap andaffordable medium for information exchangewhile web-pages can be used for publishingas well as for bulletin boards.

Computer, local languages andEmployment opportunities:

Ample employment opportunities areavailable, the need is to make local languageslike Marathi successfully to computers. ManyGovernment offices are confronted with thetask of working in Indian languages. Thenationwide project PURA on initiative of ourPresident and a great visionary Abdul Kalamfor Providing Urban amenities for Rural Areasis already working in that direction. Ifcompetent people (teachers/students) aregathered, and resources are provided,educational contents for rural settings can bedeveloped using local skills. Contents will beunderstood much better as they are writtenby the people having similar culturalbackground (peer learning). Localnewspapers, magazines/TV channels need lotof contents to be input, edited and producedin local languages.

Computer and contentsComputer is an ideal medium for content

management. With drastic reduction in costsof disk drives and invention of manyaffordable, flexible, compact storing deviceslike pen drives, the contents can be storedefficiently in compact format in a way they canbe accessed anytime, anywhere.

Some desirable characteristics of contentsare:

Contents should be in standardizedformats. For a collaborative frameworkto succeed, the methods andconventions used must be stable,universal and scalable.

Multiple ways of organising, viewing,browsing data must be possible

Multiple layers (that can be merged orseparated as per the need) buildingvarious hierarchies, abstractions must bepossible.

Contents should be attractive to view(education should be fun). With use ofmultimedia it is possible.

Contents management systems shouldhave provision for entering/retrievingcontents for disable people. This meansvisual or speech interfaces should bepossible.

Content units should be distributed at thesame time fairly independent to allowcontent developers work independent ofComputer Network when it is notaccessible

The ScenarioMany stand-alone packages for bi-lingual

text input exist. The two important landmarkachievements in 80’s from CDAC are:

- Rupantar (Software solution)The rupantar phonetic coding schemewas designed during early 1980s at atime when there was no Devanagari text-processor available for inputting the text;the PC revolution had not caught up andmost of the work was done on mainmachines of Digital at NCST.

It was designed during development oftransliteration softwares Swaroop andthen Rupantar which were basicallycomputer-based systems for convertingnames written in English script intoDevanagari equivalents.

Transliteration of the entire EnglishTelephone Dictionary in Marathi, sortingand made it ready for printing; also usedthe scheme for printing cheques, printingcertificates, etc.

- GIST (Hardware Solution)The Graphic and Intelligence basedScript Technology (GIST) group of C-DAC, Pune has introduced a GIST card


for inputting Indian characters on DOSplatform.

The GIST card has been the cornerstoneof some of the most crucialcomputerization programs of India suchas the Land Records Program, theElection Commission Identity cards, andcitizen surveys.

- StandardisationFundamentally, computers just deal withnumbers. They store letters and othercharacters by assigning a number foreach one called encoding of thecharacter. Currently there are twostandards for devanagari encoding oncomputers.

ISCII – ISCII is an Indian nationalstandard for character encoding whichwas revised many times. The ISCII-91code retains the standard ASCII codewhile utilizing the upper ASCII codes forIndian scripts. This makes it feasible touse Indian scripts along with Englishcomputers and software in an 8-bitenvironment.

The ISCII code table is a superset of allthe characters required in the 10 Brahmi-based Indian scripts includingDevanagari. These scripts share a largenumber of structural features betweenthem as a consequence of their commonBrahmi origin.

- Unicode: character encodingBefore Unicode was invented, there werehundreds of different encoding systemsfor assigning these numbers. No singleencoding could contain enoughcharacters. These encoding systems alsoconflicted with one another.

Unicode provides a unique number forevery character, no matter what theplatform, no matter what the program, nomatter what the language. The UnicodeStandard has been adopted by Apple, HP,IBM, Microsoft, Oracle, SAP, Sun,

Sybase, Unisys etc. Unicode is requiredby modern standards such as XML andJava. It is supported in many operatingsystems, all modern browsers, and manyother products. The emergence of theUnicode Standard, and the availability oftools supporting it, are among the mostsignificant recent global softwaretechnology trends.

Incorporating Unicode into client-serveror multi-tiered applications and websitesoffers significant cost savings over theuse of legacy character sets. Unicodeenables a single software product or asingle website to be targeted acrossmultiple platforms, languages andcountries without re-engineering. It allowsdata to be transported through manydifferent systems without corruption.

(Unicode and ISCII standards differ. ISCIIis a 8-bit character encoding, Unicode 32-bit character encoding. Unicode wasbased on ISCII-88.) The latest ISCIIStandard is ISCII-91.

However, even today many standalonepackages – text processors for inputtingtext and printing with their ownencodings.

What was done to enhance quality,inclusiveness, diversity at NCST (now C-DAC Mumbai)

The two recent projects at NCST (nowC-DAC, Mumbai) is a step in right direction tomake Indian Language pro available tomasses on computers and Internet.

1. IndiX enabling the medium forreading/writing Marathi

The basic IndiX agenda is that the textprocessing should be as easy as it is forEnglish user. The technological challengesaddressed by IndiX is to identify the minimal,logical and required changes in Indic textprocessing and embed these changes withinthe lower most level of a widely used anddeployed software architecture GNU/LINUX.


GNU/Linux (many times known as Linux)is a computer operating system and its kernel.It is one of the most prominent examples offree software and of open sourcedevelopment: unlike proprietary operatingsystems such as Windows and MAC OS, allof its underlying source code is available tothe public and anyone can freely use, modify,and redistribute it.

A Linux distribution for example DebianKnoppix bundles large quantities of applicationsoftware with the core system, and providesmore user-friendly installation and upgrades.

Initially, Linux was primarily developedand used by individual enthusiasts. Sincethen, Linux has gained the support of majorcorporations such as IBM, SUN, HP and Novellfor use in servers and is gaining popularity.

2. Localising the medium for Marathi -janabhaaratii

The broad objective of janabhaaratiiproject is to enable wide use of Indianlanguage computing through Free/OpenSource systems and applications localized inIndian languages.

Janabhaaratii teams responsibility is topromote use of Indian language computingamong people through development,deployment and support to the community. Allthis using free and opensource softwareswhich can be used, modified and distributedfree of cost. As part of the project, the teamhas come up with a LiveCD (a cd containingcomplete GNU/Linux Operating System)which is out-of-box working solution for Indianlanguage computing. Using janabhaaratiiliveCD, one can have all the tools required forIndian language content creation available atno cost. The CD is also supported by goodHowTos and guides.

Another initiative by the team is to makemore and more people aware of the Indianlanguage computing through the use of freelyavailable tools with the help of awarenessworkshops and training programs. The teamhas organised/participated in a number of

workshops and trainings for educationalinstitutes as well as govt departments.

As part of community building, the teamhas also developed a collaborative portalcalled aantarabhaaratii as platform for all thecontent developers, translators, engineers,developers etc to come and interact. Marathilocalisation of popular desktop applications isalso being coordinated with help frommarathiopensource group. With more andmore volunteers contributing in translations,we aim at developing marathi interfaces formost commonly used applications like officesuite, web browser etc.

Here we quote SowaThe point is not just that we can handle

large chunks of knowledge as though theywere atoms, the important thing is that weshould be able to find out way through thesecomplex nested structures to whateverindividual fact or relationship we might needat any given time. We should be doing this ina very flexible and efficient way and avoidhaving to look individually at each of the vastnumber of facts which are not relevant to theproblem at hand.

— Sowa[Sowa, 1984]

Framework for Content Management: Anecessity

The framework of information processingby modern computers are still not so flexiblecompared to human flexibility in informationprocessing in the real world where manyproblems are ill-defined and hard to describeusing algorithms. Therefore in order to copewith such real world problems it is essential topursue the fundamental ways of human-likeflexible information processing. The buzzwordhere is “Real World Computing”.

“Real World Computing” is a paradigmof information processing which aims atfurnishing the real-worldness (or flexibility) ofhuman information processing to informationsystems.

Human beings are “Real world


Information systems”

In order to make “Real World Computing”possible following issues need to be tackled.

Cost of service

Ease of access to information

Reusability of information

Empowerment of the typically bypassedto use ICT

management of information overloading(too many contents)

What needs to be done?

Provide access points (communitycentres/kiosks) (infrastructure)

Allow mechanism to transfer knowledge

Promote easy, affordable and enrichedmedium

Create frameworks to share contents inlocal languages

Hardware costs are falling day by day.With the advent of OpenSource and availabilityof GNU/LINUX platform the basic software hasbecome affordable. With Government of Indiaand various state Government agenciessponsoring various projects and buildinginfrastructures, providing access points orcommunity kiosks, success of collaborativeframework depends upon creating frameworksto read/write and share contents in locallanguages. The first step towards creating theframework is enriching the medium calledcomputer.

Enriching the mediumIn order to be effective, the Knowledge

Representation Framework on computermedium should provide ways and means tothe one who designs the knowledge base tostate what it is all about in an unambiguousway to enable the system to search relevantinformation. To state this it needs vocabulary.This vocabulary cannot and need not becreated arbitrarily. In order to have a universalconvention, the concepts from naturallanguages should be the building blocks for

computer-based systems as well.

The proposal: Intention-based knowledgeorganisation

Basic units for information exchange weare proposing are chunks.

handle

body

Chunk consists of two parts handle andbody.

A handle helps in retrieval of the body ofthe chunk. Handles contain info and meta-knowledge or what is called ‘intention’ of thedata. The body is called ‘extension’ of data.

In neuroscience, the basic unit of humanmemory is described as a chunk. (note: Whileproposing production systems as generalmodels of cognitive architecture Anderson,1983], [Newell 1990], and as a way torepresent human expertise in computerprograms, the primitive structure assumed isalso chunk.)

Retrieval in computer systems:If we want the system to be flexible,

retrieval should be possible in many ways:deliberate, through meta-knowledge, multiplescanning and searching. Picking data using‘handles’ or organizing data based on‘handles’ can make retrieval fast and effectiveif ‘handles’ are chosen carefully.

Chunks can be organised usingabstractions

leveling

partitioning

pointing

clustering

Implementation of chunks is simple justcreate text files with tags. (XML format)


For example: < Name >

< author >

< creation date >

< body >

Chunks can be classified. Each class canbe described using what is called dtds.

General purpose retrievalThe biggest advantage of computer is its

ability to transform/rearrange/collate/reorganise data on demand to suit a purpose.One need not ‘hardwire’ the data right in thebeginning. Once the ‘handles’ are identified,the same chunks can be organised in variousways depending upon the purpose.

For example: Marks can be arrangedstudentwise or subjectwise.

Books can be organized authorwise orsubjectwise or by year of publications

ConclusionVarious groups are advocating different

formalisms as “best” for the job. Many timesissues are handled in isolation. Methodologyand tools are not provided in all the cases.We have no perfect answer to what is the beststructure. Things will evolve. The structureswill emerge.

The tasks of building the medium anddeveloping contents can be taken upirrespective of the final structure if we can startbuilding chunks.

An enormous amount of work is requiredto build an underlying vocabulary.

However, various sources, variousGovernment-sponsored projects like coil-nethave already started and we all can join handsand work.

Action plan :1. build dictionaries – work on

standardisation

2. build dtds – data definition structures forvarious tasks in various domains

3. build linguistic resources – concepts –higher level concepts, - vocabularies inspecialized domains

4. build contents as chunks (meta-knowledge + knowledge) withoutfinalising structuring, presentationchoices

If all the “content developers” i.e.teachers, trainers, library scienceprofessionals, writers, reporters contribute tothe “enrichment of Marathi on computers” byfiling the chunks, Marathi and Computer willcertainly go hand-in-hand.

Immediate priorities include• More and more content development in

Marathi using a content management framework

• Translations for application GUI andoperating system messages

Acknowledgement :This work was part of my Ph.D.(BITS

Pilani) carried out at NCST (now C-DAC India).I am thankful to my colleagues both fromIndix2 team as well as janabhaaratii team forenabling the platform for local languages. I amthankful to Gracy Abreo for proof-reading thistext.

References :1. ‘A Unified Model for Concept Structuring’

– Alka S Irani, Ph.D. Thesis , BITS Pilani1995

2. ‘Texts across contexts: Indix encodingand its applications’, Sylvia Candelanade Ram(Comp Research Lab, NewMaxico State Univ.), Alka Irani and MSrikant in ACH at Fordham Univ in Bronx.NYC, June 1990

3. ‘Conceptual structures: Informationprocessing in mind and machine, SowaJ F, Addison Wesley.

18 mebieCekeÀ DeeefCe cejeþer

ceeveJeer iejpesletve Yee<es®ee pevce Peee. ceeCemee-ceeCemeebvee pees[Ceejemeslet cnCepes Yee<ee. `meceepe' ³ee mebkeÀuHeves®eer Yee<ee ner®e DeeOeej efµeeDeens. cnCetve®e Yee<ee ner SkeÀ meeceeefpekeÀ mebmLee Deens Demes DeeHeCe cnCelees.keÀesCeleerner Yee<ee SkeÀoce efvecee&Ce nesle veener efkebÀJee SkeÀoce leer Jee*dce³e ªHeOeejCe keÀjerle veener lej yeesYee<ee, J³eJenejYee<ee, ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eerYee<ee DeeefCe ceie efefKele Jee*dce³ee®eer Yee<ee ¿ee ìHH³eeletve®e Yee<es®ee ÒeJeemenesleevee efomelees. cejeþer Yee<eener l³eee DeHeJeeo veener.

`ceneJebµe' ³ee yeew×ûebLee®³ee DeeOeejs cenejÆ' DeLeJee cenejeä'veeJee®ee Giece F.Het. eflemeN³ee µelekeÀeHe³e¥le peeT µekeÀlees.1 `cenejeä^'µeyoe®es ÒeLece efefKele ©He F.me. 365®³ee SjCeieeJe®³ee efµeesKeeleHeneJe³eeme efceUles. F.me. 505 ceO³es Jejen efceefnjeves DeeHeuîee`ye=nlmebefnles'®³ee oneJ³ee DeO³ee³eele cenejeäê®ee GÁsKe kesÀe Deens. lejob[erves DeeHeu³ee keÀeJ³eeoµe&' ûebLeele cenejeäê³e Þeeb Yee<eeb Òeke=Àä Òeeke=ÀlebefJeog:~' Demee cenejeä^ Yee<es®ee GÁsKe kesÀe Deens. F.me. 800 ®³eemegceejeme keÀesTn veeJee®³ee keÀJeerves pes Keb[keÀeJ³e eqefns les®e cegUerDeeHeuîee Òes³emeer®³ee meebieC³eeJeªve cejnÆ-osmeer-Yeemee' ceO³es.''2

F.me. 1051 ceOeu³ee meesceséeje®³ee ûebLeeJeªve cenejeäêleerefm$e³ee cejeþeRle ieeCeer j®etve ieele Demele Je ner ieeCeer kesÀJeU keÀener efJeµes<eÒemebieeHegjleer vemetve Iejebleuîee oUCe-keÀeb[Cee®³ee efvel³eke=Àl³eelener ncesµeeiee³eerer peele Demes efomeles. cnCepes 11 J³ee µelekeÀele cejeþerle ®eebieerieeCeer jef®eer peeTve leer yee³ekeÀeb®³ee efvel³e ke=Àl³eeHe³e¥le peeTve Heesnes®eernesleer.3

jepeµesKejeves efefnsuîee keÀHet&jcebpejer' ³ee veeìkeÀele cenejeäêr'Yee<ee Deens. ³ee ûebLeele Hee$eeb®³ee leeW[er jepeµesKejeves Òeeke=Àle Yee<ee®e IeeleerDeens. ³eeJeªve ³ee®³ee keÀeUer (megceejs -850) Òeeke=Àle Yee<ee ner mejmeneÒe®eejele Demeer Heeefnpes.4

ÞeerHeleerves (meve 999 les 1050) `p³eesefle<e jlveceee' necejeþer ûebLe efefne. DeeÐekeÀJeer cegkegbÀojepe ³eebveer F.me. 1188 ceO³es

èfJeJeskeÀ eEmeOet'®es sKeve kesÀs. cneFbYeìebveer 1278 ceO³esèrUe®eefj$e' lej %eeveséejebveer 1290 ceO³es %eeveséejer' efefner.cnCepes 12 J³ee-13 J³ee µelekeÀele ûebLeªHeeves cejeþer®es oµe&veDeeHeu³eee Ie[les. ³ee meJe&®e ûebLeele cejeþer Yee<es®es JewYeJe DeeHeu³eeeefomeles. HeCe keÀesCel³eener Yee<ese De®eevekeÀ Demes JewYeJe ÒeeHle nesleveener.

cejeþer Yee<es®ee Fefleneme µeyoªHeeves, JeekeÌ³eªHeeves DeeefCeûebLeªHeeves GHeyOe Deens. efµeesKe, leeceHeì DeeefCe Flej ûebLeeletve³ee Yeeef<ekeÀ Feflenemee®es oµe&ve DeeHeuîeee Ie[les. HeCe ³ee meJee¥®³eeDeeOeer meceepeele ceewefKekeÀ HejbHejsves ®eele Deess Jee*dce³e Demeles.l³ee ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eeleer µeyokeÀUe DeeefCe melJe IesTve efefKeleJee*dce³e Jeeì®ee keÀjerle Demeles.

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e cnCepes keÀe³e?

eskeÀeb®es, eskeÀebveer, eskeÀebmeeþer efvecee&Ce kesÀss, ceewefKekeÀHejbHejsves ®eele Deess, kegÀCee®eerner veececegêe vemess Jee*dce³ecnCepes ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e nes³e.

ceewefKekeÀ meeefnl³eee®e HetJeea eskeÀmeeefnl³e ne µeyo JeeHejepee³e®ee HeCe Deelee cee$e eskeÀJee*dce³e Demee µeyo JeeHeje peelees.

eskeÀ Jee*dce³ee®es JesieUsHeCe mHeä keÀjleevee [e@. µejoJ³eJenejs cnCeleele,èskeÀ meeefnl³eele eskeÀefJeéeeme, eskeÀÞe×e, eskeÀmecepetleer, eskeÀYeće, eskeÀefJeOeer, ªer-ÒeLee eskeÀe®eej YeeweflekeÀmebmkeÀ=leer DeeefCe ceewefKekeÀ ªHeeleer µeyoeefJe<keÀej cnCepes®e ceewefKekeÀJee*dce³eeleer eskeÀieerles, eskeÀkeÀLee, eskeÀkeÀLeeieerles, GKeeCes, cnCeerJe JeekeÀdmebÒeoe³e ³eeb®ee meceeJesµe neslees. lesJne ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eemeeþercejeþer eskeÀ Jee*dce³e ner meb%ee ª nesC³eeme njkeÀle veener DemesJeeìles.'5

_amR>r ^mfoMm _m°IH$ BVhmg AmU d°e>>Áo

Òee. oeceesoj ceesjs

cejeþer Yee<ee efJeYeeie ÒecegKepeesMeer-yes[skeÀj ceneefJeÐeeue³e, þeCes


ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³ee J³eeK³ee

eskeÀJee*dce³ee®³ee eEkeÀJee ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³ee DeY³eemekeÀebveerl³ee®³ee DeveskeÀ J³eeK³ee kesÀu³ee Deensle. pee@ve ye@efme ³eeb®³ee celes,`eskeÀJee*dce³e DeeefoceeveJe efveefce&le Demetve les HejbHejsves ÒeeHle nesleDemeles. ner efveefce&leer OJeveer DeeefCe µeyo ³eeb®³ee Üeje HeÐe eEkeÀJee ieÐemJeªHeele kesÀer peeles.6

pee@ve HeÀemìj ³eeb®³ee celes eskeÀmecetne®³ee DeefefKele efkebÀJeeceewefKekeÀ mJeªHee®³ee YeeJeeefJe<keÀeje®ee cnCepes®e owJelekeÀLee,DeeK³eeef³ekeÀe, eskeÀkeÀLee,ÒensefkeÀe, leeieerles, eskeÀieerles Je cnCeer³eeb®ee meceeJesµe eskeÀJee*dce³eele neslees.7

eskeÀmeeefnl³eeefJe<e³eer efnboer meeefnl³e keÀes<eele efoser J³eeK³eeDeµeer Deens, eskeÀmeeefÔl³e Jen ceewefKekeÀ DeefYeJ³ekeÌleer nw, pees Yesner efkeÀmeer J³ekeÌleerves ieer nes, Hej Deepe efpemes meeceev³e eskeÀmecetn nerceevelee nw, Deewj efpemeceW eskeÀ keÀer ³egie-³egieerve JeeCeer meeOevee meceeefnlejnleer nw efpemeceW eskeÀceeveme Òeefleefyeefcyele jnlee nw~ 8

³ee J³eeK³esle ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³ee Yeeef<ekeÀ leHem³ese cenÊJeefos Deens keÀejCe ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e ner eskeÀeb®eer Yeeef<ekeÀYeeJeeefYeJ³ekeÌleer Demeles. [e@. lespeveeje³eCe epes eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³eemeboYee&le cnCeleele keÀer,`meeOeejCe pevelee efpeve µeyoeW ceW ieeleer nw,nmeleer nw, jesleer nw, Kesleer nw, Gve meyekeÀes eskeÀmeeefnl³ekesÀ Debleie&lejKee pee mekeÀlee nw~' ³ee®ee®e DeLe& eskeÀµeyo eqkebÀJee eskeÀYee<eener®e ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eer DeeOeejµeere Deens.

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eer ÒesjCee

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e ner keÀäkeÀN³eeb®eer, ÞeefcekeÀeb®eer, efJeÐeeJebef®eleeb®eerefveefce&leer Deens DeeefCe ÞeceHeefjneje®³ee ÒesjCesletve ³ee Jee*dce³ee®ee pevcePeee Deens. peerJeveeleer og:Kee®es, ceveeleer GêskeÀe®es efJejs®evekeÀjCes nerner ceewefKekeÀ ieerlee ceeie®eer ÒesjCee Deens. ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eeleerm$eer ieerleebefJe<e³eer [e@. leeje YeJeeUkeÀj cnCeleele, ieerles ke=Àeflemebyeb×,Þecemebye× Deensle. leer HeejbHeefjkeÀ m$eer ®³ee YeeJee-efYeJ³ekeÌleer®eer mJeielesDeensle. DeveskeÀoe efle®³ee Jesoveeb®es, efJeêesne®es efJejs®eve keÀjCeejerDeensle.''10

kesÀµeJemegleebveer `ieeC³eeves Þece Jeeìleele nkesÀ nsner vemes Lees[kesÀ'

Demes cnìs Deens'. lej efJe.. YeeJes cnCeleele, keÀesCel³eener Yee<eslemeejmJele efkebÀJee Jee*dce³e efvecee&Ce nesT eieles, les Deieoer meeOeejCeeskeÀebkeÀ[tve le³eej nesTve ceie HejbHejsves JejJej®³ee eskeÀeble lesJeeerme eieles. J³eJemee³eeles keÀeyee[keÀäe®es Þece nkesÀJeeìC³eekeÀefjlee eEkeÀJee meesH³ee µeyoebveer meeOeer ÒeeLe&vee keÀjC³eekeÀefjleeeEkeÀJee Deµee®e Flej keÀener keÀejCeebkeÀefjlee Òee³e: keÀener DeeKeerJej®evee ÒeLece keÀjC³eeme meg©Jeele nesles.''11

`keÀeceOeboe Peeu³eeJej ceie vee®e-ieeCeer, ceveesjbpeve keÀje³e®esDeµeer DeeHeer HejbHeje Deens.' Yejle cegveerbveerner veeìîeµeem$eele les®emeebefieles Deens -

og:Keelee&veeb Þeceelee&veeb µeskeÀelee&veeb leHeefmJeveeced ~

efJeÞeece peveveb eskesÀ veeìîecesleve ce³eeke=Àleced ~~

cnCepes®e ³esLes keÀece DeeefCe keÀemJeeo ³eeb®³eele HeÀejkeÀlePeeser efomeles. DeefYepeveeb®eer DeefYepeele keÀebefJe<e³eer®eer ner YetefcekeÀeDeens. eskeÀ peerJeveele cee$e keÀece DeeefCe keÀe ³eele Üwle veener.DeefYepeveebHes#ee vescekeÀer Gì YetefcekeÀe ³esLes Deens keÀejCe ³esLeerowvebefove peerJeve®e keÀä DeeefCe eE®elee ³eebveer $emle Peess Demeles.µejerj DeeefCe ceve melele®e leeCeeKeeer Demeles. ns leeCe mewkeÀjC³eemeeþer peerJeveesHe³eesieer meieUer keÀeces keÀjlee keÀjlee®e ieeCesDeeHeesDeeHe®e ÒekeÀìles. peel³eeJej yemes keÀer DeesJeer meg®eles DemescnCeleele. ne HeejbHeeefjkeÀ, keÀäkeÀjer m$eer®ee jespe®ee®e DevegYeJeDemelees.12

ieerleekeÀ[s #e Demeu³eeves ³ee efm$e³eebvee peeles DeesCes pe[peele veener. oUCe oUleevee®ee DeeF&®ee DevegYeJe keÀefJelesle ceeb[leeveeceer cnì³e-

cee³e eies peel³eeJej ~ ieg©-ieg© oUt

efHeþemebies Jnìeleer ~ meyeo eies HeUt ~~

peeles Deeslee Deeslee efm$e³eebvee YejYeje µeyo meg®ele jneleeleDeeefCe DeesJ³ee DeekeÀej Iesle jneleele. DeµeeJesUer eqm$e³ee peel³eeµeer®emebJee -o meeOeleele DeeefCe cnCeleele -

ieeC³ee®³ee veeoele lege Deesefles oie[e ~

lej keÀOeer peel³eee®e F&éej mecepetve l³ee cnCeleele

peel³ee let F&meJeje ~ vekeÀes cee pe[ peeT ~

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®es ÒekeÀej

eskeÀieerles,eskeÀkeÀLeeieerles, eskeÀkeÀLee, GKeeCes, JeekeÌÒe®eej JecnCeer ns ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®es ÒecegKe ÒekeÀej Deensle. menpelee DeeefCemJeeYeeefJekeÀlee ns eskeÀieerlee®es Jewefµeäîe Demeles. [e@. mejesefpeveer yeeyej³eeb®³eeceles ceewefKekeÀ HejbHejsves Deefµeef#eleele ®eele Deess YeeJeieerlecnCepes eskeÀieerle nes³e. ner eskeÀieerles meoeyenej Demeleele. cnCetve®eefvel³evetlevelee ns l³eeb®es Jewefµeäîe meebefieles peeles.

keÀLeelcekeÀlee ns eskeÀkeÀLee ieerlee®es cenÊJee®es Jewefµeäîe. keÀeJ³eDeeefCe keÀLee ³eeb®ee mebiece ³esLes DeeUlees. eskeÀkeÀLee ceeewefKekeÀHejbHejsves SkeÀe efHeerkeÀ[tve ogmeN³ee efHeerkeÀ[s ®eele ³esle jneleele.

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eer Yee<ee

eskeÀkeÀLee ne ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eeleer cenÊJeHetCe& IeìkeÀnes³e. ceewefKekeÀ eskeÀkeÀLeeb®ee JesOe Iesleevee [e@. µejo J³eJenejs cnCeleele,`Yeejleele keÀLee Jee*dce³ee®³ee mebkeÀveeletve eskeÀmeeefnl³eeleer eskeÀJee*dce³ee®es mebkeÀve efJeefJeOe ªHeeletve Òee®eerve keÀeUer Peeuîee®es l³eekeÀeUeleer Jee*dce³ee®³ee DeeOeejs cnCelee ³esles. JesoHetJe&keÀeUele ceewefKekeÀªHeele keÀLee Òe®eefle Demeuîee®es Devegceeve DeY³eemekeÀ keÀeleele.JesoJee*dce³eeleer mebJeeo,megkeÌles, ye´eïeCe ûebLeeleer keÀLee, DeeK³eevesDeeefCe Heger keÀeUeleer HegjeCe Jee*dce³eeleer keÀLee eskeÀpeerJeveeleceewefKekeÀ mJeªHeele Òe®eefle nesl³ee. Hegs l³eebvee HegjeCeJee*dce³eelemLeeve efceUes DemeeJes.'

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eer Jewefµeä³es

[e@. ÒeYeekeÀj ceeb[s, [e@. µejo J³eJenejs DeeefCe [e@. yeeHetjeJeosmeeF& ³eebveer ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eer efJeefJeOe Jewefµeä³es meebefieleer Deensle.1) ns Jee*dce³e ceewefKekeÀ Demeles.,2) les DeefefKele Demeles., 3)l³ee®eer efveefce&leer mecetnele nesle Demeles.,4) ³ee Jee*dce³eeJej kegÀCee®eernerveececegêe vemeles., 5) ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®ee efvecee&lee DeveeefcekeÀ Demelees.,6) ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e eskeÀeb®es, eskeÀebveer DeeefCe eskeÀebmeeþer efvecee&CekesÀss Demeles., 7) ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e HejbHejsves ®eele DeessDemeles., 8) HeefjJele&veµeerlee ³ee Jee*dce³eele Demeles., 9) ceewefKekeÀ

Jee*dce³e eskeÀmebmke=Àleer®es JeenkeÀ Demeles., 10) J³ekeÌleeR®eer leerefveefce&leer Demegvener mecetne®eer yeveles., 11) ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eeefvecee&lee De%eele Demelees., 12) ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eeletve eskeÀceevemee®esoµe&ve Ie[les., 13) ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eer efveefce&leer eskeÀpeerJeveeletvenesle Demeles., 14) ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e ns ewefkeÀkeÀ %eeve Demeles.,15) ÒeJeenerHeCee ns Jewefµeä³e.,16) menpelee, mJeeYeeefJekeÀleeDeeefCe mJe³ebmHetÀle&lee l³eele Demeles., 17) Òee®eerve Demegvener DeJee&®eerveDemeles, 18) ³eele ies³elee, ÞeeJ³elee, Þes³elee Je Òes³elee Deens.

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eer Yee<ee ner PegUPegUl³ee, KeUKeUl³eePeN³eemeejKeer efpeJeble Yee<ee Demeles. ³ee Yee<ese SkeÀ ieeJejeve iees[JeeDemelees. ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eer Yee<ee ner veoer meejKeer Demeles. veoer®ebHee$e pegveb Demeleb HeCe ³esCeejb HeeCeer veJe-veJeerve Demeleb. leµeer ceewefKekeÀJee*dce³ee®eer Yee<ee keÀeUevegªHe yeoCeejer Demeles. efle®³eele veJeveJeerveµeyoeb®eer melele Yej He[le Demeles. ³ee Yee<es®es mJele:®es meewÿJeDeeefCe meeQo³e& Demeles. ûeebefLekeÀ Yee<esleer mee®esHeCee ³ee Yee<eslevemelees. ÒeJeenerHeCee DeeefCe ÒemeVelee, menpelee DeeefCe mJeeYeeefJekeÀlee³ee Yee<esceO³es Demeles. leer Debke=Àle Demeles HeCe DebkeÀeje®ee meesmeeflee vemelees. leer cegUele®e megboj Demeu³eeves veìC³ee-cegj[C³ee®eernewme eflee veener, HeCe lejerner keÀeUpeee [bKe keÀjC³ee®es meeceL³e&ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³ee Yee<esceO³es Deens. DeuHee#ej jceefCe³elJe ns³ee Yee<es®es efJeesYeveer³e Jewefµeä³e. jebie[sHeCee, jiesHeCee DeeefCejbiesHeCeener efle®³eele ³eslees keÀejCe cegle:®e ner Yee<ee ner eskeÀceevemee®eer,eskeÀmJeYeeJee®eer, eskeÀefJekeÀeje®eer, eskeÀefJe®eeje®eer, eskeÀmebmke=Àleer®eeref[JeeU, esYeme, eJeC³ece³eer YeeJeeefYeJ³ekeÌleer Demeles. ceewefKekeÀYee<es®³ee mJe©HeefJeµes<eeJej ÒekeÀeµe ìekeÀleevee [e@. µejo J³eJenejscnCeleele, eskeÀieerleeb®eer efveefce&leer eskeÀpeerJeveele nesle DemeuîeecegUsl³eeb®eer Yee<ee eskeÀpeerJeveele efvel³ee®³ee GHe³eesiee®eer Demeser Yee<ee®eDemeles. eskeÀ mecegne®³ee yeeserYee<esle®e eskeÀieerleeb®eer efveefce&leer nesleDemeles. yeeserYee<ese J³eekeÀjCee®es efve³ece yeebOet µekeÀle veenerle. efµeJee³eceewefKekeÀlee ns yeeserYee<es®es Jewefµeä³e DemeuîeecegUs leer yebOevecegkeÌleDemeles. l³eecegUs yeeserleer µeyo Jeef®ekeÀ DeeefCe nJes lemes JeeketÀµekeÀCeejs Demeleele. ner Yee<ee owvebefove peerJevee®³ee J³eJenejeleerDemeuîeecegUs ®ewlev³eHetCe& Demeles. eskeÀieerleeleer µeyo ®eeles-yeesles Demeleele. peel³eeJej®³ee DeesJ³eeletve efometve ³esCeeje efpeJneUe,osJeeefokeÀeb®³ee ieerleeletve J³ekeÌle nesCeejer Þe×e, meCe GlmeJe Òemebieer

ieeef³euîee peeCeeN³ee ieerleeletve GmeUCeeje Deevebo, KeUKeUCeejsDeeveboe®es #eCe HekeÀ[C³ee®eer efkeÀce³ee eskeÀieerleeleer µeyoele Demeles.eskeÀ peerJevee®es GlkeÀì ef®e$eCe keÀjC³ee®es meeceL³e& eskeÀieerlee®³eeYee<esle Demeles. DeveskeÀ DeLe&HetCe& µeyoeb®eer oewle ³ee yeeserle meeþefJeserDemeles. eskeÀieerleeleer µeyo Deblejer®³ee YeeJeeves DeesLebyetve®e ieerleeletveJ³ekeÌle nesle DemeuîeecegUs eskeÀieerleeb®es JesieUsHeCe ®eìkeÀve #eele³esles. eskeÀieerleeleer ye³ee, ie[Ceer,®eeHeÀe, peeF&,pejer®ee ©cee,Ssves cene, kebÀ®eveer, KesÈ³ee, ieeW[eU Demes efkeÀleerlejer µeyoeskeÀYee<es®eer mebHeVelee oeKeefJeleele.13

Yee<ee DeeefCe ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e ³ee®eb veeleb HegÀ DeeefCe l³ee®eemegiebOe, peeµe³e DeeefCe keÀceU ³eeb®³ee meejKeb Deens. eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³eeJesieJesieÈ³ee DeY³eemeHe×leer Deensle l³eeHewkeÀer®e SkeÀ He×le cnCepesYee<eeµeem$eer³e ¢äîee eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®ee DeY³eeme nes³e. `Yee<eeµeem$eer³e¢ä³ee eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®ee DeY³eeme 1812 les 1871 ³ee keÀeUelePeee. cÔCetve ³ee keÀeKeb[ee Yee<eeµeem$eer³e mebÒeoe³e Demes mebyeesOespeeles. eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³ee DeY³eemee®eer pevceYetceer pece&veer Deens. Yee<eeefJe<e³ee®³ee Heebef[l³eHetCe& DeO³e³evee®eer HeeJes veJ³ee efoµeskeÀ[s ³ee®eJesUer He[er. Yee<eeµeem$e kesÀJeU J³eekeÀjCee®eer megOeejser DeeJe=ÊeercnCetve veJns lej leewefvekeÀ He×leerves Yee<eekegÀUe®es efJeJejCe keÀjCeejsµeem$e cnCetve DeefmlelJeele Dees. eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³ee DeY³eemeee®eevee cegK³elJes leewefvekeÀ Yee<eeµeem$eecegUs efceUeer. eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®eerYee<ee ner efvel³ee®eer yeesYee<ee Demeles. leer yeole veener Demes veJns,Hejbleg yeoleeveener DeeHes Jewefµeäîe DeyeeefOele þsJetve l³eele veJeerveYej Ieetve SkeÀe efHeerkeÀ[tve ogmeN³ee efHeerHe³e¥le peele Demeles.l³eecegUs eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³ee Yee<esle pegves µeyo, pegves JeekedÀ-Òe®eej,J³eekeÀjCe efJe<e³ekeÀ Hegjeleve ©Hes DeeUleele. ¿ee®³ee DeY³eemeevesµeyoeb®eer Ie[Ce keÀUles. Lees[keÌ³eele Yee<eeµeem$ee®³ee DeY³eemekeÀebveeÒeejbYeeHeemetve Yee<eeY³eemeemeeþer cejeþer eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®ee DeeOeej I³eeJeeeiee. µeyoÒe³eesie, JeekedÀÒe®eej, G®®eej Òeef¬eÀ³ee ³ee ieesäeR®eerpeesHeemevee eskeÀ meeefnl³eele kesÀser Demeles. l³eecegUs Òee®eerve Yee<es®esªHe µeesOeleevee Yee<eeµeem$e%eebvee eskeÀmeeefnl³e cenlJee®es Jeeìs.14

eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®ee Yee<es®³ee ¢äerves DeY³eeme keÀjC³ee®es Òe³elveDeeHeu³eekeÀ[sner Pees Deensle. eskeÀmeeefnl³eele Yee<es®³ee ¢äerves DeY³eemekeÀjCes keÀe DeeJeµ³ekeÀ Demeles ³eeefJe<e³eer [e@. µejo J³eJenejs cnCeleele,`eskeÀJee*dce³eele µeyoJewYeJe, DeLe&JewYeJe DeeefCe G®®eejJewYeJe Demeles.'

ceewefKekeÀ HejbHejsves eskeÀpeerJeveele Òe®eefle Demesu³eeeskeÀJee*dce³eele µeyoeb®eer Òee®eerve ªHes Demeleele. ³ee µeyoeb®³eeDeeOeejs Yee<es®ee Fefleneme µeesOelee ³eslees. efµeJee³e eskeÀJee*dce³ee®eerYee<ee yeesYee<ee cnCepes®e eskeÀYee<ee Demeuîeeves l³eeleer µeyoebveeeskeÀpeerJeveele Demess mLeevener #eele ³esles. ³ee¢äerves Yee<es®³eeDeY³eemeemeeþer eskeÀJee*dce³e ner DeO³e³eve meecegûeer Demeles.''15

³ee®ee®e DeLe& Demee keÀer Yee<es®ee Fefleneme µeesOeC³ee®³ee¢äervesceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®es cees HeÀej Deens. GoenjCe®e Ðee³e®es Peeu³eemeoefle eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®es oslee ³esF&. eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®es efJeµes<ele:eskeÀieerleeb®es mebkeÀve keÀjleevee cee keÀener DeesJ³ee efceUeuîee l³eeDeµee -

cee³e legP³ee Iejer ~ pesJeer Jeeìerle

HeejKeb[e®eer [er ~ yeesìer De[keÀer Ieeìerle

onsere ³ese, ®eJeYeJeleeb leejb

meebietve iess Deebyes[keÀj, Jet vekeÀe cesb esjb. 16

¿ee oesvner DeesJ³ee JeNne[er yeeserleuîee Deensle. HeCe l³eeceO³eskeÀeUe®ee HeÀjkeÀ Deens ns #eele ³esles. ¿ee oesvner DeesJ³ee DemHe=µ³emeceepeeletve efceUeu³ee Deensle. HeCe ³ee DeesJ³eebletve Fefleneme metef®elePeee Deens. Heefner DeesJeer [e@. yeeyeemeensye Deebyes[keÀj ³eebveer Oecee¥lejkeÀjC³ee®³ee HetJeea®eer Deens. HeejKeb[, [er, yeesìer Deµeer µeyokeÀUel³ee DeesJeerle Deeer Deens. Yee<es®³ee Feflenemee®³ee¢äerves leer cenÊJee®eerDeens HeCe ogmeN³ee DeesJeerle cee$e [e@. yeeyeemeensye Deebyes[keÀj ³eebveerOecee¥lej keÀsuîeeveblej®³ee HeefjJele&vee®es Òeefleefyebye Gceìss DeeHeCeemeHeneJe³eeme efceUles. Jet vekeÀe cesb esj' Demee Deebyes[keÀjer mebosµelesLes ÒekeÀì Peee Deens ces-legs Demee JeNne[er yeesYee<es®eejbiebie DeeHeCeeme ³esLes HeneJe³eeme efceUlees.

µeyoeb®eer HegvejeJe=Êeer ns SkeÀ Yeeef<ekeÀ Jewefµeä³e ³ee DeesJ³eeleHene³ee efceUleb. [e@. yeeyeemeensye Deebyes[keÀj ³eeb®³ee efJe<e³eer®eeke=Àle%elee YeeJe ÒekeÀì keÀjleevee Yeerce µeyoe®ee JeeHej leer m$eer DemeekeÀjles -

Yeerce Yeerce keÀª yeeF& Yeerce eKeeleb meesveb ~

keÀmeb efJemeª ceer yeeF& yeeyeemeensyeeb®e osveb ~

mJeeleb$³eHetJe& keÀeUele ieebOeerpeer DeeefCe vesnªpeeR®³ee keÀe³ee&ves³ee efm$e³eeb®eer ceves YeejeJeer nesleer. cnCetve l³ee cnCeleele -

- ieebOeer ceePee meKee ie DeesJeer l³eee ieeF&ve

DeesJ³ee ieeT keÀewlegkebÀ let ³es js yee FÇe

peJeenj ceePee Oeerje®ee Jeerj lees íeleer®ee

keÀeìe keÀeer meesefpeje®ee let ³esjb yee FÇe ~~ 17

³eemeejK³ee DeesJ³eeletve keÀeU megef®ele nesle Demeuîeeves lelkeÀeerveYee<eeªHeeb®ee DeY³eeme keÀjCes meesHes peeles. oefle eskeÀmeeefnl³eeletveDeeHeCeeme oefleHeCee®³ee DeeefCe oefle peeCeerJes®³ee µeyoeb®ee Feflenemeceeefnleer nesC³eeme efveef½ele®e ceole nesles. ³ee ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eeletveDemme cejeþer µeyokeÀUs®es oµe&ve DeeHeCeeme Ie[les.

Oecee¥lejHetJe& DeeefCe Oecee¥lejeveblej®³ee ³ee DeesJ³eele cenejer yeeser®eeÒel³e³e ³eslees. ³ee cenejeryeeser efJe<e³eer jepeejeceµeem$eer YeeieJele cnCeleele,`cenej ns DeefleHegjeleve keÀe®es Demme osµeer eskeÀ, ³ee mebyebOeevesµebkeÀe vekeÀes. cenej pemes keÀeskeÀCeele Deensle, lemes®e osµeeJej Deensle.'ieeJe lesLes cenejJee[e Deens. cenejeb®eer yeeser µeg× DemebkeÀerCe& osµeermecepeeJeer. pes Deece®³ee Yee<es®es ªHe Deepeefceleerme l³eebveer jeKetveþsefJes Deens les Deece®³ee Yee<es®es Deepe efceleer®es µeg× mJeªHe mecepeeJes.18

jepeejeceµeem$eer YeeieJele ³eebveer cenejeceebieeb®³ee yeeser®ee µeyokeÀesµenerle³eej kesÀe neslee.

meceepeYee<ee Jew%eeefvekeÀ ¢efäkeÀesveeletvener keÀener keÀener DeY³eemekeÀebveerceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®ee DeY³eeme kesÀe Deens. [e@. j.vee. JejKes[s³eebveer ³ee meboYee&le kesÀse Òe³elve cenÊJeHetCe& Deens. keÀesCeleener DevegYeJe`Yeeef<ekeÀ®e' Demelees.l³eecegUs Yeeef<ekeÀ efJeµs<eCeeletve m$eer ieerleeb®esmeeceeefpekeÀ JeemleJe vescekesÀHeCeeves #eele ³esles Demes les cnCeleele.ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eeleer efm$e³eeb®³ee Yee<eeefveOeerJej ÒekeÀeµe ìekeÀleebveeles cnCeleele -

`m$eerieerleeb®es Yeeef<ekeÀ efJeµs<eCe keÀjleebvee Demes #eele ³esleskeÀer, efm$e³eebveer mJewHeekeÀIejeles Yeeef<ekeÀ mebef®ele DeeHeuîee efJeefJeOeÒekeÀej®³ee DevegYeJe me=äer®³ee DeeefJe<keÀejemeeþer JeejbJeej JeeHejssDeens. SkeÀÒekeÀejs DeeHeuîee DevegYeJe efJeéee®eer mJee³eÊelee ³eeYeeef<ekeÀefveOeer®³ee GHe³eespeveeves l³eebveer efìkeÀefJeser efomeles. GoenjCeeLe&

Hebjer®³ee veiejer®es JeCe&ve keÀjleebveener mJewHeekeÀIejeleer Òeefleceeveme=äerkeÀµeer DeJelejles les Hene -

otj FLetve efomes neF& Hebjer e

meesveeveer megHeer, jKeceer HeeKe[s iege

HebjHegjele ieÁesieÁers ceeUCeer

osJe FÇveer jeveer PeekeÀ meesns keÀejeCeer

©efkeÌceCeer meesv³ee®³ee megHeerle iege HeeKe[les Deens eEkeÀJeeefJeÇe®eer jeCeer Hebjer®³ee yeepeejele keÀejuîee®eer Yeepeer µeesOelesDeens. ¿eemeejK³ee JeCe&veeleer ner m$eerefJeefµeä µeyo³eespevee #eCeer³eDeens. yevmeer ieJnemeejKee YeeT, l³ee®es keÀceesoer®³ee leeboUemeejKesµegYe´ oele ner GHeceeveme=äer eEkeÀJee ive peceJeC³eele ³esCeeN³eeDe[LeÈ³eeb®es JeCe&ve Oeev³e keÀesþerleuîee DeÈ³eeb®³ee GHecesves keÀjCesner Yeeef<ekeÀ efvekeÀ[ #eele Iesleer lej m$eerieerleeb®ee cnCetve SkeÀmJee³eÊe µeyoefveOeer Deens DeeefCe lees®e kesÀJeU m$eerefveÿ DevegYeJeeeDeJeiegbþve osC³eemeeþer ³eesi³e Demee µeyoeqveOeer Deens. Demee efve<keÀ<e&keÀeeJee eielees. 19

DeuHee#ejjceefCe³elJe ns ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³ee Yee<es®es SkeÀcenlJee®es Jewefµeäîe Deens. 1975 meeer cejeþJee[îeeleer HewþCe³esLes cee efceUess SkeÀ ieerle ³ee o=äerves yeeskesÀ Deens. SKeeÐeeef®e$ekeÀejeves DeeHeuîee kegbÀ®euîeeves SKeeÐee eJeC³eeJeleer®es Heesìsì keÀeeJeslemes megboj µeyo eq®e$e ³ee ieerleele jsKeeìss Deens -

®eeCes ®eìHeì legPes yeesCes cebpetU

Jnì iegeyee®³ee keÀÈ³ee oele meeUer®es leebogU

veeomebJesovee, jbiemebJesovee, iebOemebJeosvee DeeefCe ¢keÀ mebJesovee³eeb®eer ner megboj Yee<eeefYeJ³ekeÌleer Deens. ³ee ieerleele Deesþ' µeyoe®es`Jnì' Demes ûeeceerCeerkeÀjCe Pees Deens. HeCe yeN³ee®e JesUe eskeÀieerlemebkeÀve keÀjCeeN³eekeÀ[tve ne µeyo Deµeg× cnCetve µeg× keÀªve`Deesþ'Demee efefne lej Yeeef<ekeÀ FeflenemeeJej lees kesÀse Dev³ee³e®ecnCeeJee eies. Yeeef<ekeÀ Fefleneme peleve keÀjC³ee®³ee ¢äerves yeeser®eercetU µeyoªHes®e ceese®eer Demeleele.

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eele m$eer®³ee µeejerjefbveÿ DevegYeJeeletve Yee<esle

keÀener µeyoeb®eer Yej keÀµeer ìekeÀer peeles. l³ee®ee µeesOe keÀenerDeY³eemekeÀebveer Ieslee Deens.20

Heg©<eeb®³ee Yee<esHes#ee efm$e³eeb®³ee Yee<esle SkeÀ JesieUsHeCe Demeles.$eÝlegÒeeHleer ne m$eer®ee vewmeefie&keÀ Keeme DevegYeJe. ³ee $eÝlegÒeeHleer®eeefveoxµe keÀjCeejs keÀener JeekedÀÒe®eej efm$e³eele Òe®eefle Deensle. veeJn³esCes, µeneCeer nesCes, veelet nesCes, HeeJe ³esCes, Heoj ³esCes, Jeìer ³esCes,jeIeg yeesCes, m$eer®³ee ieYee&j DeJemLes®ee efveoxµe Heger JeekedÀÒe®eejebveerefm$e³eeble kesÀe peelees. ®eesªve KeeCes, keÀeJeUe cegkeÀe nesCes, Hee³e pe[nesCes, oesve peerJeeb®eer DemeCes, efvejer Gb®eeJeCes, ®eesUer IeeCes, [esneUseieCes Fl³eeoer. ³ee leNns®³ee ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eeleer µeyoebveeefm$e®³ee peerJeveeleer pes efJeefµeä ìHHes Deensle l³ee®ee Fefleneme Deens.

JeekedÀÒe®eej DeeefCe cnCeer ne ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®ee DeceesþsJee Deens. keÀCeYej µeyoele ceCeYej Deeµe³e ÒekeÀì keÀjCes ns ³eecnCeerb®es Jewefµeä³e Deens. Yeeef<ekeÀ Feflenemee®³ee o=äerves JeekedÀÒe®eejDeeefCe cnCeeR®es cenlJe Deens. JeekedÀÒe®eej Je cnCeer ne peerJeveeleerDevegYeJeeb®ee Deke&À Demelees. lees SkeÀ Yeeef<ekeÀ, DeuHee#ejer peerJeveevegYeJeDemelees. JeekedÀÒe®eej DeeefCe cnCeeRletve peeefleJ³eJemLesJejner ÒekeÀeµeHe[lees. Goe. Heeìe®ee Iees[e, cenejee Yet<eCe', heeìe®eer Iees[er',`cenejee yeeF', ieeJe lesLes cenejJee[e' ³ee cnCeer ³ee meboYee&leyeeskeÌ³ee Deensle. `cenej cese DeeefCe efJeìeU iese' meejK³eecnCeeRletve DemHe=µ³eles®es oµe&ve Ie[les. ®eebYeeje®³ee osJeee Kesìje®eerHetpee, ®eebYeej ®elegjeF& 22, yeeceveee efoer Jemejer, nUtnUt Hee³eHemejer, ³eeceOetve ceeveJeer mJeYeeJee®es oµe&ve Ie[les.

ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®ee SkeÀ ÒekeÀej : efMeJ³ee

ceeCetme ne efµeJejeU ÒeeCeer Deens. l³ee®es keÀejCe lees efJekeÀejerDeens. ¬eÀesOe ne efµeJ³eeb®ee pevceoelee Deens. efµeJ³ee DeeHeuîeeeDeeJe[le vemeuîee lejer peieeleer meJe& ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eele efµeJ³eebveerYej Ieeleer Deens. efµeJ³eeb®³ee Yeeef<ekeÀ Feflenemee®eener DeY³eemekeÀjC³ee®eer iejpe Deens. pemee meceepe leµee efµeJ³ee DeeefCe peµeeefµeJ³ee leµeer mebmke=Àleer. ceeCetme meY³eles®es yegjKes HeebIejle Demee,megmebmke=ÀleHeCee®ee DeeJe DeeCele Demee lejer lees meewc³e DeLee&®³ee keÀenesF&vee efµeJ³ee osle Demelees. Fbûepe Dees DeeefCe cejeþer Yee<es®³eecee we fKekeÀ Fe flenemeele Fbûepee r e fµeJ³ee b®ee r Yej He[er.`Fef[³eì',`y[er',`vee@vemesvme', Deµee efkeÀleerlejer efµeJ³ee meebieeJ³eele.

DeefMlee ns efµeJ³eeb®es Jewefµeä³e Deens. HeCe efµeJeer ner DeuHee#ejerDemeles®e Demeb veener. ceer ieesUe kesÀsuîee efµeJ³eebceO³es Jeerme-Heb®eJeermeDeesUeR®eerner SkeÀ-SkeÀ efµeJeer Deens.

jefµe³eve efJeog<eer [e@. Fefjvee ig<keÀesJne ³eebveer 1993meeer OegUs ³esLes Peesuîee `Yeejleer³e cejeþer DeY³eeme Heefj<eosleefµeJ³eebJej µeesOe efveyebOe Jee®ee neslee. ceePee efveyebOe DeesJ³eebJej nesleelej l³eeb®ee efveyebOe efµeJ³eebJej neslee. ceemkeÀes-cegbyeF& ³ee efJeceeve ÒeJeemeeleceÐeOegbo cejeþer ceeCemee®³ee efµeJ³ee cejeþer efµekeÀsuîee ³ee efJeog<eereSskeÀe³ee efceUeuîee DeeefCe l³ee DemJemLe Peeuîee. HeCe veblejmeeJeju³ee DeeefCe efµeJ³eebJej HegmlekeÀ Deens keÀe ³ee®ee µeesOe IesleeHeCe l³eebvee les efceUes veener. lesJne l³eebveer cee efµeJ³ee Ðee, DemebcnCele efµeJ³ee ieesUe keÀªve DeY³eemeHetCe& µeesOe efveyebOe meeojkesÀe. efµeJ³eeletve meceepeoµe&ve keÀmes Ie[les. ³ee®es megboj efve<keÀ<e&l³eebveer keÀes. KejesKej®e efµeJ³eeb®ee Yeeef<ekeÀ DeY³eeme nesC³ee®eeriejpe Deens. efµeJ³eeb®ee ceevemeµeem$eer³e DeeefCe meeceeefpekeÀ ¢äervesDeY³eeme nesCes iejpes®es Deens. [e@. yeeHegjeJe osmeeF& ³eebveer DeefnjeCeerDeeefCe iegpej Yee<esleer efµeJ³ee ieesUe kesÀu³ee Deensle.23

DeefnjeCeer ner cejeþer®eer HeesìYee<ee Deens. ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³eeFeflenemeele DeefnjeCeer ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³eeleer µeyokeÀUs®esner mLeevecenÊJeHetCe& Deens. Deeb[sj, Deeb[esj, cee³e, ceeþer, ef[keÀje, leþsOeeb[îee, GKeÁe, Deeþs ner meeKekeÀ Demme DeefnjeCeer µeyokeÀeDeens.24

Keeveosµe leLee yeeieeCe HeefnuîeeHeemetve mece=× DemeuîeecegUsHejefkeÀ³eebveer DeveskeÀJesUe Dee¬eÀceCe kesÀs. lej keÀOeer-keÀOeer og<keÀeUecegUs³esLeer eskeÀebveer µespeejer Òeebleele mLeeblej kesÀs. l³eecegUs HejYee<eeb®ee³ee Yee<esJej HeÀej ceesþe HeefjCeece Peeuîee®es DeefnjeCeer ceewefKekeÀmeeefnl³ee®es DeY³eemekeÀ [e@. yeeHetjeJe osmeeF& cnCeleele. DeefnjeCeerYee<esJej HeÀejmeer, Dejyeer, keÀeve[er, Fbûepeer, Heesleg&ieerpe, efnvoer µeyoeb®eepeyejomle ÒeYeeJe Deens. l³ee µeyoeb®³ee DeeOeejs cejeþer®³ee ceewefKekeÀYee<es®³ee Feflenemee®ee yeesOe DeeHeuîeee nesT µekeÀlees.

cejeþer®³ee ceewefKekeÀ Yee<es®eer HejbHeje

cejeþer ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®ee Giece vescekeÀe keÀesCelee ³ee®eeµeesOe Iesleu³eeme cejeþer®³ee ceewefKekeÀ Yee<es®³ee Feflenemee®ee ceeieesJee

IesC³eeme ceole nesles. ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®es SkeÀ DeY³eemekeÀ µejoJ³eJenejs cnCeleele, Yeejleer³e eskeÀJee*dce³ee®³ee efveefce&leer®³ee¢äervesµeesOe Iesleebvee Demes efomeles keÀer ³esLeer cetU jefnJeemeer p³eebvee DeeHeCeDeepe DeeefoJeemeer cnCelees, l³eeb®³eele ÒeLece eskeÀJee*dce³ee®eer efveefce&leerPeeser Deens.' Yeejleele Dee³ee¥®³ee DeeieceveeHetJeea ³esLes jnele DemesuîeeefJeefJeOe ìesU³eebleer eskeÀmecegnele cnCepes®e DeeefoJeemeerleeskeÀJee*dce³ee®³ee Òe®evee®ee DeeU neslees. efYeÁ, keÀesjkegÀ, DeebOe,keÀesece, ieew[-ceeef[³ee, veeiee, Jeejer F. DeeefoJeemeeR®³ee ìesÈ³eeeskeÀmecetn ³eeb®³eele Heefne OJeveer G®®eeje iese. l³eecegUseskeÀJee*dce³ee®es ns®e DeeefoJeemeer Kejs Jeejmeoej þjleele. DeepeneroN³eeKeesN³eeletve [eWiej-keÀHeejerletve, jevee-Jeveeletve jenCeeN³ee DeeefoJeemeerpeeleer-peceeleer npeejes Je<ee&HetJeea®³ee keÀener HejbHeje, peerJeve efJeµes<eÒe®eefle Demeuîee®es HeneJe³eeme efceUles. l³eele eskeÀ Jee*dce³ee®eernerHejbHeje Deens. 25

Yeejleeleer ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³ee DeY³eemee®eer HejbHeje

Fbûepe ns %eeveesHeemekeÀ DeeefCe eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®es Òesceer nesles. efJeuîecedpeesvme ³eeb®³ee ÒesjCesves DeeefCe Òe³elveeves Sefµe³eeefìkeÀ meesmee³eìer Dee@HeÀyebiee' ³ee mebmLes®eer keÀkeÀÊee ³esLes 1874 ceO³es mLeeHevee keÀjC³eeleDeeer. ³ee mebmLesves®e ÒeLece eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³ee mebµeesOeve DeeefCe mebkeÀveememeg©Jeele kesÀer.

Yeejleeleer Fbûepe DeefOekeÀejer DeeefCe ef emleer OeceexHeosµekeÀ³eeb®es Yeejleer³e eskeÀmebmke=Àleer efJe<e³ekeÀ kegÀlegn peeies Pees DeeefCe lesYeejleer³e eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³ee DeY³eemeekeÀ[s JeUs. keÀve& ìe@[ nsjepemLeeve®es jsefme[sbì Demeleevee jepemLeeveer eskeÀmebmke=Àleer DeeefCeeskeÀmeeefnl³ee®ee l³eebveer DeY³eeme kesÀe. jepemLeeveer ceewefKekeÀJee*dce³eeleer keÀLee-ieerles DeeefCe HeesJee[s l³eebvee efceUes. 1829meeer keÀve& ìe@[ ³eebveer ³ee DeY³eemeee ÒeejbYe kesÀe DeeefCe SveumeDe@C[ SbefìefkeÌJeefìPe Dee@HeÀ jepemLeeve'ne ceewefkeÀ ûebLe meekeÀej kesÀe.

1854 meeer je@³e Sefµe³eeefìkeÀ meesmee³eìer®³ee cegKeHe$eeletvepes. Sì ³eebveer `hebpeeye®eer JeerjieeLee' ne sKe efefne DeeefCeHebpeeyeer eskeÀpeerJeveele Òe®eefle Demesuîee Heje¬eÀcee®eer ieeLee µeyoªHekesÀer. 26

1858 ceO³es efceme cesjer efHeÀDej ³eebveer oef#eCe Yeejleeleer

eskeÀkeÀLeeb®ee ûebLe efme× kesÀe. 27

1868 ceO³es efceme ÖesÀPej ³eeb®es HegmlekeÀ Deesu[ [skeÌkeÀve[spe' ÒekeÀeefµele Pees. 1871 meeer ®eeume& ûeesJejves òef#eCeYeejleeleer eskeÀieerles' ne ûebLe ÒekeÀeefµele kesÀe. 1872 ceO³es[e@uìveves ef[efm¬eÀHìerJn SvLeese@peer Dee@HeÀ yebiee', 1876 ceO³esSce.ìerkeÀes ³eebveer [eWiejer peeleeR®³ee eskeÀieerleeJej efefnsuee sKe,1882 mee®es leejeoÊe ³eeb®es èEnogmLeeveeleer HeesJee[s DeeefCeoblekeÀLee' ns HegmlekeÀ, 1883 ceO³es e efJenejer [s ³eebveerefefnss yebiee®³ee eskeÀkeÀLee ns HegmlekeÀ, 1884 ceO³es efefnssmej Deej.meer. ìWH³eg ³eeb®es `Hebpeeye®³ee eskeÀkeÀLee', 1885ceO³es ÒekeÀeefµele Peess F.pes. jewefyevmeve ³eeb®es oef#eCe YeejleeleereskeÀieerles Je eskeÀkeÀLee' ns HegmlekeÀ, 1886 ceO³es efûe³eme&ve ³eebveerefefnse `YeespeHegjer ieerles' ne ûebLe, 1896 ceO³es kegÀkeÀ ³eebveerefefnse Hee@H³egj efjefpeve De@v[ HeÀeskeÀ esDej Dee@HeÀ ve@eo&veFbef[³ee' veeJee®ee ûebLe ns Yeejleer³e eskeÀ meeefnl³ee®³ee DeY³eemee®esÒe³elve ceewefkeÀ mJeªHee®es Deensle. l³ee®ee Del³eble DeY³eemeHetCe& JesOeefJeÐee J³eJenejs ³eebveer Ieslee Deens. 28 l³eeveblej efnvoer Yeejleer³esKekeÀebveer eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³ee DeY³eemeee ÒeejbYe kesÀe. [e@. efovesµe®ebêmesve, je³eyeneotj µej®ebêje³e, jeceve ef$eHeeþer, osJeWê mel³eeLeea JeiewjW®eel³eeceO³es GÁsKe keÀjeJee eies.

cejeþer ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³ee DeY³eemee®eer HejbHeje

1858 ceO³es cesjer efHeÀ³ej®³ee `Deesu[ [skeÌkeÀve [spe'ceO³es cenejeäeleer eskeÀkeÀLee meceeefJeä Peeu³ee. meoeefµeJe keÀeefµeveeLeí$es ³eeb®es FmeeHe keÀLeeb®es Yee<eeblej' jepeejeceµeem$eer YeeieJele ³eeb®eeèfJeefJeOe%eeve efJemleej'ceOeer eskeÀieerleebJejer sKe Je efJe<Cegµeem$eeref®eHeUtCekeÀj ³eeb®es efveyebOe ceesleer eskeÀieerle Deµee mJeªHeelecenejeäêleer DeY³eemekeÀebveer eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³ee #es$eele HeeTìekeÀs.29

cejeþer eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®³ee DeY³eemee®ee peeCeerJeHetJe&keÀ Òe³elveeqJe.keÀe.jepeJee[s ³eebveer kesÀe. 1925 meeer l³eebveer`meppeveie[eJejer eskeÀieerles' DeeefCe Deeefol³e jeCegyeeF&®eer keÀneCeer'Demes oesve sKe ÒekeÀeefµele kesÀs. 1930 meeer µeb.iees. oeles³eebveer eskeÀkeÀLee' veeJee®es HegmlekeÀ oesve Yeeieele Òeefme× kesÀs. 1950meeer ogiee& YeeieJele ³eebveer meeleHeg[îeeleer ieeW[ peceeleer®eer eskeÀieerle'

ÒekeÀeefµele kesÀer.30

1948 meeer keÀceeyeeF& osµeHeeb[s ³eeb®es `DeHeew©<es³eJee*dce³e', 1954 meeer Devemet³ee efce³es ³eeb®es ÌeeìeJejerÞeefcekeÀeb®eer ieerles' ner HegmlekesÀ ÒekeÀeefµele Peeer. ÞeeJeCemejer' DeeefCe`ceesl³ee®es keÀCeerme' ³ee ûebLeeÜejs efJe.ie. efYe[s ³eebveer eskeÀmeeefnl³eeleYej Ieeleer. vee.je.µeW[s ³eebveer oefle peerJevee®³ee meboYee&leeskeÀJee*dce³ee®ee DeY³eeme kesÀe. [e@. veeboeHetjkeÀj ³eebveercejeþJee[îeeleer eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®ee JesOe Ieslee. cejeþer®ee ceesnj',`ceensj®es cejeþer', `cee³eyeeser®eer keÀneCeer' ner l³eeb®eer ûebLemebHeoecenlJeHetCe& Deens. ceeleeryeeF& oeb[skeÀj ³eebveer eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®es sCe'`Jee*dce³e µeejos®es vegHegj', èskeÀkeÀLee.....' ns ûebLe efntveeskeÀJee*dce³eele ceewefkeÀ Yej Ieeleer. [e@. mejesefpeveer yeeyej ³eebveerlej eskeÀmeeefnl³e efJe<e³ekeÀ DeveskeÀ ûebLe efefns. cejeþerleer m$eerOeve', GKeeC³eeb®es JewYeJe', peveeskeÀeb®ee meeceJeso' Deµeer efkeÀleerveeJes efneJeerle? je.ef®e.sjs ³eebveer eskeÀmeeefnl³ee®ee meebmke=ÀeflekeÀDebieeves DeY³eeme kesÀe. DeveskeÀ ûebLe efefns. ogiee& YeeieJele ³eeb®esèskeÀ meeefnl³ee®eer ªHejsKee', Oece& DeeefCe eskeÀ meeefnl³e' ns ûebLe

cenÊJeHetCe& Deensle. [e@. ÒeYeekeÀj ceeb[s ³eeb®es èskeÀmeeefnl³ee®esDeble:ÒeJeen', èskeÀmeeefnl³ee®es mJeªHe' ns ûebLe ceewefkeÀ Demes®eDeensle. [e@. leeje YeJeeUkeÀj, [e@. iebieeOej ceesjpes, veeceosJe JnìkeÀj,[e@. ceOegkeÀj JeekeÀes[s, [e@. Deeµee Leesjele Deµeer HeÀej ceesþer HejbHejeeskeÀJee*dce³ee®³ee DeY³eemekeÀeb®eer Deens.

cejeþer ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®es mebkeÀve, mebµeesOeve keÀªve ³eesKekeÀebveer l³ee®es mebHeeove kesÀs. ûebLe ÒekeÀeefµele kesÀs. cnCepescejeþer ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e l³eebveer efefKele kesÀs. DeLee&led lejernerceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®ee ÒeJeen megª®e jneCeej HeCe pes efefKele kesÀsles De®e Pees. ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³e ns ÒeJeener DeeefCe HeefjJele&veµeerDemeles. l³eele melele veJeveJeerve peeefCeJeeb®ee, µeyoeb®ee mJeerkeÀej Demelees.HeCe SkeÀoe les efefKele Pees keÀer, ÒeJeener HeCee ieesþtve peelees.

cejeþer ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®³ee Yeeef<ekeÀ Feflenemee®ee µeesOeI³ee³e®ee Demes lej ceewefKekeÀ Jee*dce³ee®es pes efefKele ûebLe Deenslel³ee®³ee®e DeeOeejs l³ee®ee DeY³eeme keÀjlee ³eslees HeÀkeÌle lees keÀe¬eÀceeveskesÀe iese lej Feflenemee®³ee¢äerves leer ieesä cenlJeHetCe& þjs.

meboYe& met®eer -

1. peesµeer Òe.ve. - cejeþer Jee*dce³ee®ee Fefleneme, efveefleve ÒekeÀeµeve, Heefner DeeJe=Êeer- 1972. He=ÿ 16.

2. GHejeskeÌle He=.15

3. YeeJes efJe.. - cenejeä^ meejmJele, He=ÿ 24

4. GHejeskeÌle He=. 7

5. J³eJenejs, [e@. µejo - eskeÀmeeefnl³e (mebkeÀuHevee Je mJeªHe) kewÀeµe He efykesÀµevme, Deewjbieeyeeo,

ÒeLeceeJe=Êeer- 1999. oesve µeyo He=. 1



8. osmeeF& yeeHetjeJe - eskeÀmeeefnl³eµeem$e: mebmke=Àleer oµe&ve, ceOegjepe HeefykesÀµeve HegCes,

ÒeLeceeJe=Êeer - 2002 He=. 14



10. YeJeeUkeÀj leeje- eskeÀHejbHeje DeeefCe m$eer ÒeefleYee.

eskeÀ Jee*dce³eie=n ÒekeÀeµeve, ogmejer DeeJe=Êeer 2002-He=ÿ 18

11. YeeJes- GHejeskeÌle- He=. 20

12. YeJeeUkeÀj- GHejeskeÌle He=. 112

13. J³eJenejs- GHejeskeÌle He=. 139

14. efµebos efJeéeveeLe- eskeÀmeeefnl³e ceerceebmee- Yeeie Heefne. mvesnJeOe&ve Heefyefµebie neTme,HegCes- ÒeLeceeJe=Êeer- 1998 He=. 35

15. J³eJenejs- GHejeskeÌle He=ÿ ¬eÀ. 65

16. ceesjs oeceesoj- oefle efm$e³eeb®eer DeesJeer ieerles. eskeÀmeeefnl³e DeeefCe eskeÀHejbHeje- mebHeeokeÀ jcesµe JejKes[s ³eeb®³eeûebLeeleer µeesOeefveyebOe- ÒeLeceeJe=Êeer- 1993

17. YeJeeUkeÀj- GHejeskeÌle He=. ¬eÀ. 192

18. YeeieJele ogiee& (mebHee.) jepeejeceµeem$eer YeeieJele ³eeb®es efveJe[keÀ sKe. He=ÿ 90.

19. JejKes[s jcesµe veeje³eCe eskeÀmeeefnl³e DeeefCe eskeÀHejbHeje, efJeÐeeyeced ÒekeÀeµeve, OegUs - 1993

20. J³eJenejs efJeÐee - eskeÀmeeefnl³e DeeefCe eskeÀmebmke=Àleer Òeeflecee ÒekeÀeµeve, ÒeLeceeJe=Êeer- 2002 He=ÿ 152

21. oeles ³eµeJeble - mebHeeokeÀ cenejeä^ JeekedÀ mebÒeoe³e keÀesµe, Òemeeo ÒekeÀeµeve, HegCes- He=ÿ 361

22. oeles - GHejeskeÌle- He=ÿ - 472

23. osmeeF& - GHejeskeÌle - He=ÿ 98

24. osmeeF& - GHejeskeÌle -He=ÿ 97

25. J³eJenejs µejo - GHejeskeÌle - He=ÿ - 76

26. J³eJenejs efJeÐee - GHejeskeÌle He=ÿ - 37

27. J³eJenejs µejo - GHejeskeÌle- He=ÿ ¬eÀ. 42

28. J³eJenejs efJeÐee - GHejeskeÌle He=ÿ ¬eÀ. 37-38

29. J³eJenejs µejo - GHejeskeÌle He=ÿ ¬eÀ. 43

30. efµebos efJeéeveeLe- eskeÀmeeefnl³e- ceerceebmee He=ÿ ¬eÀ. 20


"^mf≤ ÂhUOo ~mobUo' AmU "~mobUmam Vmo _mUyg'.^mfm AmU _mZd `mMm A›`mo›` gß~ßY Amho. _wImdmQ>o ~mhoanS>UmË`m ‹dZtMm dmna H$a `mMr H$bm _mZdmbm gm‹` PmbrVoÏhm À`m¿`m gßÒH•$Vrbm d ‡JVrbm gwÈdmV Pmbr. _mZdrgßÒH•$Vr¿`m Q>flfl`mV AærMm emoY, MmH$mMm emoY OodT>m_hŒdnyU© R>abm À`mnojmhr nwT>Mm Q>flnm JmR>Vm Ambm. ZgJ©XŒm~w’r_wio À`mbm EH$ Zdm emoY bmJyZ mfo_wioM Vmo BVa ‡m `mßhZdoJim Pmbm. ‡m `mßMr ^mfm d _mZdr ^mfm `mV ÒdÈnV:M_yb yV oX Amho.

_mZdr ^mfoMr Or bjUo AmhoV À`mVM _mZdr ^mfoMrd°eÓQ>ÁnyU©Vm gm_mdbobr Amho. gßnH©$ Ï`dhmamMo EH$ ‡^mdrgmYZ ÂhUyZ mfoMr Z_©Vr Pmbobr Amho. CÉma AmU boIZhr ^mfoMr XmoZ Èno AmhoV. ~mobUmam AmU EoH$Umam qH$dmbhUmam AmU dmMUmam `mVrb gßnH©$, gßnófU, gßXoeZ`mgmR>r ^mfoMr Z_©Vr Pmbobr Amho.

"^mf d∫$m`m_ dmMü&' ^mfm ÂhUOo dmUrMo Ï`∫$ Ènhm o`. "`m—p¿N>H$ ‹dZgßHo$Vm ßZr ~ZboÎ`m _mZdrgßn´ ofUn’Vrbm ^mfm Ago ÂhUVmV.' "_yi Ame`merH$m ©H$maU gß~ßY Zgbobr, ‹dZgßHo$VmßZr ~Zbobr, _mZdrÏ`dhmamV ghmÊ`^yV Agbobr ^mfm hr EH$ n’V Amho.'"g_mOÏ`dhmamMo dZ_` gmYZ Agbobr ^mfm hr EH$`m—¿N>Z`V ‹dZgßHo$VmßMr _mZdr n’Vr Amho.ã' "gmZwH´$_‹dZaMZmß¿`m gßHo$VrH$aUmda AmYmabobr gßkmnZ‡UmbrÂhUOo mfm'ü& m AmnÎ`mH$S>rb mfo¿`m Ï`mª`m qH$dm "Lan-guage is a articulated limited sound organised forthe purpose of expression' hr H´$moMo `m nmÌMmÀ`gmhÀ`__mßgH$mMr Ï`mª`m. `mV ^mfo¿`m ddY bjUmßdaâ Xbobm Amho. mfo¿`m m Ï`d¿N>oXH$ bjUmßdÈZM _mZdr^mfoMo ÒdÈn d d°eÓQ>Áo bjmV oVmV.

_mZdr ^mfoMr ÒdÈnd°eÓQ>Áo -

"_mZdr ^mfoMr KS>U ¤ÒVar` Amho' À`m_wio

_amR>r ^mfoMm BVhmg d d°eÓQ>Áo

S>m∞. _ßJbm gfiaH$a

_amR>r ^mfm [d^mJ n´_wI n|T>aH$a _hmd⁄mb`, S>m|~dbr

"aMZmY>VVm' ho _mZdr ^mfoMo _hŒdmMo d°eÓQ>Á Amho._yb yV ‹dqZMm gmR>m hm EH$ ÒVa d À`m ‹d[ZßMr gmZwH´$_aMZm H$ÈZ AJUV e„X d dmä` Z_m©U H$aUo hm Xwgam ÒVa._mZd d _mZdoVa ^mfm `mV _ybKQ>H$ _`m©XVM AgVmV._mZdoVa gßXoeZ n’VrV EH$ _ybKQ>H$ = EH$ gßXoe Ago EHo$arg_rH$aU AgVo. dodQ> OmVrMr _mH$S>o 36 doJdoJio AmdmOH$mT>VmV d 36 ‡H$maMoM gßXoe XoD$ eH$VmV. _mZdr ^mfoVhrgamgar 30 Vo 40 _yb‹dZr dmnabo OmVmV. naßVw À`m_yb‹dZt¿`m AmYmao Agßª` aMZm H$ÈZ AJUV gßXoeZgmYVm oVo. "¤ÒVar` aMZm' hm _mZdr ^mfoMm EH$ AÀ ßV_yb yV ÒdÈnmMm JwUY_© Amho. _mZdr mfm hr EH$ "gßaMZm'qH$dm "Z`_Ï`dÒWm' AgVo. EImXr ^mfm eH$Uo ÂhUOo `mZ`_Ï`dÒWoMo kmZ H$ÈZ KoUo hmo .

d∫$m d lmoVm `mß¿`mV `m Z`_Ï`dÒWoMo gm_m›` gßX ©(Langue) AgVmV. Vo XmoKmßZmhr _mhV AgVmV. XmoKmßZmÂhUOoM n`m© mZo g_mOmbm EH$Ã AmUUmar Langue hr EH$_moR>r e∫$s Amho. `m ^mfH$ e∫$sMm dmna ‡ÀòH$OUAmnAmnÎ`mHw$dVrZwgma H$aVmo. À`mbmM À`mMo dmMH$ dV©ZqH$dm Parole Ago ÂhQ>bo OmVo. Langue d Parole, ^mfm(Z`_Ï`dÒWm) d ^mfU (dmMH$dV©Z) `mda g_mOmMmÏ`dhma MmbVmo. "\$X©ZmßX gmoÒ ya' m mfmd°kmZH$mZo _mßS>bobmhm Langue d Parole ôX AmYwZH$ ^mfmdkmZmV EH$_m°bH$ oX ÂhUyZ AmoiIbm OmVmo. "Zmo_ Mm∞ÂÒH$s' `mMm^mfH$ ‡`m oJ (performance) d ^mfH$ j_Vm(competance) hm oX gmoÒ wa¿`m darb gßH$ÎnZoer H$mhgmOwiUmam Amho. Langue `mbmM Mm∞ÂÒH$s "^mfH$ j_Vm'Ago ÂhUVmo. AmYwZH$ ^mfmdkmZmV _mZdr _Zm¿`m `m"j_Vo'Mm emoY _hŒdmMm R>abm Amho. ^mfoMr Z_©VrebVmhm JwUY_© `mVyZM Z_m©U Pmbm Amho. e„Xmß¿`m deÔ>‡H$ma¿`m aMZoVyZM _mZdr ^mfoMo gßXoeZ hmoV AgVo. ^mfoMoho A_`m©X gßXoeZmÀ_H$ gm_œ`© ÂhUOo VMr A_`m©XZ_©VrebVm (creativity). ho kmZmÀ_H$ gm_œ`©


_mZdmOdi AgVo ÂhUyZM nydu H$Yrhr Z EoH$bobo, Z dmMbobo,Z CÉmabobo dmä` _mUyg ^mfoV Z_m©U H$È eH$Vmo dXwgË`mbmhr Vo g_OVo.

_mZdr mfobm AmZwdmßeH$Vm d gm_mOH$Vm ho Xmo›hrn°by AmhoV. O°dH$ ghO‡oaUmß_wio _mZdoVa Ordmß_‹ o gßXoeZKS>V AgVo. CbQ> _mZdr mfobm gm_mOH$ gmßÒH•$VH$ hoVwnyU©VmAgVo. _mÃ hm oX namH$moQ>rMm Zmhr. H$maU ^mfm hr EH$mnT>rH$Sy>Z XwgË`m nT>rH$S>o OmVo Ago AmnU ÂhUVmo ho gÀ`Agbo Var Vo AY©gÀ` Amho. H$maU _mZdr ^mfm eH$ `mMrO°dH$ j_Vm _mZdr _|Xy_‹ o AßJ yVnUo dm CnOVM AgVo._mUgm¿`m _|Xy_‹ o EH$ ‡H$maMo O°dH$ H$bm H|$– (Biologi-cal trigger) AgVo. deÔ> d`mV gm_mOH$ gßX^m©V Vr‡m_wª`mZo H$m`m©p›dV hmoVo. gw_mao 18 Ï`m _h›`mnmgyZ 48Ï`m _h›`mn`™V _mZdr _yb O°dH$—ÓQ>Ám H$moUVrhr ^mfmeH$ `m¿`m V`mar_‹ o AgVo. À`m_wio _mZdr ^mfobm O°dH$AmZwdmßeH$ AY>mZ AgVo.

deÔ> mfm AdJV hmo `mgmR>r _mÃ gm_mOH$ gßX ©d gßnH©$ An[ahm`© AgVmo. ÂhUyZM ^mfm hr g_mOm¿`m_mbH$sMr EH$ gm_mOH$ gßÒWm Amho. gm_mOH$ Ï`dhma dn[apÒWVr `mda Vr Z ßÃU R>odVo. ho VMo H$m © _hŒdmMo R>aVo.

^mfm AO©V gßnŒmr Amho. n°V•H$ Zmhr. mfm eH$mdrbmJVo. Vr O›_V: oV Zmhr. Vr AmZwdmßeH$VoZohr _iV Zmhr._idmdr bmJVo. _mZdr _|XyVrb ^mfoMo H|$– qH$dm j_Vm hr~mhoa¿`m n[apÒWVrZoM H$m`m©p›dV hmoV AgVo.

M›hmÀ_H$Vm, `m—p¿N>H$Vm - amo_mZ `Ho$~gZ `mZo^mfo¿`m "M›hmÀ_H$Vm' `m bjUmda bj H|$X´rV Ho$bo Amho.^mfm gßXoeZmV M›ho AmU M›hrV (Signals, Signs)dmnabobr AgVmV. d À`mVyZ gßXoe dm AW© `mßMo ‡ofU dJ´hU hmoVo. _mZdoVa ‡m `mV ho gßXoeZ ‡m_wª`mZo emaranmVirdaMo AgVo. CXm. _Y_mer Z•À`mVyZ nmo˘`mnmgyZ_Ym¿`m R>H$mUmMo AßVa d Xem `m gßXoeZmgmR>r Vr Z•À`mMmdoJ d Xem `m M›h KQ>H$mßMm Cn`moJ H$aVo. CbQ>njr _mZdr^mfo_‹ o M›ho d Mp›hV gßXoe `mVrb ZmVo EH$mg EH$ Aem`mßÃH$ ÒdÈnmMo ZgVo. ho ZmVo A‡À`j d `m—p¿N>H$ AgVo.^mfoMo ‹dZKQ>H$ d À`mVyZ Ï`∫$ hmoUmao AW© mV ZpÌMV ZmVoZgVo. ‹dZr d Vr deÔ> dÒVy mßMm Omo gßHo$V AgVmo Vmo Ho$di`moJm`moJmZo Z_m©U hmoVmo. À`mV H$moUVmhr H$m ©H$maU md ZgVmo.

`m gßHo$VÏ`dÒWo¿`m gmo r_wioM OwZo gßHo$V ~XbyZ Zdo bmdVmoVmV d ^mfm ‡dmhr ~ZVo.

‹d›`mÀ_H$Vm d ‡VH$mÀ_Vm - ho ^mfoMoEH$g_`md¿N>oXoH$ÈZ Z_m©U Pmbobo n°by AmhoV. _mZdr mfoMo_m‹`_ ‹dZr ho Amho. Vo _mZdr earamßVJ©VM AgÎ`mZodmna `mg gwb^ Amho. nU ‹dZr ho _m‹`_ ÒdV: Ame`‡H$Q> H$È eH$V Zmhr. À`mgmR>r gßHo$VmßMr JaO AgVo. ‹dZrd Vr dÒVy `mßZm AW©Èn XoUmao gmYZ ÂhUOo gßHo$V. À`m_wio‹dZr ho ^mfoMo ‡VrH$ R>aVmV. Va ^mfm ‡VH$mÀ_H$ AgVo.gßHo$VmßZr ‹dZr Ame`mÀ_H$ ~ZVmV.

ÒWbH$mbmVVVm - _mZdr ^mfobm ‡m `mß¿`m^mfo‡_mUo ÒWbH$mbmMo ~ßYZ ZgVo. H$Yrhr Z nmhbobm ‡Xoe,JVH$mi, dÓ`H$mi Aem gJ˘`m Ame`mßMo ‡H$Q>Z mfH$aMZoV hmoD$ eH$Vo.

AXbm~Xb - d∫$m d lm oVm ho Xm o›hr KQ>H$AmnAmnÎ`m y_H$mßMr AXbm~Xb g_W©nUo H$È eH$VmV.

H$m ©Xe©H$Vm - ‡À`j H•$Vr Z H$aVm H•$VrMm Ame`Ï`∫$ H$ÈZ H$m ©e∫$sMr ~MV _mUyg H$È eH$Vmo.

AZ›`Vm - AZoH$ _mZdr mfm ApÒVÀdmV AgyZ nÀ oH$^mfm ÒdVßÃ Amho. CXm. gßÒH•$V_‹ o 3 dMZo Va _amR>rV XmoZMdMZo AmhoV.

a°IH$ ÒdÈn - EH$m_mJmo_mJ dU© CÉmÈZ À`mMmH´$_dma AW© bmJVmo. ÂhUyZ mfm a°IH$, (aoIogmaIr) Amho.

~h˛ÈnUr - ^mfm ~h˛ÈnUr AgVo. ‡_mU ^mfm dV¿`m^modVr V¿`m AmYmamZo AZoH$ ~mobr Z_m©U hmoVmV.

n[adV©ZebVm - ho mfo¿`m OdßVnUmMo bjU Amho._mZdr mfo¿`m ‹dZr d AW© m Xmo›hr ÒVamßda ho n[adV©Z hmoVAgVo. ÂhUyZM EIm⁄m ^mfoMm BVhmg bhVm oVmo. _amR>r^mfoMm BVhmg d d°eÓQ>Áo `mßMm dMma H$aVmZm _mZdr^mfo¿`m d°eÓQ>Ámß¿`m nmÌd© y_rda H$aUo AYH$ g w∫$sH$Amho.

^mfo¿`m `m ddY bjUmß_wioM ^mfoMr ddY H$m gmYbr OmVmV. gßnofU, kmZ‡gmaU, gm¢X ©Z_©Vr (dmL≤>_`rZH$m ©) gßÒH•$VrZ_©Vr-OVZ-gßdY©Z, gßH$_U, mdZm-dMma-


H$ÎnZm ‡H$Q>rH$aU (AmÀ_mdÓH$ma) Aer mfoMr AZoH$ H$m AmhoV.

WmoS>ä`mV _mZdmZo ^mfm KS>dbr d ^mfoZo _mUygKS>dbm. g•Ô>rMr Z_©Vr Ò\$moQ>mVyZ Pmbr d ZmX~ÂhmMr ÂhUOo^mfoMr Z_©Vrhr Ò\$moQ>mVyZ Pmbr. ÂhUyZ "X S>r' ÂhUVmo,g•Ô>r¿`m AJmoXa hr e„X¡`moV OiV ZgVr Va gßnyU© g•Ô>rAkmZm¿`m Kmoa AßYÖH$mamZß JTy>Z Jobr AgVr. X S>rMo ho^mfmÒVmoÃ gÀ`Xeu Amho.

^mfm A‰`mgm¿`m n’Vr

_mZdr ^mfoMr ÒdÈn bjUo d H$m © `mda AmYwZH$^mfmdkmZmZo Zdm ‡H$mePmoV Q>mH$bm VgmM ^mfo¿`m ddYA‰`mgn’Vrhr Z_m©U Ho$Î`m AmhoV.

EH$H$mbH$, (dU©ZmÀ_H$) H$mbH´$_H$ (EoVhmgH$)Vm°bZH$ ~rOJUVr, ~mobr^yJmob, Aem ddY n’VtZr^mfmßMm A‰`mg H$aUo eä` Pmbo Amho.

_amR>r ^mfoMm BVhmg AO_mdVmZm `m gd©M n’VtZmWmoS>ÁmAYH$ ‡_mUmV Òne© H$amdm bmJUma Amho. ^mfoMmAgm ddY n’VtZr A‰`mg H$a `mZo A‰`mgmbm EH$ Ï`mnH$n[a‡o ` bm^Vo.

^mfm EH$m q~Xyda pÒWa Amho. Ago _mZyZ VMo ‹dZr,AW©, dmä`, e„XgßJ´h `m ÒVamda dU©Z H$aUo hm ^mfoMmEH$H$mbH$ ÂhUOoM dU©ZmÀ_H$ A‰`mg hmo .

^mfoMo Hw$R>bohr nyd©J´h qH$dm AmXem©Mo MÓ_o Z dmnaVmlo>, H$Z>Àdm¿`m H$ÎnZm Z ~miJVm ^mfm Oer Amho VgoV¿`m XiUdiU Ï`dhmamMo dÒVwZ> dU©Z H$aUo ÂhUOo^mfoMm EH$H$mbH$ qH$dm dU©ZmÀ_H$ A‰`mg hmo .

`m dU©ZmÀ_H$ ^mfm‰`mgmdaM EoVhmgH$ ^mfm‰`mgAmYm[aV AgVmo. deÔ> ^mfo¿`m ddY H$mbq~XyMmdU©ZmÀ_H$ A‰`mg H$ÈZ À`mVrb n[adV©ZmßMm H$mbH´$_H$A‰`mg H$aUo ÂhUOo EoVhmgH$ ^mfm‰`mg hmo`. ‡ÒVyVemoYZ~ßYmV _amR>rMm Agm H$mbH´$_H$ A‰`mg AnojVAmho.

EoVhmgH$ ^mfm‰`mgmMm nm`m \$X©ZmßX gmoÒ ya `m^mfm d°kmZH$mZo KmVbm. OmJVH$ ^mfmHy$i hr gßH$ÎnZmÀ`mVrb H´$mßVrH$mar dmÒVdXeu gßH$ÎnZm Amho.

OmJVH$ ^mfmHw$imV _amR>r

_amR>r mfoMm BVhmg AO_mdVmZm _amR>r hr OmJVH$ÒVamda H$moUÀ`m mfmHw$bmVrb mfm Amho ho nmhUo CX≤~moYH$R>aUma Amho.

OJmVrb ZaZam˘`m ^mfmV OoWo OoWo e„X, AW©df`H$ qH$dm Ï`mH$aUdf`H$ gmÂ` AmT>iyZ Ambo VWo VWoÀ`m ^mfmßMo EH$ Hw$i _mZbo Jobo. _yi ^mfm Cnb„Y AgobAJa Zgob CXm. _amR>rMr _yi OZZr ^mfm gßÒH•$V AmOCnb„Y Amho. naßVw gßÒH•$V, AdoÒVm, J´rH$, b∞Q>rZ B. ^mfm¡`m _yi BßS>mo- wamon`Z ^mfo¿`m n[aUV AdÒWm AmhoV VrBßS>mo`wamonAZ ^mfm Cnb„Y Zmhr. À`m AZwnb„Y ^mfoMonwZa©MZ H$aVm oVo.

OJmVÎ`m Aem nwÓH$i ^mfmßMm d À`mßMr ^mfmHw$ioR>ad `mMm A‰`mg Pmbobm Amho. OJmVrb ‡_wI ^mfmHw$ioÂhUOo BßS>mo-`wamonAZ, ho_Q>mo-go_oQ>H$, gZr V~oQ>`Z,–mdS>r Am∞ÒQ¥>moAme`m`r, \$Zmo-J´H$, AÎVmB©H$ `medm`OnmZ, A_o[aH$m, XoemVrb mfmHw$bo doJir R>ad `mV AmbrAmhoV. gw_o[aAZ, BQ¥>ÒH$Z, dmÒH$ `m ^mfm Hw$R>Î`mhr Hw$imVZ ~gUmË`m EH$mH$s ^mfm AmhoV.

^maVmV ‡m_wª`mZo Mma ^mfm Hw$imVrb ^mfm ~mobÎ`mOmVmV.

1) BßS>mo wamonAZ ^mfmHw$i-_amR>r, ~ßJmbr, qhXr, JwOamWrB.

2) –mdS>r ^mfmHw$i - V_i, VobJy, _Î`mi_, H$mZS>r B.

3) Am∞ÒQ¥>mo-Ame`m`r - _wßS>m emIoVrb ~hma_Yrb _wßS>mar^mfm, ~hma_Yrb gfimir ^mfm, _oKmb`mVrb Imgr^mfm.

4) gZmo V~oQ>AZ - bS>mIr, Zodmar, ~moQ>mo, _Unyar, H$moPmoB.

^mfm‰`mgmV BßS>mo wamonAZ mfmHw$bmßMrM H$ÎnZm ‡W__mßS>br Jobr. BßS>mo wamonAZ ^mfmHw$bmbm BßS>moOa_∞ZH$ qH$dmAm © mfmHw$b Agohr ÂhQ>bo OmVo. nyd© maVmnmgyZ npÌM_oH$S>rbAmBgb±S> Xoemn ™V BßS>mo wamonAZ mfmHw$bmMm dÒVma Amho.BßS>mo wamon`Z ^mfmHw$im¿`m ^maVr` BamUr emIoVrb ^maVr`^mfmßZm Am © maVr` (BßS>mo-Am ©Z) ^mfmHw$i ÂhQ>bo OmVo.


BßS>mo wamonAZ

BßS>mo-BamZ`Z

BßS>mo-BamZ`Z

BßS>mo wamonAZ `m ^mfmVrb _yi H$moUÀ`m Zm H$moUÀ`mYmVyn ™V nmoMVo À`m YmVw‡YmZ mfm AmhoV. ‡À``r Èn d ZßVaÀ`mEodOr e„X`moJrMm dmna hohr `m Hw$imMo deof Amho.

gßÒH•$V hr AerM YmVw‡YmZ d nyU©nUo ‡À``r mfm Amho.

gßÒH•$V AmU nmÌMmÀ` (BßS>mo wamonAZ) mfmHw$imVrbH$mhr gmÂ` :-

_amR>r mfoMr nyd©nR>H$m d AßVd©Vw©i ~hd©Vw©i g’mßV:

gßÒH•$V mfm hr Am © maVr` mfmHw$imVrb mfm Amho.d H$mbmßVamZo gßÒH•$VmnmgyZ nmH•$V, n´mH•$VmnmgyZ An ´ße dAn^ßemnmgyZ Xoer (_amR>r, JwOamWr B.) mfm Z_m©U PmÎ`m.gßÒH•$V > ‡mH•$V > An ´ße > _amR>r hr _amR>rMr nyd©nR>rH$mAmho.

^maVmV ‡XoenaÀdo Z_m©U PmboÎ`m Xoer mfmßMr Z_©Vrhr "AßVd©V©•i ~hd©Vw©i' g’mßVm‡_mUo Pmbr. hm g’mßV1880 _‹ o "hmo›b' mßZr _mßS>bm. m g’mßVmZwgma Am © bmoH$qhXwÒWmZmV XmoZ Q>mo `mßZr Ambo. ‡W_ Ambobo Am © JßJo¿`mnpÌM_ XwAm~mV dgmhV H$ÈZ hmoVo. À`mß¿`m ZßVa AmboÎ`mAm`m™Zr ‡W_ AmboÎ`m Am`m™Zm h˛gH$mdyZ g^modma nmßJdbo.d Vo ÒdV: À`mß¿`m OmJr ÂhUOo JßJo¿`m XwAm~mV pÒWa Pmbo.À`mß¿`m^modVr AmYr¿`m Am`m™Mo H$S>o Pmbo hoM ~mhoaMo dVw©i.~m¯d©Vw©imVrb Am`m™¿`m ~mobrnmgyZ (nydMr _mJYr ~mobr)CÀH´$mßV PmboÎ`m ^mfm ÂhUOo AmO¿`m _amR>r, ~ßJmbr,JwOamWr, Amgm_r B. Xoer ^mfm hmo . AmVÎ`m dV©•imVrb^mfm ÂhUOo npÌM_ [hßXr (npÌM_oMr em°agoZr ~mobr) hmAßVd©V©wi ~hd©V©wi g’mßV ^mfH$ deofmßda AmYmabobmAgÎ`mZo _m›`Vm nmdbobm Amho. "JrAg©Z' `mßZr ^maVr`^mfmßMo Oo gdjU Ho$bo À`mßZr hm g’mßV Am`m™Mm ¤amJ_ZmMmg’mßVmßMm AndmX dJiVm _m›` Ho$bm Amho.

CŒma qhXwÒWmZ Am ©dßem¿`m XmoZ dgmhVtZr d^mJbobmhmoVm. EH$m npÌM_oH$S>rb d°XH$ Am © d nydH$S>rb Ad°XH$Am ©. d°XH$ Am`m™Mm CXr¿` Xoe. nmUZrZo AÔ>m‹`m`r bhZd°XH$ _ßÃmZm ew’ amIbo. CXr¿` ~mob^mfobm gßÒH•$V

hQ>mB©Q>

Vwadmar

Am_©Z`ZAmÎ~o[ZAZ J´rH$

~mÎQ>moÒbmdH$

BQ>mbH$

Ho$pÎQ>H$

O_ZH$

Am © maVr`

gßÒH•$V

‡mH•$V

An^ß´e

BamUr

AdoÒVm n´mMrZ ne©`Z

nÌVy ~byMrnÑdr

ne©`Z

JwOamWr B.

(Xoer ^mfm)_amR>r~ßJmbr

qhXr

gßÒH•$V P|X JrH$ b∞Q>Z bWw mZ`Z ÒbmÏhm∞ZH$ Jm∞WH$ h~y BVa BßpΩbe

Aær Bærg Cæg≤ AmoJßO≤ AmoÙZg

Ã W ÃoB©g Ãog ÃoeAg≤ WoBg VoAmoam Wr

X›V X›V_≤ AmoXmo›g S>o›g Xp›Vg≤ Qw>ZWwg XoAX≤ S>o›Q>b

_mV• _Va ≤ _oQ>a _moVo _V _W°a _Xa

Zd-ZdrZ Zd ZAm∞-g≤ Zmodwg≤ Zm° og≤ Zmodw ZC`g≤ ZwA › y

nV• nVa nVra nVoa noQ>a≤ \$Xa AWBa \$Xoa \$mXa

¤ma ¤a Wwa \$moaog≤ Xwa≤`g≤ ¤oar XCa Xmoa≤ S>moAa


~Zdbo.~hd©Vw©imVrb nydH$S>rb Ad°XH$ Am`m™Mr ^mfmXmX©H$ hmoVr. m Am`m™Mr dÒVr hiyhiy nßOm~, qgY, JwOamV,amOÒWmZ, _hmamÔ¥>, ~hma oWo ngabr d H$mbH$_mZo ‡XoenaÀdogßÒH•$VmnmgyZ ‡mH•$V, ‡mH•$VmnmgyZ An ´ße d An ´ßemnmgyZXoer ^mfmßMr Z_©Vr Pmbr.

JAg©Z mßZr Xbobr ‡mH•$V mfmßMr d^mJUr d À`mß¿`mAn^ßemnmgyZ Z_m©U PmboÎ`m AmO¿`m mfm nmhÎ`m ÂhUOoAm`©^maVr` ^mfmß¿`m AmßVad©Vw©i ~hd©Vw©i d^mJUrbmnyd©naßnam AgÎ`mMo ÒnÔ> hmoVo. CXm. -

em°agoZr ‡mH•$V > em°agoZr An ´ße > n. qhXr (H$mhr‡_mUmV JwOamWr, amOÒWmZr)

_mJYr ‡mH•$V > _mJYr An ´ße > ~hmar, ~ßJmbr,Amgm_r, Amoar`m.

AY©_mJYr ‡mH•$V > AY©_mJYr An ´ße > nyd© qhXr.

_hmamÔ¥>r ‡mH•$V > _hmamÔ¥>r An ´ße > _amR>r.

JAg©Z `mßZr Am`©^maVr` ^mfmßMr ^mfH$gmÂ` oXm¿`m gm¯mZo Ho$bobr dJ©dmar gmamßeÈnmZo Aer _mßS>Vm

oB©b.

AßVa≤d©Vw©imVrb - JßJo¿`m XwAm~mVbr AmßVa^mfm -npÌM_ qhXr

AßVa≤~ha≤ (_l)- nyd© nßOm~, JwOamW, amOnwVmZmA`mo‹`m‡mßV oWrb nßOm~r, JwOamWr, amOÒWmZr, nyd© qhXr.

~ha≤d©Vw©imVrb - n. nßOm~, qgY, _amR>r ‡Xoe,Amo[agm, ~hma, ~ßJmb, Amgm_ oWrb bmßT>r, qgYr, _amR>r,Amo[a`m, ~hmar, ~ßJmbr, Amgm_r.

hmo›b `mßMm hm AmßVad©Vw©i ~hd©Vw©i g’mßV JAg©Z`mßZr ^mfmemÛr` H$maUo XoD$Z nwaÒH$m[abm. VmoM am_‡gmXMßXm `mßZr _mZddßem¿`m AmYmao g’ Ho$bm. Am ©dV•©imVrbAm © bmß~ S>moä`mMo, ~hd©Vw©imVrb bhmZ S>moä`mMo edm`_hmamÓQ¥>m¿`m gßX^m©V bmß~ S>moä`mMo –drS> hmoVo. À`mß¿`mV gßH$aPmbm.

hmo›b-JAg©Z-MßXm mß¿`m g’mßVmda _V_VmßVao Pmbr.naßVw À`m_wio Am © maVr` mfmß¿`m A‰`mgmda ‡H$me nS>bm.

_amR>rMr CÀnŒmr - OZH$ ^mfm -

_amR>r hr Am © maVr` mfmHw$imVrb mfm Amho. gßÒH•$Vhm VMm _ybÛmoV Amho. nU gßÒH•$VnmgyZ gmjmV _amR>r Z_m©UPmbobr Zmhr. _‹ o AmUIr XmoZ AdÒWm AmhoV; ‡mH•$V dAn^ße À`m_wio _amR>r¿`m OZH$ mfogß~ßYr dmX Z_m©U Pmbo._amR>r mfm Z_©VrMo H$maU Ö Ym_©H$ H$mßVr H$s ^fi dße`mßMrga_gi ? AWm©V d°⁄-JwUo dmX.

lr_ßV eßH$amMm © mßZr AmR>Ï`m eVH$mV Ho$boÎ`m Ym_©H$H´$mßVr_wio d _hmamÔ¥>mZo À`mßMm A¤°V g’mßV ÒdrH$maÎ`mZo_hmamÔ¥>mV ^mfH$ KS>m_moS> hmoD$Z _amR>r ^mfm Z_m©U Pmbr.À`mAmYrMr _hmamÔ¥>mMr mfm AgßÒH•$V d AejV g_mOmMrhmoVr. gßÒH•$V¿`m ‡^mdmZo À`m ^mfmßMo _amR>rH$aU Pmbo AgoqM. d. d°⁄ mßZr Amnbo _V "ddYkmZdÒVma' _‹ o 1922_‹ o _mßS>bo. S>m∞. nmß. Xm. JwUo mßZr Vo ImoSy>Z H$mT>bo. gßÒH•$VMonydunmgyZ maVmV dM©Òd hmoVo. nU gd©gm_m›`mßMr mfm ‡mH•$VhmoVr. maVmV nydunmgyZM dm`Ï` XeoH$Sy>Z eH$, hU, Hw$emUAem ddY dßem¿`m Q>mo `m oV amhÎ`m. À`mß¿`m dmßeH$gßH$amVyZ ZÏ`m ^mfm Z_m©U PmÎ`m. ZßVa oUmË`m Q>mo `mß_wioAmYr¿`m Q>mo `m nmßJÎ`m OmV hmoÀ`m. À`mVyZM Q>flfl`mQ>flfl`mZogßÒH$•V > ‡mH•$V > Xoer ^mfm Z_m©U PmÎ`m. (AßVad©Vw©i~hd©V•©i g’mßVmer OwiUmao ho _V Amho.) CŒmaoV ZdrZQ>mo `mßMo AmJ_Z Pmbo H$s AmYr¿`m Q>mo `m XjUoH$S>o ÒWbmßVaH$arV. À`m_wioM _hmamÔ¥>mV A^ra (qH$dm Ahra), Jmonmi(JwOa), na_ma (ndma), Mmbwä` (gmiwßIo) ,Mm°hmZ (MÏhmU)B. dßemMo bmoH$ Ambo. À`mVyZ mfmgßH$a hmoD$Z _amR>rMr Z_©VrPmbr. JwUo mßMo ho ÂhUUo J´m¯ Amho. _amR>r mfoZo EH$mM doir‡mH•$V naßnaoVrb e„XÈn ÒdrH$mabo d _wiMm gßÒH•$V e„XhrÒdrH$mabm. ho d°⁄mßMo ÂhUUohr J´m¯ R>aVo.

n[adV©Z XmoZ ‡H$maMo AgVo. AßeV: n[adV©Z d nyU©n[adV©Z AßeV: n[adV©ZmV EH$mM ^mfoMm ddY AdÒWmOmUdVmV. CXm. nyd©d°XH$ Vo nmUZr`. gßÒH•$VmVrb n[adV©ZoqH$dm kmZoúar H$mimnmgyZ AmO¿`m _amR>rn ™VMr n[adV©Zo.nyU© n[adV©ZmVrb _mÃ EH$m ^mfo¿`m OmJr Xwgar ^mfm oVo.Oer gßÒH•$VmnmgyZ ‡mH•$V. mfoVrb Z`_mßMo nmbZ H$mQ>oH$moanUoÏhmdo Aer pÒWVr Pmbr H$s ^mfoMr dmT> Wmß~Vo. gßÒH•$VMmÏ`mH$aUH$ma nmUZr (AÔ>m‹`m`r). ‡mH•$VMm Ï`mH$aUH$madaÈMr (‡mH•$V‡H$me). d An^ße mfoMo Z`_ XmIdyZ XoUmam


ho_Mß– (XoerZm__mbm) `m JßWmßZm _m›`Vm bm^br, ^mfo¿`mew’mew’VoMo H$R>moa Z`_ Z_m©U Pmbo.

B.g. nyd© Mm °œ`m eVH$mV gßÒH•$VMr OmJmgd©gm_m›`mß¿`m ‡mH•$V ^mfmßZr KoVbm. B.g. VgË`m Mm°œ`meVH$mV ‡mH•$V mfmßMr OmJm An ´ße mfmßZr KoVbr. XhmÏ`mAH$amÏ`m eVH$mn ™V An^ße mfm Q>Hy$Z hmoÀ`m. À`mZßVa Xoer_amR>r B. ^mfm Z_m©U PmÎ`m.

gß_V g’mßV

lr. dÌdZmW I°ao mßZr gßÒH•$V-_amR>r-V_ri Aem VrZ^mfmßMr Am⁄mjao KoD$Z gß_V g’mßV _mßS>bm. gßÒH•$V_‹ o ¡`m_amR>r e„XmßMo _yi gmnS>V Zmhr. À`mMo _yi –dS> (V_i)^mfoV Amho Ago Vo gmßJVmV. nU Agm gmjmV gßÒH•$Ver qH$dmV_ier gß~ßY OmoS>Vm oV Zmhr. H$maU Ho$di e„X ÂhUOo^mfm ZÏho. ghdVr© mfmßMo n[aUm_ hmoV AgVmVM. lr. d«>bam_Or qeXo `mßZr "H$›ZS>-_amR>r gß~ßY' OmoSy>Z "_amR>r hrH$mZS>rMr nmoQ>Mr Zgbr Var nmibobr _wbJr Amho, Ago dYmZHo$bo Amho. VgoM gßemoYH$ eß.~m.Omoer `mßZrhr H$›ZSMm_amR>rdarb ‡^md ÒnÔ> Ho$bm Amho.

gßÒH•$V ü-gmjmV OZZr ?

CÉma‡H´$`m, ‡À``‡H´$`m d e„XgßnŒmr `m ^mfo¿`mVrZ ‡_wI AßJmß_‹ o gßÒH•$V d _amR>rV gmaIonUm Amho. À`m_wiogßÒH•$V hr _amR>rMr OZZr Amho Agm g_O hmoVmo. nwT>onwT>o _mÃdarb VrZ ~m~VrV _amR>r gßÒH•$Vnojm doJir XgVo. H$mimZwgmaV¿`mV gVV ~Xb Pmbm Amho. H$mim~amo~a Xoer d dXoer^mfmßer VMm gß~ßY Ambm. À`m_wio VMo Èn EH$M EH$ amhboboZmhr.

gßÒH•$V_‹ o Zgbobm "i' ‹dZr _amR>rV Ambm Amho.d^∫$s ‡À``mßEodOr e„X`moJr AÏ` o _moR>Ám ‡_mUmda Ambr.gßÒH•$VmVrb gß`w∫$ Ï`ßOZmßZr `w∫$ Ago CÉmaU _amR>rVgwb^rH$aUm¿`m ‡d•Œmr_wio ~Xbbo Amho. VÀg_ e„Xm‡_mUoVX≤ d e„XmMo ‡m~Î` dmT>bo. À`m_wio gßÒH•$V hr _amR>rMrgmjmV OZZr Zmhr. nU gßÒH•$VMm dmagm _mÃ _amR>rbm _imbmAmho.

‡mH•$V hr OZZr ?

_hmamÔ¥>r ‡mH•$VmnmgyZ _amR>r O›_br Ago _Vhr _mßS>bo

Jobo. À`mMm ‡W_ nwaÒH$ma "Pwb „bmoH$' m wamonr` mfmnßS>VmZodgmÏ`m eVH$m¿`m Amaß r Ho$bm. 1914 _‹ o La Forma-tion De langue Marathe hm JßW \|$M_‹ o bhbm. nwT>odm. Jmo. namßOno `mßZr À`mMo _amR>r ^mfmßVa 1940 _‹ o Ho$bo._hmamÔ¥>r ‡mH•$VmnmgyZ _amR>rMr Z_©Vr Pmbr `m „bmoH$¿`m_Vmbm nwÔ>r XoUmar _Vo S>m∞. _.A.H$aßXrH$a, J. dm. ZJmao, Zm.Jmo. H$mbobH$a `mßZrhr Zm|Xdbr. gßÒH•$VMm Ogm n[aUm__amR>rda Pmbm Vgm _hmamÔ¥>r ‡mH•$VMmhr Pmbm. R>odVmV-R>odVmV Aem d°H$pÎnH$ ÈnmßMm dmna, ‡À``‡H´$`m (fMmg/g ‡À``) CÉmaUmVrb gwb^rH$aUmMr n´d•Œmr hm ‡mH•$V^mfmßMm _amR>rdarb n[aUm_ Amho.

nU _hmamÔ¥>r ‡mH•$VmV "i' Zmhr. Vmo _amR>rV Hw$Ry>ZAmbm? mMm emoY KoVmZm _hmamÔ¥>r An^ße hm EH$ Q>flnm bjmVAmbm. nwÓnXßV B. Mo O°ZmßMo JßW Cnb„Y Pmbo. AmU ‡mH•$Vd _amR>rbm OmoS>Umam An ´ße hm Xwdm ‡H$memV Ambm.

An ´ße _amR>rMr gmjmV OZZr ?

_amR>rMr gmjmV OZZr qH$dm OZH$^mfm hmo `mMm _mZHo$di "_hmamÔ¥>r An^´ße' `mM ^mfoMm Amho. hr ^y_H$mS>m∞. eß. Jmo. Vwinwio mßZr dÒV•VnUo _mßS>br. mßS>maH$a mß¿`m_VmMmhr À`mßZr À`mgmR>r _mJmodm KoVbm Amho. XmoZ mfmß_YrbO›`-OZH$ gß~ßY R>adVmZm ^mfoMr gd©M AßJo VnmgbrnmhOoV AmU gß~ßYV ^mfmßMm gmßJmS>m gmaIm Amho Zm honmhbo nmhOo hm S>m∞. Vwinwio `mßMm —Ô>H$moU Amho. ^mfoMr‹dZÏ`dÒWm, Èn‡H$`m, dmä`aMZm, AW©‡H$`m, e„XgßJh`m gd©M AßJmßMm Vnebdma dMma H$ÈZ _hmamÔ¥>r An ´ße`m ^mfonmgyZ dV©_mZ _amR>r Z_m©U Pmbr ho _V À`mßZrnwamÏ`mßZrer R>m_nUo _mßS>bo Amho. "_amR>r hr Ho$di An^ßemMmAn ´ße ZgyZ, gßÒH•$VrH$aUmMm gßÒH$ma Pmbobr EH$ ÒdVßÃ^mfm Amho' Ago ZÖgßXΩY e„XmV À`mßZr Amnbo ZUm© H$_V _mßS>bo Amho.

_amR>rMo Img _amR>rnU ¡`m_‹ o emoYVm oVo Vo gd©deof _amR>rZo _hmamÔ¥>r An ´ßemnmgyZ KoVbo AmhoV. ‡À``bmJVmZm e„XmMo gm_m›`Èn hmo `mMr ‡H´$`m _hmamÔ¥>rAn^´ßemnmgyZ _amR>rZo KoVbr. AZoH$ dMZmßMo gmZwZmgH$CÉmaU (À`mßZm, KamßV) d^∫$‡À``mßEodOr e„X`moJr AÏ```moOUo. (À`mbm-À`mgmR>r, KÈZ-KamnmgyZ, aÒÀ`mV-aÒÀ`m_Yo) hr ^mfoVrb AßVJ©V KS>m_moS> Amho. ~m. A. ^S>o


`mßZrhr Vwinwio mß¿`m _Vmbm nwÓQ>r Xbr AmU AmO Vwinwio`mß¿`m _Vmbm gd©_m›`Vm _imbr Amho.

H$mhr e„Xmß¿`m ¤mam hr nyd©nR>H$m Aer XmIdVm oB©b.

‡Ve„X > nQ>g‘, > nS>g‘, > nS>gmX > nS>gmX.n´V>mZ > nV«>mZ > na«>mZ > n°R>Z. MH´$ > M∏$ > MmH$. H$_©> H$Â_ > H$m_.

‹dZn[adV©Zm_wio darb Zm_H$mß_‹ o (‡VnmXH$mß_‹ o)Ogo n[adV©Z hmoVo Vgo Vo YmVwÈnmßVhr hmoVo.

OmZmZ > OmUB© > OmUUo. n•¿N>V > nw¿N>B© > nwgUo.doÔ>Zo > doT>B© > doT>Uo. Z•À`V - UÉB© > ZmMUo.

"X hÑo,' "JhÑo' Ago ~mobUmË`m _amR>r _mUgmMo dU©ZAmR>Ï`m eVH$mVrb "Hw$db`_mbm' _‹ o Ambo Amho. À`mMo_yi ‡mH•$Vrbm Ab qH$dm BÑ ‡À``mnmgyZ Ambo Amho. CXm.Xm: XŒm > X Uß > X›hbß, Ymd: YmdV > Ymd U >Ymd Ubß, hg: hmgV > hmg U > hmgfib.

An^´ße ^mfoMo Ï`mH$aU bhUmË`m ho_Mß– `mßZo"XoerZm__mbo'Mr gyMr Xbr Amho. eß. Jmo. Vwinwio `mßZrXoerZm__mboVrb e„X `mXdH$mbrZ _amR>rV AmT>iVmV VoggßX © Xbo AmhoV. À`mMm Z_wZm :- CäHw$aS>mo - CH$aS>m, H$nS>mo- H$mnS>r, H$moBb H$moigm, IH$amo Imnar, JT>mo - JT>r, MäIbo- MIbw, MwßMwbr - Myi, U∏$mo - ZmH$, UrgmUrAm - ZgmUr,_moΩJamo - _moJam, _hAamo - _hma, doAÑß - doÎhmi.

10 Ï`m eVH$mVrb nwÓnXßVH•$V "Um`Hw$_maM[aÃ' d"OghaM[aÃ' `m An ´ße ^mfoVrb XmoZ JßWmßV Ambobo e„XEH$m ~mOyZo _hmamÔ¥>r ‡mH•$Vmer Va XwgË`m ~mOyZo mXdH$mbrZ_amR>rer Owibo AmhoV. An ´ße d `mXd _amR>rMo ZmVo C h -C›h, Amoh - Amohmoi, H$moSw> - H$moS>, Mmo¡O - MmoO, Ow¡PB© -OwßPUo, Iß~ - Imß~, Vß~ - Vmß~o, nßJwaU - nmßJwaU _hgr -Âh°gr, _wh˛a - _mohao B.

‹d›`mÀ_H$Vm ho _mZdr mfoMo Oo _hŒdmMo d°eÓQ>Á AmhoÀ`m_wioM ‹dZrV n[adV©Z hmoD$Z ^mfm ~XbVo. "EH$m deÔ>H$mir, deÔ> ‡XoemV ~mobÎ`m OmUmË`m EH$m deÔ> mfoVrb‹dZr H$mbmßVamZo ~XbVmV. ‹dZrV hmoUmË`m `m ‡H´$`obm"‹dZn[adV©Z' ÂhUVmV'. ‹dZn[adV©Z A_`m©X AgVo. Vo_ßX JVrZo hmoVo Vo ZandmX, EH$_mJu d gd©Ï`mnr AgVo. Vo

deÔ> ÒWbH$mbm¿`m _`m©XoV KS>Vo. d Vo ‡dmhr AgVo ÂhUyZMe„XmVrb dU© H$YrM MaÒWm`r ZgVmV.

n[adV©ZebVm hm ^mfoMm ghOY_© Amho. AZwH$aU,Amig, gwb^H$aU, hdm_mZ, XoeH$mb n[apÒWVr, ÒWbmßVa-XoeÀ`mJ, ^fi^mfH$mßMo gmfi‹`, AmZwdmßeH$ JwU, AmKmVAem AZoH$ H$maUmßZr ‹dZn[adV©Z hmoVo. H$mhr doim dU©ÒdV:¿`m AßVJ©V H$maUmßZr ~XbVmo. CXm. MH´$ > M∏$ > MmH$(g—erH$aU) lr - gar ~T>ma > ~ËhmS> (dU©dn © ) gwHo$Ho$bo - gwHo$bo (dU©J´mg) Ûr - BÛr (Am⁄ÒdamJ_) Vm_´ -Vmß~S>m (dUm©J_) ^∫$ - ^JV (Òda^∫$s) H$mhr doimAZnojVnUo hiyhiy n[adV©Z hmoVo. CXm. Òdeya > ggya >ggyam > ggam > gmgam.

Aem AZoH$ ‡H$mamßZr _amR>rV ‹dZn[adV©Z Pmbo Amho.^mfoMm BVhmg ~XbVmo Vmo ‡m_wª`mZo ‹dZn[adV©Zm_wio.

^maVr` ^mfmßMm H$mi

_amR>rMr nyd©nR>H$m d _amR>rMr OZZr mßMm Omo _mJmodmKoVbm À`mdÈZ ^maVr` ^mfmßMm H$mi Imbrb VrZ ^mJmV_mßS>Vm oVmo.

1) nyd© d°XH$ ^mfm - ºÒVnyd© 5000 ¿`m nyduMm H$mid°XH$ ~´mÂhU, CnZfXo B. ºÒVnyd© 5000 Vo 1000

2) nmUZr` gßÒH•$V - ºÒVnyd© 1000 Vo 200 nmbr,AemoH$ ebmboI ºÒVnyd© 600 Vo ºÒVnyd© 200,_hmamÔ¥>r _mJYr em°agoZr, n°emMr - º. ny. 200 VoºÒVmoŒma 200 An ´ße - ºÒVnyd© 400 Vo ºÒVmoÒVa700.

3) _amR>r JwOamWr qhXr dJ°ao dV©_mZ ~mobtMm CX`-ºÒVmoŒma 700

_amR>rMr CÀnŒmr - ÒWb H$mb -

_amR>rMm CJ_H$mb - H$moUVrhr ^mfm O›_V: ‡JVAdÒWoV Agy eH$V Zmhr. V¿`m OS>UKS>Ur¿`m ‡maß r¿`mH$mimV Vr Ho$di Ï`dhmam¿`m nmVirdaM dmnabr OmVo.g_mO_m›`Vm _iyZ Ï`dhmamV VMo ÒWmZ ZpÌMV PmÎ`mdaÀ`m ^mfoV hiyhiy JßWZ_©Vr hmoD$ bmJVo. ‡W_ Vr Ho$di~mobrÈnmV d ZßVa bIV ÈnmV AdVaVo. _amR>r ^mfoMm


O›_H$mi ZpÌMV H$a `mMr gmYZo ÂhUOo À`m mfoV bhbobo‡mMrZ JßW, H$moabobo Vm_´ ebmboI AmU À`m ^mfoMo A›`ÃAmT>iUmao ‡mMrZ ZXe.

`mn°H$s J´mßWH$ gmYZmßMm dMma H$aVm B. g. 1278n ™V _mJo OmVm oVo. _hmZw mdmßMm "brimM[aÃ' hm _amR>r^mfoV bhbobm Am⁄J⁄J´ßW (eHo$ 1200) _amR>rVrbebmboImßMm _mJmodm KoV Jobmo Va B. g. 1012 n ™V _mJoOmVm oVo. (eHo$ 934) ebmhmaZ•n nhbm Ho$eXod `mMmEH$ ebmboI H$moH$UmV Ajr oWo _imbm. _amR>r ^mfoMm_amR>r~m¯ _hmamÔ¥>~m¯ ZXe B. g. 1290 (eHo$ 1212)¿`m _°bßJr¿`m ebmboImV _iVmo. _¢bJr ÂhUOo g‹`mMoH$Zm©Q>H$mVrb Âh°gya‡mßVmVrb VÈßHw$S>b. hmo gb amOmMm _ßÃrnoÈ_b `mZo EH$ d⁄m_ßXra ÒWmnZ Ho$bo. VoWo _amR>r ^mfo¿`mA‹`mnZmMr gmo` ÒWmnZ Ho$br Agm CÑoI Amho. ÂhUOo_hmamÔ¥>mV kmZoÌdargmaIm JßW aMbm OmV AgVmZm na‡mßVmV_amR>r eH$ `mMr gmo Z_m©U Pmbr hmoVr. À`mAWu m gw_mamg_amR>rbm MmßJbrM ‡V>m ‡m· Pmbr hmoVr.

`mnydu 100 dfm™_mJo dËhmS>mVrb MmßXm òWrbXZH$aqgJ `m Jm|S> amOmZo AmnÎ`m am¡`mV _amR>rMm nwaÒH$maHo$Î`mMm CÑoI À`m amOmß¿`m dßemdirV _iVmo. `mnydu 12Ï`m eVH$mV aMboÎ`m VobJy H$mÏ`mV _amR>r Amoi Amho. À`mVAmao ^mfm, Amao Xoe (ÂhUOoM _amR>r ^mfm d _hmamÔ¥>) `mMmCÑoI gmnS>Vmo Amao ÂhUOo Am ©. –dS>mßhˇZ ^fi. AmUIr_mJo JoÎ`mg B. g. 1129 _‹ò Mmbwä`Z•n gmo_oÌdamZobhboÎ`m "_mZgmoÑmg' qH$dm "A^bfVmW©qMVm_Ur' `mJßWm¿`m JrV-JmodßX ‡H$aUmV _hmamÔ¥>mVrb Û`m H$mßS>VmßZm¡`m AmoÏ`m ÂhUVmV À`mMm CÑoI Amho. À`mV _amR>r bmoH$JrVohrg_mdÔ> AmhoV. mnydu H$mhr df e˚Mß– Zmdm¿`m O°Z nßS>VmZobhboÎ`m "amOr_Vr ‡~moY' `m gßÒH•$V ZmQ>H$mV _amR>r^mfoVrb CVmam Amho. `m_mJo JoÎ`mg AmR>Ï`m eVH$mVrb"Hw$db`_mbm' ? `m C⁄moVZgyar¿`m JßWmV _ah≈> ^mfm AgyZVr ~mobUmË`m _mUgmMr AßV~m© d°eÓQ>Áo dU©Z Ho$br AmhoV.

""XT>_S>h gm_bßJo ghao Ah_mU H$bhgrbo ` ü&X Ubo JhÑo CÑdao VÀW _ah≈>o ü&&''

(AW© : KQ>_wQ>, H$miogmdio, ghZerb, A^_mZr,H$bherb d X Ubo JhÑo' Ago ~mobUmao _ah≈>o)

da XboÎ`m AmYmamßda _amR>rMm CÀnŒmrH$mb gmVÀ`mZoAmR>Ï`m eVH$mBVH$m _mJo ZoVm oVmo.

_amR>rMr ÒWbÏ`m·r

B. g. nyd© 700 ¿`m gw_mamg Am © bmoH$ CŒma maVmVyZXjU ^maVmV Ambo. (XjUmnWmV) XjUmnWmVrb –mdS>g_mO VoÏhm EH$gßK ZÏhVm, À`mV _hma, _mßJ, Jm|S>, ^Ñ,H$mVH$ar, dmabr, H$moir, ZmJ B. bmoH$ amhmV hmoVo. À`mV hoAm © _gibo. Am`m™Zr ¡`m ¡`m R>H$mUr dgmhVr Ho$Î`m À`mÀ`m CnH|$–mßZm ZßVa amÔ¥> qH$dm Xoe Ago ÂhUy bmJbo. JmonamÔ¥>,_ÑamÔ¥> Anamfi amÔ¥>, dX ©amÔ¥>, AÌ_ amÔ¥> Aem ghm amÔ¥>mVXjUog dgmhV Ho$br. `m gdm™Mo _iyZ EH$ _hmZ _moR>o amÔ¥>ÂhUOoM _hmamÔ¥> V`ma Pmbm. "_hmamÔ¥>r dgmdo' ho MH´$YaÒdm_tMo dMZ ‡g’ Amho.

_hmamÔ¥> XoedmMH$ ‡mMrZ CÑoI

1) damh_haH•$V ~•hV≤gßhVm - "^mΩòagdH´$_U :n `ÛrH$›`H$m _hmamÔ¥>m :ü&'

2) daÈMrH•$V ‡mH•$V‡H$me - "_hmamÔ¥>ml`m_ ^mfm_≤ &'(B. g. gZm¿`m Amaß r)

3) Eohm oirMm ebmboI - "AJ_XmYnVÀdß `m o_hmamÔ¥>H$mUm_≤ ü&' (B. g. 634)

4) EoaUMm ÒVß^boI - goZmnVr - ‡_wIoU gÀ`ZmJoZ_hmamÔ¥> (B. g. 365)

5) ~m°’nwamUmVrb "_hmdßgmo' Woa (Y_mnXoeH$) "_ha≈>_‹ onmR>dÎ`mMm CÑoI ( 5 do eVH$)

6) MZr ‡dmgr yyEZÀgßJ (B.g. 629.649)-(Mo-ha-la-cho-_mohmobme) = _hmamÔ¥> m XoemMm dÒVma 6000br = 1000 _°b.

_hmamÔ¥> e„XmMr Ï wÀnŒmr

1) Sm∞. dÎgZ _moÎgdW© H$moe - 1872 - 73. "_ah≈>' ho_hmamÔ¥> `m gßÒH•$V e„XmMo nmbr Èn hmo .

2) gßÒH•$V nßS>VmßMr Ï wÀnŒmr - _hm+amÔ¥> = _moR>o amÔ¥>

3) _hma + amÔ¥> = _hmamßMm Xoe


4) S>m∞. Ho$VH$a = _hma+a≈>. XmoZ O_mVr EH$Ã oD$Z _hmamÔ¥>Pmbo.

5) S>m∞. Amo\$Q>© = _ÑamÔ¥> = _hmamÓQ¥>. Âhma Mo _ma Pmbo._ma ÂhUOo _Ñ bmoH$.

6) S>m∞. ^mßS>maH$a - _hm^moO `m‡_mUo amÔ¥>rH$mßZr (amÔ¥>H$ >a≈>rH$ > a≈>) hm Xoe _moR>m ÂhUyZ ÒdV:bm _hmamÔ¥>rH$qH$dm _hma≈> ÂhUdyZ KoVbo. H$mb, ^mOo `oWrbebmboImV "_hmaR>r' Èn AmT>iVo.

7) amOmam_emÛr ^mJdV - _ha≈> hm e„X _amR>mOmVdmMH$ AgyZ Omo eÃyg nmR> XmIdV Zmhr VmodranwÈf hmo (_aVm Vd haVmo) gßÒH•$VmV "_hmaW' AgmeyamßMm CÑoI oVmo. À`mMo An ´ße Èn _hma≈> À`mdÈZ_ah≈>. _hmamÔ¥>r ~mobUmao _ËhmR>m OmVrMo bmoH$ OoWoamhVmV Vmo _hmamÔ¥>.

8) nmß. dmß. H$mUo - _hmZ amÔ¥> Vo _hmamÔ¥>

9) _hmZw mdmßMo AmMma^mÓ` - "_hmamÔ¥> ÂhUOo _hßV amÔ¥>&'

Agm hm _hmamÔ¥> Xoe. ¡`mV _amR>r ^mfH$ amhVmV. `m_hmamÔ¥>mMm amOH$` BVhmg AZoH$ amOdQ>tgh Cnb„Y Amho.

_hmamÔ¥>mVrb amOKamUr

_hmamÔ¥>mMm Omo kmV BVhmg Amho À`mdÈZ B.g.drgZm¿`m ‡maß mnmgyZ Mm°XmÏ`m eVH$mn ™V AZwH´$_o ImbrbKamUr _hmamÔ¥>mda am¡` H$arV hmoVr.

1) gmVdmhZ - B. g. nyd© 250 Vo B.g. 250 (500df) "amOm'- nhbm, Xwgam, gmVH$Uu, eH$H$Vm©,Jm°V_rnyÃ, gmVH$Uu (embrdmhZ) "Y_©'- qhXy, ~m°’Y_m©V gm_ßOÒ` Z_m©U Ho$bo ^mfm-_hmamÔ¥>r ‡mH•$V.H$bm-H$mb nmßS>dboUr

2) dmH$mQ>H$ - B. g. 250 Vo 525 (300 df) Jw·Kam `mer ZmVogß~ßY. amOo ‡dagoZ, gd©goZ, h[afoU._hmH$dr H$mbXmg hm ‡dagoZm¿`m g_H$mbrZ H$bm -AqOR>m boUr.

3) ~Xm_rMo Mmbyä` - H$Zm©Q>H$mVrb amOKam `mß¿`mAYnÀ`mImbr _hmamÔ¥>

nyd©MmÎ wä` - 6 Ï`m eVH$mnmgyZ 8 Ï`m eVH$mn ™V.amOo-gÀ`ml` nwbHo$er, Xwgam nwbHo$er, namH´$_rhf©dY©ZmMm nam^d, yEZÀgßJ Mo AmJ_Z. Y_© - d°XH$Y_m©Mm nwaÒH$ma.

4) amÔ¥>Hy$Q> - 7 Ï`m eVH$mnmgyZ 10 Ï`m eVH$mn ™V H$mhrA‰`mgHß$m¿`m _Vo hr _hmamÔ¥>r` Va H$mh A‰`mgH$mß¿`m_Vo H$Zm©Q>H$s` H$fiS> gmhÀ`mMm CÀH$f©. amOo-A_moKdf©,ÒdV: H$dr XßVd_©Z, H•$ÓU, JmoqdX, BßX´. gwÏ`dpÒWVemgZ, ghÓUwVmnyU© OrdZ nU H$_©H$mßS> d A›`m`_ybH$MmbtZm ‡maß . H$bm-doÈiMr boUr.

5) H$Î`mUrMo Mmbwä` - (CŒma Mmbwä`) 10 do Vo 12do eVH$. amOo-gÀ`ml`, dH$_mXÀ`, gmo_oúa. 12 Ï`meVH$mV CŒma Mmbwä`mß¿`m am¡`mMm _amR>r mfr CŒma^mJ`mXdmß¿`m Vm„`mV Ambm. H$fiS>^mfr XjU^mJhm o`gbmßZr qOH$bm. gmhÀ`-_mZgmoÑmg,A^bmfVmW©, qMVm_Ur gmo_oúa¿`m Zmdmda,dkmZoÌda d ~ÎhU H$dr `mM H$mimV Pmbo. `mamOdQ>rMm eodQ> ^mfH$ VŒdmda d^mOZ H$aUmamR>abm. _amR>rMo doJionU ‡ÒWmnV Pmbo.

6) ebmhma - H$moH$U ‡XoemnwaVm. CŒma H$moH$UMr R>mUoamOYmZr Ho$eXodm¿`m H$mimV _amR>rMm nhbmebmboI "Ajr' `oWo. H$bm-H$moÎhmnyaMo Aß~m~mB©_ßXa.

7) H$Xß~ - Jm o_ ßVH$mV (9 do Vo 13 do eVH$)H$moH$UMH´$dVu ho ~ÈX amOo bmdrV. Hß$Q>H$mMm`©,_ yad_m©, dH´$_mXÀ` B. amOo. B. g. 1310 _brH$H$m\$aZo am¡`mMm nyU© Zme Ho$bm.

8) XodJarMo `mXd - (9 Ï`m eVH$mMr AIoa)_hmamÔ¥>m¿`m gd© ‡Xoemda am¡` H$aUmao eodQ>Mo KamUo._hmamÔ¥>mIoarO JwOamW, VobßJU, H$Zm©Q>H$mV am¡`dÒVma.`mXdamOo Z:gße` _amR>r ^mfH$ hmoVo.

amÔ¥>Hw$Q>mßMo _amR>rnU gße`mÒnX Amho. ebmhmamß¿`mH$mimV _amR>r ebmboI H$moabo Jobo. nU Vo _amR>r mfH$ hmoVo`mbm nwamdm Zmhr.

Y_© - dmaH$ar, _hmZw md nßW CX`mg Ambo. _amR>r


am¡`mMr gßÒWmnZm, dÒVma, CÀH$f© mXdmß_wio Pmbm. kmZoÌda,MH´$Ya Òdm_r mM H$mimV hmoD$Z Jobo. amOo-goCUMß–, ^Ñ_qgYUXod, H•$ÓUXod, _hmXod, Am_UXod, am_Mß–Xod.kmZoÌdarVrb CÑoI - "`Xwdßedbmgy ü& ›`m`mZo nmoIr jrVrgw&am_Mß– ü&&'- _wi¿`m A^ra, jÃ` Aem `m Kam `mßMm CXàmÔ¥>Hw$Q>mß¿`m H$mimV Pmbm. CŒma Mmbwä`mßMo _mßS>bH$ ÂhUyZVo ZmdmÈnmbm Ambo. 12 Ï`m eVH$mV mXdmßMr gŒmm ‡ÒWmnVPmbr. 13 Ï`m eVH$mV VMm CÀH$f© Pmbm. 14 Ï`m eVH$mVVMm Zme Pmbm. 12 Ï`m 13 Ï`m eVH$mMm hm H$mi mXdH$miÂhUyZ AmoiIbm OmVmo. Imoboúa, ho_m–nßS>V, ~monXod `mßMoH$V•©©Àd g’ Ïhm`bm `mXdmßMm amOml` H$maUr yV Pmbm.

_amR>r ^mfo¿`m dH$mgmMo Q>flno -

_hmamÔ¥>mVrb ddY amOdQ>tMm dMma H$aVm _amR>r mfmbIV ÈnmV JßWZdÔ> Pmbr Vr `mXdH$mimV.

11 do eVH$ Vo 21 eVH$ ho AmO bIV JßWZdÔ>_amR>rMo Am w_m©Z Amho. `m hOma dfm™¿`m H$mimV _amR>r¿`mBVhmgmV _amR>r ^mfm H$er ~XbV Jobr; AWm©V ho AßeH$n[adV©Z ÂhUOo _amR>r¿`m dH$mgmMo Q>flno AmhoV.

_amR>r¿`m dH$mgmMo Q>flno qH$dm H$mbH$ ôX H$goR>adm`Mo `m~‘b ddY y_H$m XgVmV.

1) amOdQ>rZwgma - 1) ‡mMrZ amÔ¥>Hy$Q> d H$Î`mUrMoCŒma Mmbwä`-_amR>rMm O›_ d VMr A‡JV AdÒWm 2)`mXdH$mi - ‡mMrZ _amR>r gmhÀ`mMo gwdU© wJ. mXd ho _amR>r^mfH$ amOo 1350 n ™V 3) _wgb_mZrH$mi - ~hm_Zr gŒmmB.g. 1350 Vo 1650 4)edemhr - 1650 Vo 1750 5)noedoH$mi - 1750 Vo 1818 (n[aUm_ 1850 n ™V) AÏdbBßJÓr 1850 Vo 1950 7) ÒdmVßÕ`moŒma d⁄_mZ H$mi.

darb amOdQ>t‡_mUo bmoH$moŒma Ï`q∫$Zwgma ÂhUOokmZoÌdaH$mi EH$ZmWH$mi Aerhr d^mJUr XgyZ oVo. qH$dmeVH$ ho n[a_mU bmdbo OmVo.

AbrH$S>o Jß.Zm. OmoJioH$a `mßZr `mnojm WmoS>r doJird^mJUr gwMdbr Amho. "^mfoMo ~XbVo ÒdÈn' hmM ZH$f_mZyZ H$mbIßS> _moOUo `moΩ` hmo` OoWo ^mfoMo ÒdÈnOmUd `mBVnV ~Xbbo Ago VrZ Q>flno À`mßZr _mZbo AmhoV.

_amR>r¿`m VrZ ^mfH$ AdÒWm :

A) _amR>r¿`m AmXH$mim qH$dm n´mMrZH$mb - B.g. 10 do11 do eVH$ Vo 1350 n ™V

Am) _amR>rMm _‹`H$mb qH$dm _‹` wJrZ _amR>r - B.g.1350 Vo 1800 - Aa~r \$mguMm gßnH©$ PmÎ`mnmgyZ.

B) AmYwZH$ H$mi - B.g. 1800 nmgyZ AmOn`™VMmwamon` ^mfmßMm deofV: BßJÓrMm gßnH©$ AmÎ`mnmgyZ

‡À oH$ H$mimVrb _amR>r ^mfoMr d°eÓQ>Áo

A) _amR>rMm AmXH$mb - `mVhr _amR>rMo XmoZ Q>flnoOmUdVmV. 1) H$moard boImVrb _amR>r. 2) JßWZdÔ> _amR>r.

1) H$moard boImVrb _amR>r- `mV ebmboI dVm_boI hr BVhmgmMr Xmo›hr gmYZo oVmV. _amR>r mfoMo ‡mMrZÒdÈn qH$dm CJ_H$mbZ ÒdÈn OmUyZ Ko `m¿`m —Ô>rZo hr gmYZo_hÀdnyU© AmhoV. H$maU _hmZw mdmßMm "brimM[aÃ' hm Am⁄_amR>r J⁄JßW B. g. 1268 Mm qH$dm kmZoÌdar B.g. 1290Mr `m bIV J´ ßWmnydu¿`m _amR>rMo _m °IH$ ÒdÈnbmoH$gmhÀ`mVyZ XgVo. nU bIV ÒdÈn H$i `mMo H$moardboI ho EH$_od gmYZ Amho. "H$m˘`m XJS>mdarb aoK' qH$dm"~mobä`m XJS>mßMr H$hmUr' Ago _._.nmoVXma `mßZr `m H$moardboImßZm ÂhQ>bo Amho. À`m À`m H$mimVrb amOdQ>r,H$mbZXeZn’Vr, bnr`moOZm, ^mfm`moOZm, Ï`∫$Zm_o,ÒWbZm_o, ÒVwVr qH$dm emn Aem gßÒH•$Vr¿`m ddY AßJmda`m_wio ‡H$me nS>Vmo.

^mfH$ nmhUr¿`m —Ô>rZo Cn w∫$ Aem boImßMmM `mVdMma H$aVm oB©b.

1) Ajr ebmboI (Vm. Ab~mJ O. Hw$bm~m)Am⁄ _amR>r ebmboI eHo$. 924 B.g. 1012 hm gßnyU© boI.

(O)Jr gwfgßVw ü& ÒdpÒV Amo ü& ngr_g -

_w–YrnVr ü& Ûr H$m|H$Um MH´$s -

dVu ü& Ûr Ho$grXodam_ ü& _hm‡Ym -

Z ^BOw© gonwB© Vg_rZr H$mbo

‡d´V_Zo ü& gHw$gßdVw : 934 ‡Ym -

dr gßdgao ü& AYrHw$ Xrdo gwHo$ ~m° -


bw ü& ^BOw©d| VWm ~moS> VWm ZS>

Hw$dbr AYmo w© ‡YmZw ü& _hbfw -

_r Mr ~AmU bwZ`m H$Mbr O -

npÌM_ g_w–mYnVr, H$moH$UMH$dVu lr. Ho$eXodam``mMm _hm‡YmZ ^BOw© goUwB© `mZo eH$gßdV 934 n[aYmZrgßdÀga AYH$ (Oo>) _‹ o ZS> Hw$dbr (Ym›`) Zo_yZ Xbo. mXder (_hmb˙_r¿`m) ~moS>UmgmR>r. eodQ>r "OJmV gwIAgmdo' Ago ÂhUyZ ebmboI gßndbm Amho.

`m boImV "npÌM_' `mMo "ngr_' ho gwb^rH$aU VgoMgßdVw, ‡YmZw, AYHw$ hr CH$mar Èno hr ‡mMrZ _amR>rMr d°eÓQ>ÁoXgVmV. j EodOr f ho EHo$ar Ï ßOZ, "Mr' ho f>rMo Èn `mnhÎ`mM boImV XgVo.

2) Xdo - AmJa Vm_ńQ> - eHo$ 982 B.g. 1060gßnyU© _amR>r ^mfoV Agbobm hm Vm_´boI AÒgb d A¤VrÀmho. Èn gmd©OZH$ ZgyZ d° ∫$H$ Amho.

Am| ÒdpÒV eH$ gßdVw 982 gÀd©ar gßdgao `m-

ΩJ© ga nm° U©_mÒ`mß ewHo$ ü&& lrpÒN>Vnw[aMr Xmo -

Z gmgZo dmgwXod^≈>dm o fS>ßJd [ag`n -

K°gmg grZ≤ fS>ßJd EVÀ‡_wIo ÒN>mZo _mdb ^-

≈> nmgo R>d`br : VWm gmVdrg| gV gwd U© : Xm -

dmoXa : nmg R>d`bo ü& gw. Jm. 127 gwÏd© : `moJjo -

_w ÒN>mZhMm ü& XrdoMo [ag`n° nm°fßXod fS>d VH$

fS>ßJd OrdU° ZmJÈ–^Q> _Ywd° fS>ßJrd _Ywd -

`Xodbw ho OmUV - Oo gwd U© bhbo Vo Hß$mRo>A : g_oV :

gßdV 982 _mJ©erf© nm°U©_m ewH´$dma m Xder XdoJmdmVrb dmgwXodm^≈>dm` Zmdm¿`m ~´mÂhUmZo AmnÎ`mOdirb pÒWVnwatMr XmoZ emgZ (Vm_ńQ>) fS>ßJdX [ag`nK°gmg d gZw fS> ßJmdX ho ¡`mV ‡_wI AmhoV AemdÌdÒV_ßS>imV _mdb^≈> m J•hÒWmnmer R>odbr. m dÌdÒVg oMm moJjo_ Mmb `mgmR>r ÂhUyZ 127 gwdU©JYmUH$ H$moUmXm_moXamnmer EH$m Hß$R>ÁmV Jwß\y$Z R>odbr AgÎ`mMm CÑoI Amho.`m boImV gwb^rH$aUmMr ‡H´$`m AZoH$ e„XÈnmV XgVo."gŒmmdrg' Mo "gmVmdrg' "eV' Mo "gV' "pÒWVr' Mo "pÒN>Vr'."ÒWmZ' ho "ÒN>mZ'. "M' ho f>rMo Èn, "b' hm yVH$mimMm

‡À``. "e' EodOr "g' (gd©ar, _mJ©gra) CH$mar Èno (gZwXoXbw) B. d°eÓQ>Áo XgVmV.

3) ldU~oiJmoi ebmboe - eHo$ 1038 B. g.1116

_._.nmoVXma, Î wBg amBg `mßZr `mMm H$mi eHo$ 905B.g. 983 hm R>adbm hmoVm. Vmo h˛ÎQ>P `mßZr A_m›` Ho$bm ddarb H$mi AmVm gd©_m›` Pmbm Amho. Âh°gya ‡mßVmVldU~oiJmoi oWo Jmo_Q>oúamMo ‡MßS> gwßXa eÎn AgyZ À`m¿`mnm`œ`mnmer hm ebmboI H$moabobm Amho.

lrMmdw S>am o H$ad`bolr JßJamOo gwŒmmbo H$ad`bo

ho eÎn Mmdw S>amOmZo H$ad`bo d JßJamOmZo À`m^modVrgwŒmmbo ÂhUOo Amdma H$ad`bo. EdT>oM `mda bhbo AgyZH$mbmoÑoI Zmhr. Vmo amOmß¿`m ZmdmdÈZ ZpÌMV H$amdm bmJVmo.`mV H$V• ©nX "E' `m V•Vrò¿`m ‡À``mZo `w∫$ Amho.

yVH$midmMH$ "b' ‡À`` "H$ad`bo' ho "H•$' YmVyMo ‡`moOH$Èn. (‡YmZH$V•©H$H$_©Ur) "gwŒm' m H$fiS> e„Xmbm _amR>r "b'‡À`` bmJbm. gwQ>gwQ>rV d gßnyU© _amR>rVrb hm nhbm boI.AÎnmjamZo d ^Ï` eÎnmZo gwemo^V Amho.

4) Amß~o ebmboI - eHo$ 1066 B.g. 1144.(Amß~oOm oJmB©) Amß~o X oemMm AY>mVm _hm_ßS>boúaCX`mXÀ`goZ `m¿`m doiMm hm AÀ ßV MmßJÎ`m pÒWVrVrbebmboImMm CÀH•$Ô> Z_yZm Amho. `mVrb eodQ>Mr emndmUr_amR>rV Amho. À`mAmYr gßÒH•$V e„XmßMoM ‡m~Î` Amho.

"Omo \o$S>r bmonr VoAm moJZrMm dO´XßSw> nS>o' mV "VoAm'= À`mbm. `mVrb "Vmo' Mo gm_m›`Èn Amho.

5) mßXH$Mm ebmboI - eHo$ 1068 B. g. 1146(Vm. damoS>m, O. MmßXm) mV H$moUm MmßXZm`H$mMm VOm _wbJmOmIZm`H$ `mZo lrZmamÙmMr ‡V>mnZm H$ÈZ Y_m©Mo amOondma `mßZr XodimMm OrUm’ma H$ÈZ ÃZoÃ_wIr _yVu ÒWmnZHo$Î`mMo ÂhQ>bo Amho. eodQ>Mm gßÒH•$V ÌbmoH$ dJiÎ`mg ~mH$sboI _amR>rV Amho.

.....lrZmamÙ : ‡VÒR>m : MmßJZmH$m gwV| : Vr¡`m

OmUZmHw$ : VoUo ‡VrÒR>m Ho$b : Y_m©Mo amE ndma : H$sV© -


Z: OrUmYma : ÃZrÃ : _wfr Ho$br : bmoUma _ohH$ma : VoWMo Am-

Yr>mVo : OZmX©ZnßS>VmßMm gwVw : JmonZmW nßS>Vw : AUw_V Ho$-

b| : VMrEo AmÒWmZmMm A^r_mZw g_ÒVm ZJamgr : AUH$

_wÓ` Zm oH$m AYrH$mar`mßgr : ho Y_©H$sV©Z : ‡Vrnmbw

Omo H$ar VoAmg : ^bo hmo Xodm : dmM Vmo dO° m hmo Xodm :

`m boImV mfH$ A‰`mgmMr gm_J´r anya _iVo. gwVwnßS>Vw hr CH$mar Èno "Vr¡`m' (Vgam) ho doYH$ Èn (BOm, ~rOm,VrOm) MmßJZmH$, ¡`mfZmH$ hr _amR>r diUmMr Zmdo(MmßJZm`H$, ¡`mgZm`H$) gßÒH•$VMr ew’ e„XÈno XgVmV.Ver An ´ße Ènohr XgVmV. "‡Vnmbw' _Yrb ÒnÔ> "i' H$maOmUdVmo. "Z', "U' ¿`m dmnamV g°bnUm Amho. eodQ>rAmerd©MZ Amho. emndmUr Zmhr. AmYr¿`m H$mhr boImVAgbobm ^mfoMm Amo~S>Ymo~S>nU `m boImV H$_r PmbobmXgVmo. Ï`∫$Zm_, ÒWbZm_, dßeZm_ m_wio gmßÒH•$VH$ _hŒdAmho. Y_©H$sV©Z gmaIm ‡m°T> AbßH$m[aH$ e„X nw›hm gßÒH•$VH$S>oPwH$bobm XgVmo.

6) nigXod ebmboI - eHo$ 1079 B.g. 11577) gmdaJmd ebmboI e. 1086 B. g. 1164 8) bmo_mS>ebmboI e. 1106 B. g. 1184 B. boI oVmV. 9) naiebmboI - e. 1108 B. g. 1186 gßÒH•$V_‹ o AgyZ eodQ>MremndmUr _amR>rV Amho.

10) nßT>anya ebmboI - eHo$ 1111 B.g. 1189d«>bXodm¿`m ÒWmnZoMm ebmboI. ^Ñ_Xod am¡` H$arVAgVmZm d«>b_ßXamMr ÒWmnZm "bmZ _Sw>' (bhmZ _R>) ÈnmVPmbr. À`mMm ZXe Amho. gßHo$V ÂhUyZ H$mhr e„X gßÒH•$VAgbo Var ^mfm—ÓQ>Ám hm boI _amR>rVM Amho.

11) nmQ>U ebmboI - e. 1129 B. g. 1207_amR>r dmä`aMZo¿`m —Ô>rZo hm _hŒdmMm ebmboI Amho. qgKUamOmMm ¡`moVfr d ‡g’ ¡`moVfr ^mÒH$amMm © `mMm ZmVyMmßJXod `mZo ÒWmnboÎ`m _R>m¿`m `moJjo_mgmR>r gmoB©Xod dho_mS>rXod `m ZHwß$^ amOmßZr Oo XmZ Xbo À`mMo ho ddaU Amho.Ow›`m _amR>rMr _moS> `mVyZ H$iVo. "B`mß nmQ>Ur Oo Ho$Uoß CKQ>oVohmMm AgAmS> Omo amS>bm hm|Vm J´mhH$mnmgr Vmo _T>m Xr›hbmü&

~´mÂhUmß Oo dH$Vo mnmgr ~´ moŒma Vo ~´mÂhUt Xr›hb| ü&&JmhH$mnmgr Xm_mMm drgmodm AmgynmR>t ZJa| Xr›hbm ü&& hbXmÌ`m

~°bm g’d° ü&& ~h[abm AmgwnmR>r JYdo J´mhH$mnmgt ü&& nmßMnmo\$br J´mhH$mnmgt ü&&' `mVrb "Xr›hbm' (Xbm) ho ÈnÀ`mAmYr 4 eVHo$ Hw$db`_mbm `m JßWmV Ambo Amho. "i'EodOr "b' "e' EodOr "g' oVmo. _ldmä` o `mBVnV _amR>rdmä`aMZm gj_ ~Zbr AgÎ`mMo XgVo. VohmMm, Ag,AmS> (amOH$` H$a) Omo amS>bm hmoVm' ho deofU dmä` AmYr

oD$Z _J "Vmo _T>m X›hbm' ho _wª` dmä` ZßVa oVo. _amR>r hrOZgm_m›`mßMr mfm AmVm ~arM ‡JV ÈnmV gy _ Ame` Ï`∫$H$a `mg gj_ R>abobr XgVo.

12) ImoboÌdamMm boI - (Aß~oOmoJmB©) e. 1161B. g. 1229 AmYr¿`m gßÒH•$V dmä`mMm AW© _amR>rV XbmAmho. "ho y_r Xod nwÈfoU OrdUm XYbr' CÑoIZr` ^mfH$Èn XgVo. "hr' EodOr "ho' Èn, X›hbm EodOr "XYbr' hoÍ$n gwb^rH$aUmVyZ Ambo Amho.

13) 84 ¿`m nßT>anyaMm ebmboI - eHo$ 1195B.g. 1273 m ebmboImbm gm_mOH$ gmßÒH•$VH$—ÓQ>Ám \$ma_hŒd Amho. _ßXambm XoUJr XoUmË`m XmÀ`mßMr Zmdo mV AmhoV.^mfH$ —ÓQ>Ám hm boI \$magm _hŒdmMm Zmhr.

`mZßVa¿`m H$mimVbohr ~aoM H$moard boI AmhoV. naßVwkmZoÌdar, brimM[aÃ gmaIo JßW Cnb„Y PmÎ`mda m H$moardboImßH$S>o _w‘m_ di `mMo H$maU Cabo Zmhr.

_amR>r¿`m OS>UKS>UrMr H$ÎnZm

_amR>rMo gd© deof mVyZ ÒnÔ> hmoVmVM Ago Zmhr H$maUgwadmVr¿`m ebmboImV gßÒH•$VMoM ‡m~Î` AYH$ XgVo.nwT>¿`m boImß_‹ o _amR>r e„X d dmä` `mßMo ‡_mU dmT>bo._amR>rMr OS>UKS>U H$er Pmbr Ame` Ï`∫$ H$a `mMr j_VmH$er dmT>rg bmJbr, AmXH$mimVrb e„XgßJ´h H$gm hmoVm`mMr ÒWyb H$ÎnZm H$moard boImVrb ^mfodÈZ oD$ eH$Vo.OZ_mUgmV _amR>rbm H´$_e: ‡V>m ‡m· hmoD$Z _amR>rMmÒdrH$ma H$moard boImV hmoV Jobm.

AmXH$mimVrb n⁄JßW

_hmZw md d dmaH$ar mßMo dnyb n⁄JßW Cnb„Y AmhoV.naßVw n⁄JßW _m°IH$ naßnao_wio À`mV AmYwZH$sH$aUhr PmboboXgVo. gmVeo AmR>eo dfm™nydu¿`m nmoœ`m Cnb„Y hmoD$ eH$VZmhrV. ÂhUyZ n⁄JßWmßZm H$mhr _`m©Xm nS>VmV. edm` mfo¿`m


A^_mZm~‘bMr Amodr nmhbr Var ho bjmV oVo,

"_mPm _amR>mM ~mobw H$dVHo$ ü&n[a A_•VmVo hr n°Om qOHo$ ü&Eogr Ajao agHo$ ü& _oidrZ ü&'

`mV AjamßMm H$_ ~Xbbm Amho. H$mhr e„X J•hrV YaboAmhoV.

J⁄JßW

_hmZw mßdm¿`m J⁄JßWmV _mÃ Ï`dhmamVrb _amR>r mfm‡À``mg oVo, Imbg`m¿`m YmS>rZßVa d Voam emImß_‹ o nßWd^mJbm JoÎ`mZßVa _hmZw md gmhÀ` gmßHo$VH$ bfl`mß_‹ o~’ Pmbo. 20 Ï`m eVH$m¿`m Amaß^r H$mobVo, ZoZo, hf,‡`moiH$a, Vwinwio d R>m `mMo lr. d. b. ^mdo `mgmhÀ`gßemoYH$m ßZr `m bfl`mßMm emoY bmdbm d hogmhÀ`^mßS>ma gdm™gmR>r Iwbo Pmbo. gH$i, gwßXa, n[a_mßS>Î`,hßg Aem AZoH$ bfl`m gmßHo$VH$ mfoV hmoÀ`m. bnr XodZmJarMhmoVr naßVw deÔ> dUm©gmR>r deÔ> XwgË`m dUm™Mm gßHo$V hmoVm.gVV oUmË`m e„XmßgmR>r H$mhr M›ho hmoVr.

brimM[aÃ "EH$mH$' _Yrb 68 dr brim -

"EHy$ doi Ear hmQdQ>r`m ~rOo H$arV AgV; Vd Âh°goXmoZ OwßPV AgV; VSw>d©`m VS>dr nS>br Ago; _mUwgo_midYmdÈZr nmhmVo AgV; Jmogmdr`m ~rOo H$[aVmß bmoH|$dmarb| : Xod hmo: Z dMm: Z dMm: nwT>m Âh°go OwßPV AgV:Jmogmdr ~rOo Ho$bo: XmohrM WS>H$ _rbm°Z dmogabo hmoVo: JmogmdrXmohrVo AdbmoHw$Z Xmohr_‹ò ~rO| Ho$b|: _J XmohtMm amoIwZdV©bm : EHw$ Eogm ZrJmbm : EHw$ Eogm ZrJmbm : _J bmoH$mgdrÒ_`mo Ombm ü&&'

`m brioV VÀH$mbrZ ^mfoMo AZoH$ Z_wZo XgVmV.hmQ>dQ>r`m (~mOmamV) ho g·_rMo Èn H$arV, AgVr, OwßPVAgVr hr AnyU© yVH$mimMr Èno AmhoV. OwPUo ho _hmamÔ¥>rAn^ßemVrb Èn Amho. VSw>dm`m VSdr ÂhUOo Q>H$amQ>∏$a. _mUygMo AZoH$dMZ _mUygo (_ZwÓ o _Yrb CH$ma ZßVa AH$ma Pmbm)_midX ÂhUOo JÉr Z dMm ÂhUOo OmD$ ZH$m. mV d^∫$sMogd© ‡À``Va oVmVM, edm` À`mAWuMo e„X`moJrhr AmboAmhoV.

AdbmoHw$Zr, dÒ_`mo Ago VÀg_ e„X gmoS>bo Va ~mH$sMoe„X≤ VX≤> d d bmoH$Ï`dhmamVrb AmhoV. ho m mfoMo d°eÓQ>Á.

AmXH$mbmVrb _amR>r dmäàMZm

hm H$WmZmÀ_H$ Z_yZm Amho. gßdmXmÀ_H$hr AZoH$ Z_wZoAmhoV. gwQ>gwQ>rV Ho$db dmä`mßMr aMZm hm H$WZe°brMm deof.naßVw _ldmä`hr oVmV. À`mV EImXo AÏ`` A‹`mˆV AgVo.CXm. "hm Jm VwÂhr AdKo AmboV : S>mßJaoe Z oVM H$ma :'

ÂhUOoM AmXH$mimVrb _amR>r gd© ‡H$maMr dmäàMZmH$a `mg g_W© hmoVr.

AmXH$mimVrb _amR>rMo d°eÓQ>Á -

_hmamÔ¥>r An^ßemV Zgbobo Eo, Amo h° gß w∫$ Òda _amR>rZoZÏ`mZo ÒdrH$mabo. e, f, g ho VrZhr CÓ_o _amR>rZo gßÒH•$VZwgmaKoVbo. f EodOr I Mm dmna dfmo-dImo, nwÈfw - nwÈIw. VX≤ de„XmV F$ EodOr a qH$dm [a V•U-VU, ‡md•f-nmD$g. ` lwVr-BAm-B`m, _mVm-_mAm-_m` ‡gmX-ngmA-ngm`. "i' hoÏ ßOZ _amR>rV Ambo. Vo _amR>rMo CÉma d°eÓQ>Á ~Zbo. H$[aOo,~mobrOo hr "BO' ‡À``mßV Èno, Oo, Omo hr gß~ßYr gd©Zm_oAmXH$mimV EH$H$S>o gwb^rH$aUmMr ‡d•Œmr À`mMdoir VÀg_Zdo gßÒH•$V e„X ÒdrH$ma `mMr ‡d•Œmrhr XgVo. R>gR>erV CÉmaH$a `mH$S>o _amR>rMr ‡d•Œmr XgVo. CXm. H$mhUD$-H$hmUr,nB©g-n°gw, gßP-gmßP, amUD$-amUm.

ÈndMma

gßÒH•$V‡_mUo _amR>rVhr VrZ qbJ AmhoV nUAn ´ßem‡_mUo XmoZ dMZo (EH$dMZ d AZoH$dMZ) AmhoV.AH$mam›VmnmgyZ Am°H$mam›Vmn`™V Zm_Èno AmhoV. EoH$mam›V(Xbd°, OrdZ° B.) Am°H$mam›V (AZw^m°, Jm°, JmT>m°) hoAmXH$mbrZ _amR>rMo d°eÓQ>Á. ¤Vr`m d MVwWuMo n´À``gmaIoM AmhoV. MVwWu, f>r, g·_r mVrb d^∫$s®gmR>r "Am'hm ‡À`` g_mZÀdmZo oVmo ho `m _amR>rMo doJionU. Eo, B hoV•Vr oMo g-MVwWu, Am° d nßM_r, Mm-f>r Am-g·_r Mo ‡À`ÀmT>iVmV. n´À`` bmJVmZm _yi e„XmMo gm_m›`Èn hmoVo. hoAmXH$mimVrb _amR>rMo doJionU Oo dV©_mZ _amR>rVhrAmT>iVo. ‡À ß m~amo~a e„X`moJtMm dmna ho _amR>rMo AmUIrEH$ d°eÓQ>Á AmXH$mimnmgyZ XgVo.

V•Vr ogmR>r-dU, H$am°Zr, H$adr, MVwWugmR>r - bmJ,


Vd, nmg. nßM_rgmR>r - nmgm°Z, hmoD$Zr, nmgmd H$S>m°Z.g·_rgmR>r-^rßVar, AmVw, _mPm[a, R>mB `m‡_mUo d^q∫$‡À``mßMr OmJm e„X`moJr AÏ``mßZr KoVbr. AmYr¿`m mfH$naßnaonjm _amR>rZo hm bjUr` ~Xb Ho$bm. H$mbdmMH$ dAW©dmMH$ AZoH$ Amª>ÁmVo `mH$mimV XgVmV.dV©_mZH$mimMr ~°go. gmßKo, AmBH$mg, AmhmV, B. wVH$mimMrb Amª`mV (MmdwßS>am o H$ad`bo) BWnmgyZ [aVr yVH$mi ZmB©,H$ar. ^dÓ`H$mi-H$arZ, XmdrZ gmßKoZ, XoIgrb, arJob B.ghmÊ`, gß w∫$ d ‡`moOH$ YmVyMr AZoH$ CXm. XgVmV.

AW©dMma

AW©dÒVma d AW©gßH$moM ho Xmo›hr ‡H$ma AmT>iyZ oVmV.CXm. AdÒWm - gßÒH•$V AW© pÒWVr nU AmXH$mimV AdÒWmMmAW© Vi_i hyahˇa Agm XgVmo. dmgZm = dH$ma naßVw oWo"doJio _V' `mAWu oVmo. _ËhmQ> gmYm, gmonm, gai `mAWubwJS>o = dÛ.

H$mZS>rVrb ZmVodmMH$ e„X _amR>rV doJ˘`m AWu Ambo.CXm. H$fiS>_‹ o AmB© = AmOr _amR>rV OZZr. H$fiS>_‹ o VmB©= _mVm _amR>rV ^JZr.

e„XgßJh

AmX_amR>rVrb e„XgßJ´hmV d°MÕ`nyU©Vm Amho.An ´ßemnmgyZ e„X V`ma hmoVmZm _amR>rZo gßÒH•$VrH$aUmH$S>oH$b XmIdbm. À`m_wio hOmamo gßÒH•$V e„X Y_©, VŒdkmZ,ZrVdMma, ^∫$_mJ© B. e„X Ogo¿`m Vgo _amR>rV Ambo.X°ZßXZ OrdZÏ`dhmamV _mÃ VX≤ d e„XmßMo dM©Òd hmoVo. ‡mH•$V- An ´ßemVrb Èno d À`mV ~Xb Pmbobr Ènohr XgVmV.

An ´ßemVrb Èno :- AßYma, Amob, Ka, VU, _mUyg,_ohU.

~Xb Pmbobr Èno :- AmUm-AmU, C h-C›h, Iß~-Imß~, MmoÇm-MmoO, Orhm-Or^, nB©Çm-n°O, goÇmm-goO.

Xoer e„X :- Xoer e„X hm Ogm ^mfmdmMH$ Vgm Vmo_yi¿`m amhdmemßMm `m AWuhr hmoVmo. ¡`mßMo _yi gßÒH•$VmVXmIdVm `oV Zmhr. A›`Ã emoYmdo bmJVo. CXm. AmamoJUo(^moOZ H$aUo) COJam (OmJaU) AmoiJ (godm) H$mnS>r(`mÃoH$È) ImS> (XmT>r) KmJam (AmoT>Ur) MIb (H$X©_) nmoQ>(CXa) amßOU (KQ>) dm[aH$ (ZmnV) hmoS> (n°O) ho e„X AmYr

dgmhV Ho$boÎ`m AmXdmgr bmoH$mß¿`m mfoVyZ Ambo AgmdoV.H$mhtMo ZmVo V_i, VobJy H$fiS> `m –dS> ^mfoer Agmdo.

H$fiS> e„X :- _hmamÔ¥>mVrb XrK©H$mbrZ H$fiS>amOdQ>t_wio VgoM m°JmobH$ d gmßÒH•$VH$ OdiH$s_wio AZoH$H$fiS> e„X AmXH$mbrZ _amR>rV H$m`_Mo Q>Hy$Z amhbobo VaH$mhr Ho$di À`m H$mimnwaVo ‡MmamV Agbobo XgVmV.

H$m`_Mo Q>Hy$Z amhbobo H$fiS> e„X :- Jm|Yi (J‘br)~mo mQ>m (~mo„~mQ>) JwßS> (JwßS>r, JwßS>mim B.) AS>H$Œmm (AS>H$s,H$sZw) Md (Mdr) _waHwß$S>r (_wa∏y$) nwaUnmoir (h˛aUh˛itJo)

AmXH$mimnwaVo ‡MmamV Agbobo H$fiS> e„X :- gwVmbo(^modVmbr) ^mßJma (gmoZo) ~|di (nmqR>~m) _mZ (JmoÔ>) hS>nw(godH$) AßXw (nm`mVbr gmIir) ~moS>r (S>~Ho$)

_wª` ÂhUOo "i' ho Ï ßOZ AmU _yY©›` Ï ßOZmß_wioCÉmaUmV `oUmam IUIUrVnUm hm _amR>rdarb H$fiS>Mmn[aUm_ hmo . AÈdma (_•Xy) gmaIo VobJy e„X qH$dm nby(nÑB©) gmaIo H$mhr Vm_i e„Xhr _amR>rV `m H$mimVAmT>iVmV.

\$mguMm ‡doe :- ZemU ÂhUOo M›h gmaIm EImXXwgam \$mgu e„X AmXH$mimV XgVmo. AÑmC‘rZ IbOr¿`mAmH$_UmZßVa H$mhr dfm™Zr ÂhUOo 14 Ï`m eVH$m¿`m _‹`mZßVa\$mgu e„XmßMo ‡m~Î` XgyZ oVo.

_‹`H$mbrZ _amR>r B.g. 1350 Vo 1850 -

H$moard boI, J⁄ n⁄ JßW, EoVhmgrH$ nÃÏ`dhma `mgmYZmß¿`m AmYmao m H$mbIßS>mMm mfH$ A‰`mg H$aVm oVmo.bIV gmhÀ` Cnb„Y AgÎ`mZo H$moard boImMo _hŒd `mH$mimV Cabo Zmhr. naßVw bIV gmhÀ`m¿`m _yi ‡Vr Cnb„YZmhrV, ÂhUyZ Z∏$b ‡Vtda g_mYmZ _mZmdo bmJVo. Oo J⁄Cnb„Y Amho Vo _moS>r bnrV. _moS>r bnr¿`m AZoH$ _moS>UrAmhoV. À`m_wio À`mV Xw~mYVm oVo. À`m_wio _‹` wJrZ _amR>r¿`m^mfH$ A‰`mgmV AS>MUr oVmV.

_‹``wJmMo CnH$mbIßS> - ~hm_Zr H$mbrZ,(14,15,16 do eVH$) edH$mbrZ (17 do eVH$) noedoH$mi (18 do eVH$) Ago H$mbIßS> naßnao ‡_mUo _mZbo OmVmV.nU ^mfH$—ÓQ>Ám À`mV \$ma V\$mdV Zmhr. _‹`H$mimVrb‡_wI ^mfH$ KQ>Zm - gd©gm_m›`mß¿`m _amR>r ^mfoMo Xe©Z


H$m›hmonmÃm, EH$ZmWr mÈS>o, VwH$mam_ d emhra mß¿`m boIZmVyZhmoVo. ghdVu ^mfmßMm _amR>rer gß~ßY - _hmamÔ¥>m¿`m Odinmg ~mobÎ`m OmUmË`m JwOamWr, qhXr, VobJw, H$fiS> mfH$mßer^mfH$mßMm gß~ßY _amR>r hmoVm. _amR>r¿`m ~mobrda À`mMm H$mhrEH$ n[aUm_ Pmbm. nU VmÀH$mbrZ ~mobtMo Z_wZo H$mhr AndmXdJiVm \$mago AmT>iV Zmhr. H$maU JmßWH$ dmL≤>_` g_mOm¿`mdeÔ> ÒVamVyZM Z_m©U Pmbo.

wamonAZmßMr _amR>r - 15 Ï`m eVH$mV nmoVw©JrO, S>M\¢$M `m wamonAZmßer _hmamÔ¥>mMm ‡W_M gß~ßY Ambm. \$mXaÒQ>r\$›g nmgyZ AZoH$ gmhÀ`H$mß¿`m naßnam d À`mß¿`m deÔ>_amR>rMm n[aM` `m H$mimV hmoVmo. AZoH$ ºÒVr e„XmßMr ^a_amR>rV nS>br.

\$mgu _amR>r e„X - _‹`H$mbrZ _amR>rMo Èn doJioXgVo, À`mMo _wª` H$maU ÂhUOo \$mguMm n[aUm_ hmo . gVVnmM eVHo$ hm n[aUm_ hmoV hmoVm. Y_©, VÀdkmZ mda gßÒH•$VMoAmYä` amhbo. naßVw amOH$maU, g_mOH$maU, AW©H$maU mda\$mguMm ‡MßS> ‡^md nS>bm. edmOr _hmamOmßZr amOÏ`dhmaH$moe H$adyZ KoVbm d \$mguMo dM©Òd PwJma `mMm ‡`ÀZ Ho$bm.

\$mguMm _amR>rda n[aUm_ hmoVmZm _amR>rZo Amnbo H$mhrdoJionUhr H$m`_ amIbo. eoI _hß_XmX _wÒbr_ gßVmßZrhr_amR>rV gmhÀ`Z_©Vr Ho$br.

\$magrMo _amR>rH$aU - "Am' ZßVa¿`m "A' Mm "`' hmoUo-H$mAdm-H$m`Xm-"Am' ZßVa¿`m "A' H$mhr doim JiVmon°XmAg - n°Xmg.

"Am' Mm "Am`' qH$dm "AmB©' d Am Xm - dm`Xm,~mJmAV - ~mJmB©V.

"Am' Mm "A'- Am~w-A~w, MmbmI-MbmI, AmeH$- "AmeH$' "B `m' Mo "`m' qH$dm "Am' V ÈnmßVa -O`mXm-¡`mXm, n`mbm-fl`mbm, "B' Mm "E'-BhgmZ- EhgmZ, "C' Mm "Amo'- Vwh_V - Vmoh_V, _wha©_-_moha_. Òda^∫$s-H$–-H$Xa, Z_©-Za_ \$H´$-\$H$a.

¤Œm Zmhrgo hmoUo - H$Ïdmbr-H$dmbr, VmbwH$m - VmbwH$m¤Œm oUo - Aäb-A∏$b, BÃ - AŒma, AÒb - AÒgb

dU©dn ©_ - A_mZV-AZm_V, Hw$flb-Hw$bwn-I~a-~Ia XßVVmbÏ` Ï ßOZo \$mgu d –mdS>r ^mfmß¿`m ‡^mdmZo

_amR>rV Ambr. (Vo AmMm, H$[aOo, ~mobOo, _mPm)

\$magrMm Ï`mH$aUH$ n[aUm_ - CÉma—ÓQ>Ám Ogm\$magrMm n[aUm_ Pmbm Vgm Ï`mH$aU—ÓQ>Ámhr Pmbm. \$mguAZoH$ dMZr Zm_o _amR>rV EH$dMZr oVmV. CXm. AI~ma,Agm_r, Hw$Z©gmV. AmYr deoÓ` ZßVa deofU H´$_ Ambm -_mho OyZ, eha nwUo, YS>m nhbm, gß w∫$ H´$`mnX `moO `mMrn’V Ambr. Vm~≤XmXZ Vmd XoUo. H$_©Ur H´$`mnX g’ hmoUo -H$Œmb hmoUo.

\$mgu e„XmßnmgyZ H$mhr H´$`mnXo ~Zbr - YmVynmgyZ -JwOaUo, ZmdmOUo Zm_mnmgyZ - IM©Zo, ~XbUo deofUmnmgyZ- Za_Uo gwImdUo.

\$magrH$Sy>Z _amR>rZo AZoH$ AÏ` o ÒdrH$mabr.

H´$.d. AÏ`` - AIoa, Img, AO~mV, ~ÎHw$b.

e„X `moJr - IoarO, ImVa, ~Ja XoIrb B.

Ho$db ‡`moJr - I~aXma, Im_moe, em„~mg, dmhdm !

gß w∫$ e„X`moJr - ZmP© XrH≤$, - ZOrH$

Aa~r \$mgu dÈZ hOmamo CngJ©Y[Q>V e„X _amR>rVAmbo.

CXm. ~mß, ~o (~oH$m`Xm), ~Z (~ZVH$ma), J°a (J°agmo )ha (haamoO) Xa (Xa_Ob) B.

Aa~r \$mgu ‡À``KQ>V e„Xgßª`m - \$ma _moR>r Amho.

CXm. ImZm (H$maImZm) Jr (ImZJr) Xma (^mbXma-MmonXma) dmZ (Zer~dmZ) Zdrg (M«>rZdg = MQ>Urg,\$S>Urg)

_amR>r e„XgßJhmb`mVrb n[adV©Z - am¡`emgZ, w’,nmoemI, MmbrarVr, h˛‘o, Aa~r VwH$s©VyZ ‡W_ \$magrV d ZßVa_amR>rV Ambo.

Aa~r e„X - B_maV, IO© (IM©-Ï``) JZr_(KZr_) Odmhra, Ofig, VJmXm (VH$mPm) \$H$sa, _m_bm,(_wAm_bm) h˛Oya, h˛‘m (ChXm).

\$mgu e„X - AmO© d (AmP©y) Im~ßX, Iwem_V, CÒVdmarVZIm) nmJm, ~obJm_, _oh_mZr, eboXma gaXma (gXra-CÉ)


XOm©Mm gw_ma (ew_ma)

VwH$m eH$ - EÎJma (BÎKma - MT>mB© hÑm) ImoV JmdMmAYH$mar

^fi ^mfH$ - OmoS> e„XmßZr w∫$ e„X KQ>Zm -

nyd©nX _amR>r - C⁄moJYßXm, d°⁄hH$s_, arVr[admO,doidIV, YZXm°bV, _odm_R>mB© dmÒVdH$ \$mgu hr Am`©^maVr` mfmHw$imVrbM mfm Amho, nU Am≤~r gmaª`m go_oQ>H$- Hw$bmVrb mfoer X•T> gß~ßY AmÎ`mZo \$magrMo ÒdÈn ~Xbbo.\$magr hr OoÀ`mßMr ^mfm ÂhUyZ _hmamÔ¥>mV dmdabr d V¿`m_amR>rda XrK©H$mi n[aUm_ Pmbm. _amR>r ´Ô> Z hmoVm g_•’MPmbr.

gßÒH•$VrH$aU - CÉma, Ï`mH$aU e„XgßJ´h `mdagßÒH•$VMm ‡^md gVV XgVmo.

amOÏ`dhmaH$moe - edmOr_hmamOmßZr aKwZmW nßV hU_ßVo`mßMo H$adr H$ÈZ KoVbm ho gßÒH•$Vr H$aUmMoM CXmhaZU Amho.

amOÏ`dhmamMm gßX^m©V \$magr e„XmßMr OmJm gßÒH•$Ve„XmßZr ø`mdr hmM hoVy `m _mJo hmoVm CXm. boIH$ (X·aXma),A_`m©Xm (~oAX~r), eÛmJma(OamVImZm), aÀZembm(Odmha ImZm) Ago gm_m›ÒZgwb^ - e„X H$moeH$À`m©Zo`moObo, naßVw _X–d (H°$\$) AÌddmh (~maJra) bmohnme(Hw$byn) dmXn•¿N>m (gdmb) Xw:IemgZ (g∫$s) Ago e„X`moOyZhr Vo Ï`dhmamV ‡MmamV Ambo ZmhrV.

_amR>rMo Xa~mar eÔ>mMmamMo diU - _wPy_Xma, MQ>Urg,\$S>Urg `mßZr Amª`mZ g—e ~Iar bhÎ`m, nÃÏ`dhmagmß mibm (AmkmnÃ, mD$gmho~mßMr ~adm, g^mgXr ~Ia B.)`m_wio _amR>rbm Xa~mar diU Ambo. gß_l dmäàMZo_wio _amR>r^maXÒV Pmbr.

_‹`_amR>rMr ‡_wI d°eÔ> o -

‹dZ‡H$`m - dV©_mZ _amR>rVrb gd© ÒdaÒdZ_ (Òda,Ï ßOZo) _‹` _amR>rV XgVmV. "F$' hm ÒdZ_ AdH•$V ÒdÈnmVVÀg_ e„XmV XgVmo. VX≤>^d e„XmV À`mMo ÒdZ_mßVaU hmoVo.- F$ - A - V•U - VU F$ - B - e•ßJ - qeJ, Om_mV• - OmdmB©F$ Mm "b' "a' hmoUo - V•U - ÃwU, OmJ•V - OmJ´V AdH•$Vamhbobo ÒdaÒdZ_ - Amdod (Ad`d) VwiUm (VwbZm) B.dH•$V Pmbobo - gmo am (ghmoXa) bmO - bÇmm, VrW (VWr)

_•À` (_•À w) Cnm›À` Òda ~XbUo - CÀgmd (CÀgd) Hw$_ar(Hw$_mar) AdMQ> (AdMV) AßOwb (AßObr) ZmamÙo(ZmamÙr) Cnm›À`nyd© Òda dH•$V hmoUo - Z hmoUo Xmo›hr ‡d•ŒmrXgVmV. AdH•$V - AmoR> (AmoÓR>Á$) AmMdU (AmM_Z),CßM (CÉ) dH•$V - H$_moXZr (Hw$_wXZr) gdmgrU(gwdmgUr) "`' lwVr - _m` (_mV•) Om`r (OmB©) d lwVr nmd(nmX).

"`' bmon - H$VoH$ (H$À oH$) A›dmB© (A›`m`)

Òdagß moJ - Z°Z (ZÌZ) V°-(VB) n°g (nB©g) Mm°H$ -MS>∏$.

Òdagßjon - Mma (MÀdma) nma (‡H$ma)

_hm‡mUÀd - hmoQ> (AmoR>) Wa (Va) \$mg (nme)

_hm‡mUÀdbmon - O_rZ (P_rZ) ~mOma (~mPma)~hI ( °ad)

_yY©›`rH$aU - JmT>d (JX© ) JmR> (JßWm) S>ßI (Xße)T>dim (Ydb) gß w∫$ Ï ßOZmßMo gwb^rH$aU - dmb^ (dÑ^)~wYr (~w’r) CYQ> (C’Q>) H$mOb (H$Çmb) _moVr (_m°ŒmH$)B.

Òda^∫$s - AßÃmi (AßVami) Am¿_Z (AmM_Z) B.

g_mZdU© bmon - _wXV (_wXV) _moha_ (_wha©_) _ËhmÔ>(_hmamÔ¥>) Zm_mßMr Èno AmX__amR>rV CH$mam›V AmoH$mam›V hmoVrVr _‹`_amR>rV ‡m_wª`mZo AH$mam›V Pmbr. AmXH$mbrZ_amR>rMr ‹dZ‡H$`m _‹`_amR>rV Q>Hy$Z amhbr d À`mV H$mhrZÏ`m JmoÔ>tMr â nS>br.

Èn‡H´$`m - _‹`_amR>rV Zm_mX e„XmßMr ‡À``r,AY©‡À``r, e„X`moJr w∫$, Aer 3 hr ‡H$mamMr Èno XgVmV.deoÓ`m‡_mUo deofUmMohr, d^∫$s ‡À`` w∫$ Èn R>od `mMrAmXH$mbmVrb ‡d•Œmr _‹`H$mbmZ CŒmamoŒma H$_r hmoV JobrdeofUmMo gm_m›`Èn H$a `mMr ‡d•Œmr dmT>rg bmJbr.e„X`moJr o `mMr ‡d•Œmr dmT>rg bmJbr. AßVar, Cnar, H$S>o,H$S>rb, H$ÈZr, nmgmoZ AmÂhr, _Yo _mJo, _wio gmR>r hˇZ B.

H´$`mÈno - gßÒH•$V YmVydÈZ - OnUo, nwOUo, hf©Uo B©.

‡mH•$V YmVydÈZ - OmUUo, MT>Uo, MmoaUo.


Zm_YmVydÈZ - dQ>miUo, Ym_oOUo, gwImdUo.

\$magr H´$`mdmMH$mdÈZ - ZmdmOUo, JwOaUo, ~OmdUo.

ZmXmZwH$mar - H$b~bUo, JS>JS>Uo.

Amª`mV Ï`dÒWm - dV©_mZ _amR>r‡_mUo nU H$mhrR>H$mUr doJionU. arVr yV d arVrdV©_mZ Xmo›hrZm - ~°go, ~mobo,ÂhUo. BH$mam›VÍ$noo - Zamonr Anu, gmßKmo, nmhmo, ZmMmo AerÈno _‹` _amR>rV XgVmV Or dV©_mZ _amR>rV XgV ZmhrV.EHß$XarZo AmX _amR>r d dV©_mZ _amR>r `mVrb _Ybm Q>flnm_‹` _amR>r¿`m Amª`mV Ï`dÒWoV XgVmo. H•$X›VmMm Cn`moJ

oWo dmT>rg bmJbm - V, Vm, Zm, Amdm B. "BO' ‡À``mßV Èno\$∫$ n⁄mV XgVmV. (n[agOo, Z_Oo, gmßS>bo) dV©_mZ_amR>rV ÂhUOo nmhOo m XmoZ CnmVM "BO' Mo AmpÒVŒd Q>Hy$ZAmho. (Vohr AW© ~XbyZ)

H´$ oMo AH$aUÈn - Ag, hmo, `m YmVy¿`m ZH$mamÀ_H$- ÈnmMr ghmÊ`H$ ÂhUyZ, moOZm gwÈ Pmbr CXm. ZoXOo AmX_amR>r Mo XoD$ Z o Ago Èn _‹` _amR>rV ÈT> Pmbo. qH$dm "Z' hoH´$`mnX nydu R>odyZ - Z OS>o, Z Mbo B.

(dV©_mZ _amRrV \$∫$ Zgo, Z o, ZÏho `mV À`mMr N>Q>mCabr Amho).

"Zm A›d` `moOyZ gmßJoZm, EoHo$Zm, hr Èno V›hr H$mirXgVmV.

dmä`dMma - _‹` _amR>rV J⁄ dmL≤>_` CŒma H$mimVrb~IarV, EoV- H$mJXnÃmV XgVo. WmoS>m AßXmO EH$ZmW H$mimVAO©XÒV B. ‡H$aUmßdÈZ òVmo. gß`w∫$ d _l `m ‡H$maMrdmäàMZm AmT>iVo.

H$V• ©nX, H$_©nX, H´$`mnX A‹`mhV R>odyZ dmäòbh `mMr ‡d•Œmr XgVo. Ho$di ZyVZ g•Ô>rM Z_m©U Ho$br(A‹`mhV-H$V•©nX-edmOr _hmamO AmkmnÃ)

"VwÂhrhr gmßJmdo H$iob Vgo' (A‹`mhV-H$_©nX-bmoH$mg) nXH$_m¿`m ~m~VrV ÒdmVßÕ`-"VoUoH$ÈZ Amnbr arV

w’mMm gmoSy>Z dZmßMr arV Y[abr ' (ZmZm \$S>Urg AmÀ_d•Œm)

_‹` _amR>rMm e„XgßJ´h - ddY ‡H$ma - gßÒH•$V,VÀg_, VX≤ d, na^mfmVrb Aa~r \$mgu_wio e„XgßJh dmT>bmd H$mhr ‡_mUmV ~Xbbm (`mnydu dMma Ho$bobm Amho).

ZÏ`mZo \$mago H$fiS> e„X Ambo ZmhrV hmoVo Vo Q>Hy$Zamhbo. EHß$X[aZo AmXH$mbrZ d Adm©MrZ _amR>rbm OmoS>UmamXwdm _‹`H$mbrZ _amR>rV XgyZ oVmo.

_‹`_amR>rMo H$mhr Z_yZo - Mm| m H$drMo CXmhaU - (B.g. 1400 ¿`m Amgnmg)

"H°$gr bmd `mMr amgr ü& Vr oWo nmh˛Zw Cf©er &H°$gm oH$M Vmngw ü& nqh Z Q>ioM ü&&VWoMr nmh˛Zr Ènaofm ü& H$mBgr`m gwaZm oH$m ü&VbmoŒm_m Z ndo gar & ZÏhoM _moZH$m ü&&1ü&&'.

gßV EH$ZmWmßMo AO©XÒV - B.g. 1557 ZßVa "AO©XmÒV,AO©Xma ~ßXJr ~ßXoZdmO AboHß$ gbm_ gmho~mßMo godogr, ~ßXoearamH$ma OrdmOr eoIXma ~wYmOr H$maHy$Z ‡JUo earamdmXH$Ño H$m`mnwar gaH$ma gmho~mßMr AmVm KoD$Z Òdma Pmbmo Vo‡_mUo _OHw$ar oD$Z gaH$ma H$m_ H$amd`mg bmJbo.'

edmOr _hmamOmßMo Ï ßH$moOrg nÃ (1 _mM© 1668).

lr _hmXod Hw$bÒdm_Zr

""lr ghÛm w MaßOrd AIßS>V b˙_r AbßH•$V amOl`mdamOV amO_m›` amOolr oH$moOr amOo ‡V.

amOlr edmOramOo, Amerdm©X.

oWrb jo_ OmUmoZ ÒdH$s` Hw$eb boIZ Ho$bo nmhOo.Cnar H°$bmgdmgr gmho~mßZr H°$bmgdmg Ho$bm. À`mg AmOrVoam df Ombr. _hmamOmßMo n°Ho$ d OS>md hŒmr d KmoS>o d _wbwIAdKohr amOolr aKwZmWnßVr VwÂhmbm am¡`mda ~°gdyZ gßnyU© am¡`Vw_¿`m hmVr Xbo. Eoe`mg Am_Mm AYm© dmQ>m Voam df VwÂhrMImXbm, AmÂhr Oar VwÂhmOdir _mJmdo Va ~h˛V Xya hmoVmo.~Ë`m ~mobo VwÂhr XoUma ZÏhmß, ÂhUyZ Voam df g~war Ho$br.

(M_mOr AflnmZo ~´Âho–Òdm_rg bhbobo nÃ - (13_| 1739).

""....... `m_mJo w’o ~hˇV Pmbr - naßVw `m bT>mB©gOmoS>mM Zmhr. gd© Òdm_tMm Amerdm©X bmoH$ ~wÈO gmoS>rZmVgoOmhbo. Òdm_rMm XßS>H$ ‡hmao H$ÈZ \$aßJr Y_©¤oÔ>o ~h©_V hmoD$ZAÔ>_mg ‡ham Xdgmg H°$bmg Ambo. H$m°b KoVbm AmR>XdgmV H$m~bm gw’m PmSy>Z OmVm°go H$ama Ho$bo, `mOda _maVhHw$~ Ho$bm.''


Adm©MrZ H$mimVrb _amR>r -

B. g. 1818 _‹ o noedmB© ~wS>mbr. BßJÓr Aß_b gwÈPmbm. À`mZßVaMr 20-25 df pÒWÀ ßVamMr hmoVr `m H$mimVPnmQ>ÁmZo ~Xb Pmbo. BßJÓmß¿`m amOdQ>rZo gd©Òneu Ago"AmYwZH$VoMo `wJ gwÈ Pmbo. ‡emgZ ›`m``ßÃUm, ejU,Z`V-H$mbH$mßMm ‡maß , ^mm°VH$ gmYZmßMr dmT>, d _wª`V:Ow›`m g_OwVtZm d ÈT>rZm ~gUmao hmXao Ago `m n[adV©ZmMoÒdÈn hmoVo. ßÃ wJ gwÈ Pmbo hmoVo. gZmVZr d•Œmr, AmYwZH$d•Œmr `mVrb ~m°’H$ gßKf© gwÈ Pmbm. H$m`⁄m_wio nmaVßÕ`mVhrbmoH$mßZm hm`go dmQ>bo. amOH$s` gm_mOH$ AmW©H$, gmßÒH•$VH$,Ym_©H$ e°jUH$ pÒWÀ`ßVam~am o~a PmboÎ`m ^mfH$pÒWÀ ßVamMm, n[adV©ZmMm oWo dMma H$aUo AnojV Amho.

BßJÓrMm n[aM` - BßJÓrgmaª`m wamonAZ ^mfoMmgß~ßY AmÎ`mZo _amR>rda OmUd `mgmaIm n[aUm_ Pmbm.CŒmanoedmB©VM H$mhr BßJÓr e„X dmnamV oD$ bmJbo hmoVo naßVwÀ`mMo CÉma Zo_Ho$nUmZo hmoV ZÏhVo. CXm. JmaXr (JmS>©) gmoOra(gmoÎOa) AmbnÔ>Z (Eb\$›gQ>Z) hr Èno nÃÏ`dhma d~IarVyZ XgVmV. ZßVa¿`m H$mimVhr AejrV, AmÎnejV_mUgßmH$Sy>Z MwH$sMo CÉma hmoV amhbo. Q>ogZ (ÒQ>oeZ) hmnrg(Am∞\$sg) BpÒnVi (hm∞pÒnQ>b) noeb (Ònoeb) Jbmg(Ωbmg)

_amR>r‡_mUo maVmVrb gd© mfmV hm ‡H$ma XgyZ oVmo.

gmd©ÃH$ ejUmMm n[aUm_ - B. g. 1822 _‹ o_wß~B© nw `mV d BVahr BßJOr emim gwÈ PmÎ`m. n’Vera ejUgwÈ Pmbo 1857 bm nhbr _∞Q¥>rH$Mr narjm KoVbr Jobr. 1861nmgyZ nXdrYamßMm Zdm dJ© ApÒVÀdmV Ambm. ejUmMr g_mZgmd©ÃH$ Ï`dÒWm gwÈ Pmbr Vr XyaJm_r n[aUm_ H$aUmar R>abr.

_w–UmMm n[aUm_ - B. g. 1805 _‹ o H$bH$À`mOdilram_nyabm nhbm N>mnImZm-gwÈ Pmbm. amo_Z bnrVrb_w–Um‡_mUo _amR>rgmaª`m XodZmJarVrb _w–U Xoer mfmV gwÈPmbo. B. g. 1816 _‹ò _amR>rV nhbo nwÒVH$ "_∞œ`y'Moey dV©_mZ ? N>mnbo Jobo AWm©V ‡maß r _moS>r hrM _amR>rMrbnr Amho. Aer gßH$ÎnZm ÈT> AgÎ`m_wio nhbr H$mhr nwÒVHo$_moS>rVyZ N>mnbr Jobr, nU bdH$a XodZmJar qH$dm ~mi~moYbnrMm _w–UmgmR>r ÒdrH$ma Pmbm.

_amR>r Z`VH$mbHo$ gwÈ Pmbr, À`mV X°ZXZ OrdZ Zdr

am¡`n’Vr, Zdo emoY, JßW `mßMr _mhVr _iy bmJbr. dZ`VH$mbHo$ h o _hŒdmMo E oVhmgH$ gmYZ ~Zbo~mobr^mfonojm, boIZm¿`m ^mfobm _hÀd oV Jobo. boIZmVZpÌMVnUm Ambm.

boIZZ`_ d ejU ImVo - "B© H$amMo boIZ XrK©d "C' H$mamMo ËhÒd H$am`Mo Agm gßHo$V hmoVm. H´$`mnXmßMrÈno hH$ma w∫$ (XÎho) e EodOr g Mm dmna "`' H$mar Èno( oH$am) gßjon Èno "gmoü& ÂhUOo gmho~ _mü& ÂhUOo _OHy$a B.‡H$ma ÈT> hmoVo. _oOa H±$S>rZo boIZmMo Z`_ Ho$bo (1847 Vo77) Vo —T> Pmbo.

‡_mU _amR>rMm ÒdrH$ma - H$moH$Ur diUmMr Èno (JobmZ≤nmhboZr B.) H∞$S>rZo A_m›` Ho$br. Jobm, nmhbo B. Èno ÈT>Ho$br. Om`mV Eo Mr Omd`mg B. ÈnmßMm AmJ´h Yabm. OmÀ oH$aÀ o hr Èno ZmH$mÈZ OmVo H$aVo hr Èno ÒdrH$mabr XmIdbr~ardbo hr ‡`moOH$ Èno A_m›` H$ÈZ XmIdbo ~gdbo hr Èno`moΩ` R>adbr.

_oOa H±$S>rZo AYH$manXm¿`m _amR>r mfobm diU Xbo.AWm©V _amR>rZo gd©M Z`_ _mZbo Ago Zmhr. Â`m Àdm hr H±$S>rZoR>adyZ Xbobr Èno _amR>r ^mfH$mßZr Z ÒdrH$maVm _r Vy hr ÈnoKoVbr. `mZo, `mbm hr Èno H±$S>rZo MwH$sMr R>adbr. _amR>rZo_mÃ ¯mZo, ¯mbm `m ~amo~a `mZo, `mbm hr Ènohr ÒdrH$mabr."B' Mm "Bbm' hr Èno H±$S>rZo ZmH$mabr _amR>r ^mfH$mßZmhr"hMm', "hbm' hr À`mZo gmßJVbobr ÈnoM ÒdrH$mabr.H$amdog, ~mobmdog, JobmV, Jobrg hr Èno (g.Z.) H±$S>rZoZmH$mabr Var Vr oWo H$m`_ amhbr. gßH$[aV n´ moJ À`mbmA_m›` hmoVm nU _amR>rZo Vmo ÒdrH$mabm CXm: "OhmßJaZo,ZwaOhmZbm Amnbr _wª` amUr ZdS>br'. _amR>rZo H$mhr ~XbÒdrH$mabo H$mhr VgoM R>odbo. naßVw _oOa H±$S>rZo OmU `mEdT>opÒWÀ ßVa _amR>r ^mfoV KS>dbo.

BßJÓr¿`m ‡^mdmMo ÒdÈn

CÉmaU - BßJOmßZr AmUboÎ`m ZÏ`m gßH$ÎnZm Zdo df``m_wio hOmamo BßJOr e„X _amR>rV Amho. A∞, Am∞ m BßJOr ÒdamßZr

w∫$ e„XmßMo CÉma _amR>rMo _yi CÉmaUmbm Odi OmUmaoÒdrH$mabo.

CXm. ~∞ßH$ („`mßH$) _∞M (Â`mM), hm∞Q>ob (hmQ>ob)


H$mhr CÉma _amR>r ^mfH$mßZr _wim‡_mUo Ho$bo Zmhr.

~mQ>br (~m∞Q>b) nmH$sQ> (nm∞Ho$Q>)

dmH≤$‡Mma - dmäàMZm - m ÒVamda hr BßJOrMm ‡^mdnS>bm.

gwdU©gßYr (Golden chance) CÉmßH$ _moS>Uo (Tobreak the record) BßJÓrVbm n∞gd ÏhmB©gMm ‡^md_amR>rda hr nS>bm. H$V•nXmMm CÑoI ZgÎ`mZo Ï`dhmamVAZoH$Xm Aer dmäàMZm gmo rMr R>aVo. CXm. "Ago ~mobboOmVo', Ago nmh `mV oVo. B. ZdrZ H$_©Ur ‡`moJ _amR>rVBßJÓr_wio ÈT> Pmbm. CXm. À`m¿`mH$Sy>Z eH$ma Ho$br OmVo._l dmä`mV AmYr ‡YmZ dmä` d ZßVa Jm°U dmä` oD$ bmJbo.CXm. À`mZo H$~yb Ho$bo H$s À`m¿`m hmVyZ nwÓH$i MwH$m PmÎ`mAgo À`mZo H$~wb Ho$bo. Oa-Va, OoÏhm, VoÏhm, ÂhUyZ B.C^`m›d`r AdÊ`mßßZr w∫$ bmß~bMH$ OmoS> dmä` bh `mMr‡d•Œmr BßJÓr_wio ÈT> Pmbr. EHy$UM AmYwZH$ H$mimVrbÏ`m_lVm, JwßVmJwßV mfo¿`m aMZoV hr Ambr. BßJOrVyZ _amR>rVAmbobo ~aoM e„X ÈT> Pmbo. deofV: ¡`m e„XmßZm _amR>r‡_mUoqbJ, dMZ, d^∫$s, `mMo ‡À`` bmJVmV Vo _amR>rM e„XÂhUyZ ÈT> Pmbo. CXm. VH$sQ> - VH$sQ>o, B. nmH$sQ> - nmH$sQ>o,~∞J-~∞Jm B Direct, Indirect Speech - hm BßJÓrdmäàMZoMm EH$ bjUr` deof naßVw _amR>rV direct speechhrM Òdm^mdH$ aMZm Amho. "VwÂhr' ho AZpÌMV gd©Zm_ ÂhUyZdmna `mMr n’V BßJÓr_wio Ambr. CXm. "AmOH$mb OoÏhmVwÂhr ^maVmV ‡dmg H$aVm' B.

_amR>r Ï`mH$aU JßWmßMr naßnam -

BßJOmßZr ÒdV:¿`m gmo rgmR>r H$m hßmoB©Zm _amR>rMr Ï`mH$aUobhˇZ KoVbr dÎ`_ Ho$arZo, _moÎgdW©Zo _amR>r e„XH$moebhbo. 1825 _‹ o KJdo, H´$_dßV d \$S>Ho$ `mßZr XmXmo~mnmßSw>aßJ VI©S>H$a mßZr _amR>rMo Ï`mH$aU bhZ, _moR>o EoVhmgH$H$m © Ho$bo. nwT>o JßJmYa emÛr Q>iH$, H•$ÓUemÛr, JmoS>~mobo,H•$ÓUemÛr MniyUH$a am. ^. JwßOrH$a am. ^. Omoer, _moaoHo$ed Xm_bo, Aer _amR>r Ï`mH$aUH$mamßMr EH$ naßnam Z_m©UPmbr.

^maVr` ^mfm d BßJÓr ^mfm `mßMo _yi ^mfmHw$i EH$MAgbo Var À`mß¿`m dV©_mZ pÒWVrV OmUd `mgmaIo AßVa OS>bo^maVr` mfmßZm YmVw‡YmZ mfm ÂhQ>bo, Va BßJOrbm Zm_‡YmZ

^mfm ÂhUVm oVo. BßJÓrV ~h˛VoH$ Zm_o H´$`mnXo ÂhUyZ dmnaVmoVmV. _amR>rV ‡H$mam nmgyZ ‡H$meZo, Jm|Yi nmgyZ Jm|YiUo

Aer H$mhr H´$`mnXo ~ZdVm oVmV. nU H$moUÀ`mhr Zm_mnmgyZH´$`mnX ~ZdVm oB©bM Ago Zmhr. CXm. CŒma nmgyZ CŒmaUohmoB©b nU ‡ÌZ nmgyZ ‡ÌZUo hmoUma Zmhr. ‡ÌZ H$aUo AgoM¤e„Xr Èn H$amdo bmJob. BßJÓrMm Ogm n[aUm_ _amR>rdaPmbm. Vgm BßJÓr Ï`mH$aUmMm _amR>r d°Ê`mH$aUmß¿`m_Zmo y_Ho$da n[aUm_ hmoD$Z À`mßZr _amR>r Ï`mH$aUmg BßJÓrdiU Xo `mMm ‡`ÀZ Ho$bm. CXm. e„Xm¿`m AmR> OmVr _mZUoB. _amR>rMo Ï`mH$aU bhUmË`mßZm EH$Va gßÒH•$VMm nj KoVbmqH$dm BßJOrMm nU _amR>r¿`m ÒdVßÃ —Ô>r ~miJVm Ambr Zmhr.BßJOr ejUmMm _hŒdmMm d BÔ> Agm n[aUm_ _amR>rda Pmbm.Vmo Agm H$s boIZmVrb AZ`_rVnUm CXm. (Amgm-Agm,H$mhmUr-H$hmZr B) OmD$Z 19Ï`m eVH$mnmgyZ ZmJa Aem_amR>r mfoMo ÒdÈn ZpÌMV hmoV Jobo. BßJÓrMm OodT>m n[aUm_Pmbm À`m_mZmZo nmoV•©JrO \|$M mß¿`mer gß~ßY oD$Zhr _amR>rdaÀ`mMm H$mhr e„X ~Q>mQ>m, H$mo~r, nmd, gm~U B. o `mnbrH$S>o\$magm n[aUm_ Pmbm Zmhr.

_amR>r¿`m ew’rH$aUmMo ‡`ÀZ - m AmYwZH$ H$mbIßS>mV_amR>r mfo¿`m ew’rH$aUmMo H$mhr ‡`ÀZ Pmbo. dra gmdaH$amßZr1923 _‹ o "Ho$gar' V _amR>r ^mfoMo ew’rH$aU hr boI_mbmbhbr. Aa~r, \$mgu BßJÓr ^mfmßVyZ Ambobo H$moUVo e„XH$mTy>Z À`m OmJr H$moUVo _amR>r e„X moOmdo mMr gyMrM À`mßZrXbr. _amR>r bnrVrb AmdÌ`H$ Òda Q>miyZ Òda_mbmÏ ßOZ_mbm, gwQ>gwQ>rV H$a `mMm ‡`ÀZ Ho$bm. (CXm. "B' EodOr"A©, "B©' EodOr "A©, "E' EodOr "Ao') B. 1927 _‹ o mVrbAmÀ ßVH$ Q>moH$m¿`m y_Ho$_wio lrnmX H•$ÓU H$moÎhQ>H$a `mßZrgmhÀ` gß_obZmV A‹`jnXmda nam_e© KoVbm. gßnH$m©VAmboÎ`m ^mfmßV AmXmZ‡XmZ hmoUo hr Òdm^mdH$ H´$`m AmhoOo e„X _amR>rer EH$Èn Pmbo Vo Ho$di na^mfmVyZ Ambo ÂhUyZÀ`mßMr hH$mbn≈>r H$aUo AÏ`dhm © Amho, d Aeä`hr Amho.hr ^w_H$m `mßZr _mßS>br. _mYdamd nQ>dY©Z (H$dr _mYd¡ ybr`Z) `mßZr ÒdV:¿`m H$dVoMr n[aÓH$aUo H$ÈZ À`mVrb\$mgu Aa~r e„X H$mTy>Z À`m OmJr gßÒH•$V e„X Z KmbVm,AÒgb _amR>r e„XmßMr `moOZm Ho$br ("Hw$ÒVr' EodOr "Pm|~r'"haH$V' EodOr "AmS>H$mR>r'). ^mfmew’rbm ‡m. lr. Ho$.jragmJa ¯mßZr H$gyZ damoY Ho$bm `m_wio dH•$V e„XZ_©VrhmoD$Z _amR>rMo Òdm^mdH$ gm¢X © ~KS>Vo. H$moUVo e„X dmnamdoV


ho _amR>r _mUgmbm Òd^mdV:M H$iVo Ago _V À`mßZr _mßS>bo.na^mfmß_yio AZoH$ n`m© Cnb„Y hmoVmV gw _ AW©¿N>Q>m Ï`∫$H$a `mgmR>r À`mMm Cn`moJ hmoVo. Ago _V Jmo.H•$. _moSH$ ¯mßZr_mßS>bo. (CXm. AW©H$, gßVmV, gßVVr, _yb, ~mbH$ m Òd^mfrè„XmV "Am°bmX' `m naH$s` e„XmZo AmUIr EH$ AW©¿N>Q>mZ_m©U Pmbr.) ÂhUyZM Z. M. Ho$iH$a `mßZr ^mfmew’rMidirMo ÒdmJV H$ÈZhr V¿`m _`m©Xm ÒnÔ> Ho$Î`m.

^mfmew’r¿`m deofV: boIZew’r¿`m gßX^m©V_hm_ßS>imZo H$mhr Z`_ Ho$bo À`mMo AZwgaU AmO Ho$bo OmVo.naßVw bnrM›hmß¿`m ~m~VrV d C¿MmamZwgma boIZ m ~m~VrVgwYmaUm hmoUo AmdÌ`H$ Amho. VmbÏ` d XßV_w∫$s` M O P`mßZm doJdoJio bnrM›h Zmhr. H$mhr R>H$mUr doJ˘`m CÉmamZodoJim AW© ‡VrV hmoVmo. (CXm. Oam=WmoS>ogo, Oam= ÂhmVmanU)CÉma doJim d boIZ doJio Agohr hmoVo B. gßX^m©V boIZ dbnrdf`H$ gwYmaUm hmoUo AmdÌ`H$ Amho.

AmUIr EH$ deof - _amR>r mfoMm AmUIr EH$ deofÂhUOo "_amR>r hr XIZr ^mfoMo CJ_ÒWmZ Amho.' nßYamÏ`meVH$m¿`m CŒmamYm©V XIZr gmhÀ`mMm ‡maß Pmbm À`m AmYrH$mhr H$mi ~mobÈnmV Vr g_mOmMr ~moY^mfm ÂhUyZ _m›`Vanmdbr. gwadmVrbm \$magr hr XIZr mfoMr bnr hmoVr gy∫$s®Mr_Ywam^∫$sna ‡o_mª`mZo, amO‡eÒVrna H$mÏ o, bmoH$JrVmß¿`mYmQ>Urda aMbobr JrVo, amJXmarVrb nXo Aer nwÓH$igmhÀ`Z_©Vr XIZr ^mfoV Z_m©U Pmbr XIZr ^mfm hrÒdm^mdH$ H´$_mVyZ nyd©dVu ^mfmVyZ CX≤ dbr Zmhr. deÔ>gmßÒH•$VH$ ZH$S>rVyZ _hmamÔ¥>mV Vr CX`mbm Ambr. ^fi mfrg_mOmMo ‡~moYZ H$a `mMr j_Vm amhrb `m hoVyZ VMrOS>UKS>U Pmbr. XIZr mfoMo _amR>r diU hr dIa Ho$bobrCgZdmar ZgyZ H$Um©¿`m H$dMHwß$S>bm‡_mUo XIZr ^mfoMo VoO›_g’ boUo Amho. XIZr ^mfoMm CX≤^d hr _hmamÔ¥>mZo~Omdbobr Wmoa amÔ¥>r` H$m_Jar hmo . BVHo$M ZÏho Va XIZr^mfm hm _ËhmQ>r gßÒH•$VrMm EH$ A^_mZmÒnX Agm AdÓH$maAmho ' Agm ZÓH$f© lr. aß. Hw$bH$Uu `mßZr "XIZr ^mfm-_ËhmQ>r gßÒH•$VrMm EH$ AdÓH$ma' `m JßWmßV Zm|Xdbm Amho.ZmWgß‡Xm`m¿`m ‡^mdmVyZ Vr Z_m©U Pmbr. 15 Vo 17 Ï`meVH$mn`™V À`mV gmhÀ`Z_©Vr Pmbr AmO Vr Ho$ai~mobÈnmV XIZr _hmamÔ¥>, H$Zm©Q>H$, Ho$ai, Vm_iZmSy>,AmßY´‡Xoe `mVrb J´m_rU ^mJmVrb AÎngßª`mH$mßMr ~mobr

Amho. _hmamÔ¥>mV Y_m©Zo _wgb_mZ Agbobo d _hmamÓQ¥>m~mhoadarb ‡mßVmV AgboÎ`m _wgb_mZmßMr hr ~mobr Amho. Zm_XodmX_amR>r gßVmßMr qhXr H$dVm mM XIZr mfoV Amho. gmßÒH•$VH$EH$mÀ_VoMo ho EH$ CŒm_ CXmhaU Amho.

Cngßhma - Aer hr _amR>r ÒdV: KS>Vm KS>Vm XwgË`m^mfmßZm KS>dUmar. AmnÎ`m Am|OirVyZ â^ÈZ "ngm`XmZ'dmQ>Umar. kmZoúamßnmgyZ AmO¿`m "kmZnrR>' dOoÀ`m qd. Xm.H$aßXrH$amßn ™V ¡`mßZr Amnbo OrdZqMVZ h¿`mM ‡H$memVXoXfl`_mZ Ho$bo. dËhmS>r, H$moH$Ur, Im›Xoer, S>mßJr, m ‡mXoeH$Va dmabr, H$mVH$ar `m AmXdmgr ^mfmßgh 139 ~mobt¿`mgßgmamMo d°d‹` Omonmgbo ‡_mU _amR>r Zo À`mV EH$mÀ_VmOmonmgV AmnÎ`m gd© j_Vmßgh ZrÀ`ZyVZ hmoV ~haVo Amho.BßJÓr¿`m Y~Y„`mImbr gw’m OZo Amnbm _yiÛmoVmbm K≈>nH$Sy>Z `m Y~Y„`mMo Vwfma AßJmda KoV Amnbm ‡dmh AIßS>R>odV Amho. naßVw OmJVH$ _amR>r n[afXoV Hw$gw_mJÓmßZr `m_m`_amR>r~‘b Or IßV Ho$br "hr _m`_amR>r S>moä`mda amO_wHw$Q>YmaU H$ÈZ hmVr ^Ho$Mm H$Q>moam KoD$Z emgZ Xa~mar C^r Amho'hr À`mßMr IßV dMma H$am`bm bmdUmar Amho. _amR>r¿`m `mg_•’ dmaemMo CŒmaXm`Œd emgZ d AmnÎ`m gmË`mßMo Amho.

_amR>r mfoMm gw_mao EH$ hOma dUm©Mm hm BVhmg AmUÀ`mMr d°eÓQ>Áo - `m ‡dmhmV AZoH$ diUo, digo Q>flno ImVgßÒH•$V ‡mH•$V, An^ßem¿`m _yi ÛmoVmnmgyZ ÒdV:Mm EH$ ÒdVßÃ‡dmh Z_m©U H$arV Aa~r, \$mgu, BßJÓr gmaª`m na^mfmß¿`m‡dmhmVrb d JwOamWr, qhXr, H$fiS>, Vm_i, VobJy gmaª`m^maVr` ^mfmß¿`m ‡dmhmVrb H$mhr ^mJ AmnÎ`mV gm_mdyZKoV AmO _amR>r AYH$ g_•’ Pmbr Amho VMm ‡dmh AYH$dÒV•V d M°V›`Xm`r Pmbm Amho.

kmZ ^mfm hmo `m¿`m gd© eä`Vm V¿`m R>m`r Z_m©UPmÎ`m AmhoV. A‹`mÀ_ VÀdkmZ, gmhÀ` mV Vr AmKmS>rdahmoVrM dkmZ AmU Ï`dÒWmnZ, A^`mßÃrH$s _Yrb gd©emImßZm VZo AmO Òne© Ho$bm Amho. CÉ ›`m`mb`mV VZoAmO ÒWmZ _idbo Amho. ^mfm gßMmbZm¿`m qH$dm am¡`_amR>r dH$mg gßÒWo_m\©$V dÛH$moe, VßÃmb` H$moe ZKVAmhoV. lr bnr gmaIr bnr gßJUH$mda Z_m©U hmoD$Z _amR>rkmZ^mfm hmo `m¿`m _mJm©da Amho. AmO¿`m MMm©gÃ gmaª`mCnH$_mßZr OmUdnyd©H$ ‡`ÀZ Ho$bo d am¡` emgZmZo m ~m~VrVnmR>nwamdm Ho$bm. _amR>r ^mfH$mßZr AZmÒWm gmoSy>Z `m ^mfoMm


OmUrdnyd©H$ dmna Ho$bm. ejH$mßZr Z°VH$ O~m~Xmar, _amR>r^mfm df`m~‘b d⁄mœ`m™V OmU d JmoS>r Z_m©U Ho$br d _amR>r^mfH$mßZr VMm `WmoMV dmna Ho$bm, Va _amR>rMr JiMonr ZhmoVm, _amR>rMo ^dVÏ`, CÇdb hmoB©b BVH$s j_Vm _amR>r^mfo¿`m R>m`r Amho, EdT>o ZpÌMV.

gßX © JßW - (_amR>r ^mfoMm BVhmg d d°eÓQ>Áo)

1. AmYwZH$ ^mfmdkmZ g’mßV d Cn`moOZm - _qbX g._mbeo - bmoH$ dmL≤>_` J•h d am¡` _amR>r dH$mggßÒWm. _wß~B© Am. 1 br 1995.

2. AmYwZH$ ^mfmdkmZ - gßnm. Sm∞. H$Î`mU H$moi, Sm∞.AßObr gmo_U, ‡V_m ‡H$meZ nwUo, Am. 1 br1999 –mdS> ^mfmgßK d _amR>r ^mfm - S>m∞. _.A.H$aßXrH$a.

3. XIZr ^mfm - _ËhmQ>r gßÒH•$VrMm EH$ AdÓH$ma-lr.a. Hw$bH$Uu. am¡` _amR>r dH$mg gßÒWm. _wß~B© Am. 1br 1998

4 . ‹dZdMma - Zm.Jmo. H$mbobH$a. _m°O ‡H$meZ,_wß~B©, Am. 2 ar 1990.

5. ^mÓ` d gmhÀ` gßemoYZ - IßS> 2 am gßnm. S>m∞. dgßVOmoer, S>m∞. Jß.Zm. OmoJioda

6. ^mfmdkmZ dU©ZmÀ_H$ d EoVhmgH$ - _mÎeo,gmo_U, BZm_Xma

7. ^mfmdMma AmU _amR>r ^mfm - Jß.~.Am_onm‹ oÏhrZg ‡H$meZ nwUo. Am. 2 ar 1979.

8. _amRr ^mfoMr CÀnŒmr - _hmamÔ¥> e„XH$moem¿`m Mdœ`md^mJmMr ‡ÒVmdZm ‡H$meH$ - _hmamÔ¥> H$moe_ßS>ib. nwUo 1935.

9. _amR>r dmL>≤_`mMm BVhmg - IßS> 1bm. gßnm.-eß.Jmo. Vwinwio. _hmamÔ¥> gmhÀ` ‡H$meZ nwUo Am. 1 br.1984.

10. _amR>rMo EoVhmgH$ ^mfmemÛ - a. am. Jmogmdr,gy ©H$mßV d°⁄. _moKo ‡H$meZ nwUo d H$moÎhmnya Am. 1br 1976.

11. _amR>r ^mfoMm BVhmg - S>m∞. Jß. Zm. OmoJioH$a,lrd⁄m ‡H$meZ, nwUo. 2ar Am∞äQ>mo. 2005.


osJeveeiejer efHeer ®³ee ³eebef$ekeÀ pegUCeer®³ee Ieìvese ³eboeDeJeIeer HeeTCeMes Je<ex HetCe& Peeer. íHeeF&®³ee #es$eele Deepe`[erìerHeer'®³ee efveefceÊeeves pes Del³eeOegefvekeÀ ªHe ÒeeHle Pees Deens,l³eeceeies DeveskeÀ Je<ee¥®ee Fefleneme GYee Deens. DeveskeÀ mebMeesOekeÀeb®³eeHeefjÞecee®es DeeefCe DeY³eemee®es®e les SkeÀ HeÀefle ceeveeJes eies.De#ejeb®³ee efKeÈ³eeb®eer pegUJeepegUJe keÀªve owefvekeÀeb®es SkeÀ Heevele³eej keÀjeJe³ee®es DeeefCe íHeeF&meeþer ìs[ ceefMeveJej les ®eJee³e®esner SkeÀ ceesþer®e JesUKeeT He×le nesleer, l³ee efKeÈ³eeb®es HetJe&peÒee®eerve Yeejleele efMeesKe, leece´Heì, veeCeer ³eebJej efJejepeceeveDemeu³ee®es DeeHeu³eeuee Heenlee ³esles.

`cejeþer efHeer' ne ceeP³ee Deepe®³ee efveyebOee®ee efJe<e³e Deens.cejeþer Yee<ee DeeefCe meeefnl³e ³eeb®ee DeY³eeme keÀjleevee kesÀJeUkegÀlegneHeesìer efJeÜeveebveer, mebMeesOekeÀebveer HeefjÞeceHetJe&keÀ efvecee&Ce kesÀsssûebLe Jee®es. Dev³eLee efHeer Jee efefHeµeem$e ne ceePee DeY³eemee®eeefJe<e³e veJns. l³eecegUs meenefpekeÀ®e ceeP³eeyejesyej Dev³epeveeb®eerkegÀlegns peeieer nesleer SJeer®e ³ee efveyebOee®eer J³eeHleer Demes.DeveskeÀ GHeyOe ûebLeeb®³ee DeeOeejeves cejeþer efHeer efJe<e³ekeÀ ceeefnleer³esLes SkeÀ$e osCes Demes®e ³ee efveyebOee®es mJeªHe Demes.

Deepe DeeHeCe p³ee osJeveeiejer-cejeþer efHeerle mejeF&leHeCesefefnlees, mebieCekeÀe®³ee mene³³eeves ìeFHe keÀjlees leer efHeer keÀµeerGl¬eÀeble Peeer Demes? ÒeeOeev³eeves ceewefKekeÀ HejbHeje ÒeYeglJe ieepeJeleDemesu³ee DeeHeu³ee HejbHejsle sKevekeÀe keÀOeer DeJeleerCe& Peeer?keÀeewIeele eflee cnCepes®e Yee<es®³ee OJeefveªHeee efefKele (keÀesjerJe)ªHe keÀmesyemes efceUle iess? Òee®eerveebveer OJeeqveªHeee efosu³eeefJeefµeä efJeefµeä ef®evneb®eer JeeìeJeUCes DeeOegefvekeÀ DeY³eemekeÀebveerkeÀµeer Gie[tve Heeefner? DeeefCe JesieJesieÈ³ee DeekeÀejebletve peelepeele Deepe®eer efHeer-De#ejs- keÀµeer Jee®elee Deeer? ns DeeefCe DemesDeveskeÀ Òeµve eqJe®eeªve, l³eeb®eer GÊejs µeesOeC³ee®ee Òe³elve keÀjCesSJee®e ceeHeÀkeÀ GÎsµe ³ee efveyebOeeceeies Deens. DeeefCe efHeer®ee

Fefleneme v³eeneUtve Heeneleevee SkeÀ meebmkeÀ=eflekeÀ Feflenemener DeeHeesDeeHeGie[le keÀmee peelees l³ee meebmke=ÀeflekeÀ mebef®eleekeÀ[s efJevece´HeCesHeeneCes nener SkeÀ ³ee efveyebOee®ee nslet Deens.

Òee®eerve keÀeUer, Yeejleer³e eskeÀ Òemlej, efµeUe, Oeelet ³eeb®esKeebye, Oeeletb®es He$es, Yeeb[er, efJeìe efµebHes, nefmleobleer cegêe F. JemletbJejsKe keÀesjerle Demele.

yeeïeer efHeer ner Yeejleeleer Jee®elee Deeser meJee&le Òee®eerveefHeer nesleer. Hejbleg meeleJ³ee-DeeþJ³ee µelekeÀele veeiejer efHeer®eeDeeefCe nUtnUt ÒeeosefµekeÀ efHeeR®ee Yeejleele Òemeej Peeu³eeJejyeéïeer efHeer®ee ceeCemeebvee efJemej He[le iese.

meeleJ³ee-DeeþJ³ee µelekeÀeleer lemes®e meceéì DeµeeskeÀe®³eekeÀeUeleerue uesKeeb®eer efHeer Gie[tve leer Jee®eC³ee®ee Òe³elvecegIemeceéì DekeÀyejeves keÀªve Heeefnu³ee®es Feflenemeele veeWoefJessDeens. l³eeveblej®³ee keÀeUele SkeÀoe kebÀHeveer mejkeÀej®es jep³eDeeu³eeJej Yeejlee®³ee FeflenemeekeÀ[s HeenC³ee®ee ¢efäkeÀesve®e yeotveiese. kebÀHeveer mejkeÀej®³ee meveoer veeskeÀjebvee Yeejleeleer efMeuHes,keÀesjerJe sKe ³eebyeÎue efpe%eemee GlHeVe Peeerr, lej keÀenerJesUekesÀJeU newme Jeeìerr. keÀkeÀÊ³ee®³ee megÒeerce keÀesìe&®es peppe mejefJeu³ecme peesvme ³eebveer Òee®eerve DeJeMes<eeb®ee DeY³eeme keÀjC³eemeeþer15 peevesJeejer 1784 ceO³es `SefMe³eeefìkeÀ efjme®exme' nsefve³elekeÀeefkeÀ megª kesÀss. l³eeÜejs efMeuHe, veeCeer, pegveer nmleefefKeles,efMeesKe DeeefCe leece´Heì ³eeJejer DeY³eemeHetCe& uesKe Òeefme×nesT ueeies.

F.me. 1836 ceO³es emesve ³ee DeY³eemekeÀeves Fb[es-ûeerkeÀ jepeeb®³ee veeC³eeJejer ûeerkeÀ DeeefCe yeeïeer ³ee oesvner efHeeRceO³esDemesss De@ieLee@efkeÌueme ns veeJe Jee®ess. ye@efmeefDee@me He@vì@efDee@ve³ee ûeerkeÀ jepee®³ee veeC³eeJej jpeves HeleJe<e' ner yeeïeer efHeerleerDe#ejs meeHe[er DeeefCe DeµeeskeÀe®³ee sKeJee®evee®eer pescme eqÒevmesHe

_amR>r bnr

Òee. p³eeseflekeÀe DeesPejkeÀj

cejeþer Yee<ee efJeYeeie ÒecegKeÞeerceleer ®eeboerYeeF& efnbcelee cevemegKeeveer ceneefJeÐee³e, Gunemeveiej


³eebvee iegªefkeÀuueer efceUeer. DeeefCe Hegs l³eebveer DeuHeeJeOeerle®emebHetCe& yeéïeer efHeer®es Jee®eve kesÀs.

De#ejeb®eer JeUCes, Jesueebìîee, Dekeg&Àer Je ssKeveHe×leer nsefJeMes<e mebmke=Àefle efveoMe&keÀ DeeefCe keÀe eqveef½eleer keÀjC³eeme ceolekeÀjleele. De#ejeb®³ee JewefäìîeebceOetve efvejefvejeUs mebJeled, DebkeÀ,J³eeqkeÌleveeces, ûeeceveeces, YeewieesefkeÀ meeceeefpekeÀ-jepekeÀer³e ceeefnleerYee<ee, keÀeJ³e Demes DeveskeÀ efJe<e³e DeY³eemekeÀebvee DeeJeenve keÀªueeiess. jepeJeìer, ³eg×s ³eebcegUs mebmke=ÀleerJej Je l³eecegUsuesKevekeÀsJejner HeefjCeece nesleele. Goe. Òee®eerve keÀeUer kegÀ<eeCejepeebveer Fb[es-ûeerkeÀ jepeeb®³ee ssKeveHe×leer®es DevegkeÀjCe kesÀs.ûeerkeÀ De#ejs þeMeerJe, GþeJee®eer HeCe yemekeÀer nesleer. kegÀ<eeCeeb®³eeneletve yeéïeer®es lemes®e ªHe IeìefJes iesss.

DeeþJ³ee MelekeÀeceO³es GÊej eEnogmLeeveeleer efHeer, iegpejele,jepemLeeve DeeefCe ceO³e Yeejleeleer efHeer, oef#eCeskeÀ[er efHeer,Deefle oef#eCeskeÀ[er efHeer Demes Yeejleeleer efHeeR®es ÒeecegK³eevesYeso Pees. veJeJ³ee MelekeÀeHeemetve DekeÀjeJ³ee MelekeÀeHe³e¥le veeiejerefHeer®es Je®e&mJe Demeu³ee®es efomeles. oef#eCsekeÀ[er efHeere veeiejerDemes veeJe efceUes. ³ee ®eej ÒekeÀejeb®es®e [e@. oeveer ³eebveeriebieeKeesN³eeleer He×leer, HetJexkeÀ[er He×leer, jepemLeeveer keÀeþsJee[er,oef#eCeer, cnwmegjer, cenejeäer, DeebOeer DeeefCe Deefleoef#eCeskeÀ[er He×leerDemes veT ÒekeÀej Hee[ss Deensle. De#ejeb®es JeUCe megboj keÀeCes,keÀesjC³ee®eer He×le, ssKeCeerves Hesìerves Deiej Ieemetve efefnCes ³eeieesäeRJej®e efHeerrleer HeÀjkeÀ DeeUtve ³esleele. DekeÀjeJ³ee, yeejeJ³eeMelekeÀeHeemetve ÒeeosefMekeÀ efHeeR®ee Heie[e yemee DeeefCe eskeÀefMeessKe ÒeeosefMekeÀ efueHeerceO³es efuent ueeieues.

uesKevekeÀs®es Òee®eerve HegjeJes

yeew×Oecee&®³ee Òemeeje®³ee efveefceÊeeves Yeejle DeeefCe ®eerve ³eeoesve osMeeble meebmke=ÀeflekeÀ osJeeCe-IesJeeCe Peeer. mebmkeÀ=leeleeryeew×Oecee&®³ee ûebLeeb®ee ef®eveer Yee<esle DevegJeeo Peee. He@À-Je@ve-Meg-efved ³ee ef®eveer yeew× ûebLeele yeéïeer efHeer®eer GlHeÊeer efoer Demetvel³eele yeéïeer efHeer®ee efvecee&lee ye´ïee meebefielee Deens Je ner efHeer[eJeerkeÀ[tve GpeJeerkeÀ[s efnerle Demeu³ee®ee GuuesKe Deens.`meceJee³eebiemet$e' Je HeCCeeJeCeemet$e' ³ee oesve pewve ûebLeele DeþjeefHeeR®eer ³eeoer efoer Deens. èfleefJemleej' ³ee yeew× ûebLeele

yeg×e®³ee keÀeUer ®eewmeä efHeer DeefmlelJeele Demeu³ee®es veceto kesÀssDeens. ÒeK³eele Òee®³e efJeÐee eqJeMeejo y³etNnj ³eeb®³ee celes yeéïeer,Kejesäer, êeefJe[er, Heg<keÀjmeejer efkebÀJee HegKejmeeefj³ee ³ee ®eej efHeerefJeMes<e cenÊJee®³ee Deensle Je l³eebvee SseflenemeerkeÀ cetu³e Deens.

pewveeb®³ee veä Peesu³ee `¢efäJeeo' ³ee ûebLee®ee pees Lees[eYeeie GHeueyOe Deens l³eeceO³es yeéïeer efHeerceO³es 46 De#ejsDemeu³ee®es veceto kesÀss Deens. l³eeceO³es yeéïeer efHeerceO³es 46De#ejs Demeu³ee®es veceto kesÀs Deens. l³eeceO³es $eÝ, $eÝ=, = Á=DeeefCe #e ³ee De#ejeb®ee meceeJesMe veener. DeJee&®eerve yeejeKe[erlener³ee mJejeb®ee DebleYee&Je veener. ³ee yeejeKe[er®es mebmke=Àle veeJe`ÜeoMee#ejer' Demes Demetve ³Jeeve ®Jeebie (F.me.788-810)³eeves Yeejleer³e cegs yeejeKe[er®ee DeY³eeme keÀjleele Je l³eeb®³eeefueHeerceO³es 47 De#ejs Deensle Demes efefns Deens. l³eeves yengOee`#e'De#ej Oejss DemeeJes.

ie³ee ³esLes SkeÀ efµeUe meeHe[er Deens. l³eeJej De,Dee,F,F&,G,T, S,Ss, Dees, Deew, Deb, De:, keÀ,Ke,ie,Ie,[,®e,í,pe,Pe, mener De#ejs Deensle. ner efµeUe DeµeeskeÀkeÀeerve Deens. DeµeeskeÀe®³eesKeeletve efJeefJeOe De#ejeb®es vecegves Dees Deensle. SkeÀìîee De'³ee De#eje®es keÀceerle keÀceer one ÒekeÀej DeeUtve ³esleele.

F.me. 1912 ceO³es Hebef[le ieewjerMebkeÀj efnje®ebo DeesPee³eebvee Depeceerj efpeu¿eele ye[er veeJee®³ee ieeJeer SkeÀ $egefìle mlebYesKemeeHe[e. l³ee sKee®³ee Heefnu³ee DeesUerle `Jeerj (~) ³eeYeieJele (le)' DeeefCe ogmeN³ee DeesUerle `®elegjeefmeefle Je (me)'DeMeer De#ejs Keesoer Deensle. ne ssKe pewveeb®ee MesJeì®ee leerLe¥keÀjceneJeerj ³ee®³ee efveJee&Ceeveblej 84 J³ee Je<eea keÀesjefJee DemeeJee.³ee sKeeleer Jeer'³ee De#ejeleer F&' DeMeeskeÀkeÀeerve sKeeleer`F&' Hes#ee efvejeUer Deens. DeMeeskeÀe®³ee keÀeUeleer F&'®eer Jesueebìer[eJeerkeÀ[tve GpeJeerkeÀ[s JeUserr Deens lej ³ee ssKeeleer `F&'veblej®³ee keÀeUelener efometve ³esle vemeu³eecegUs ne uesKeDeMeeskeÀHetJe&keÀeerrve DemeeJee Demes Hebef[le DeesPee ³eeb®es cele Deens.ieewleceyeg×e®³ee efveJee&Ceeveblej DeveskeÀ cenÊJee®³ee efþkeÀeCeer l³eeb®³eeDemLeeRJej mletHe yeebOeC³eele Dees. l³eeHewkeÀer®e vesHeeU ³esLeerlejeF&ceO³es efHeHejeJee ³esLeer mletHeeleer DeefmLekeÀjb[keÀeJejerue uesKenerDeMeeskeÀHetJe&keÀeueerve DemeeJee. yeg×efveJee&Cee®ee keÀeKeb[ F.HetJe& 487


ye´eïeer efHeerleer mece´eì DeµeeskeÀe®es sKe

meewpev³e - HegjeefYesKe efJeÐee µeesYevee ieesKes, keÀeBefìveWì ÒekeÀeµeve, HegCes.


DeµeeskeÀkeÀeerve ÒemlejsKe ogmejs µelekeÀ

efiejveej sKe F. ogmejs µelekeÀ


Oeje lej F.Het. 5 J³ee MelekeÀele Yeejleer³e esskeÀebvee sKevekeÀeDeJeiele nesleer Demes ceevelee ³esles. Hejbleg l³eeb®es efefKele HegjeJesDeeUle veenerle. l³eecegUs Deepe efceleerme DeMeeskeÀe®es yeeïeer efHeerleerÒemlejssKe ns®e Yeejleeleer uesKevee®es meJee&le Òee®eerve HegjeJes Deensle.

³ee yeéïeer efHeerHeemetve keÀeebblejeves ÒeeosefMekeÀ efHeer GlHeVePeeu³ee. cnCetve meJe& Yeejleer³e efHeeR®eer peveveer yeéïeer efHeer þjerr.DeeþJ³ee MelekeÀeHe³e¥le Yeejleele Òeeke=Àle, mebmke=Àle ssKe yeéïeerefHeerle efefnss Deensle. DeMeeskeÀe®es ssKe Òeeke=Àle Yee<esle DemetveMegbie DeeefCe kegÀ<eeCeeb®es sKener Òeeke=Àle Yee<esle Deensle. DeMeeskeÀe®³eesKeele meJe&$e Òeeke=Àle Yee<ee Deens. Oeewer, peewie DeeefCe Sj&ieg·er³esLeer sKe ceeieOeer yeeserle efefns Deensle. ³ee yeeser®es efJeµes<ecnCepes `j' SsJepeer `' ®ee GHe³eesie DeeefCe `µe', `<e', `me'³eeyeÎ HeÀkeÌle me' ®ee GHe³eesie Demes meebielee ³esleer.

cenejeäele Òeeke=Àle, mebmke=Àle, cejeþer, keÀeve[er Yee<esle efefnsssKe DeeUtve ³esleele. meJee&le Òee®eerve sKe meesHeejs ³esLeer DeµeeskeÀe®eenes³e. ogmeje, ceew³e&keÀeUeleer cenejeäêleer ®eeboe efpeu¿eeleerosJeìkesÀ ³esLeer. veeCesIeeìeleer veeieefvekesÀ®ee sKe DeeefCe keÀex,

Yeepes, yes[mes kegÀ[s Je cene[ ³esLeer sKe. ³ee meJee¥®eer Yee<eeÒeeke=Àle Deens. ®eegkeÌ³e, JeekeÀeìkeÀ, jeä^ketÀì,keÀobye, efµeenejJebµeebleer jepeeb®es sKe mebmke=Àle Yee<esle Deensle. ³eeoJeeb®³ee sKeebletvecejeþer DeeefCe mebmke=Àle SkeÀe®e JesUer Deeser efometve ³esles. cejeþerefµeesKe DeeefCe leece´Heì oneJ³ee µelekeÀeHeemetve meeHe[leele.ÞeJeCeyesUieesU ³esLeer ieesceìséeje®³ee cetleeaKeeer Þeer ®eeJegC[je³eskeÀjefJe³es' ns cejeþer JeekeÌ³e Deens.

iebiejepee®³ee ÒeOeevee®³ee veeJeeJeªve Deoceemes µekesÀ 983ceOee DemeeJee Demee leke&À keÀjlee ³eslees. Hejbleg efoJesDeeiej ³esLeercejeþer leece´Heì µekesÀ 982 ceOeer Deens. ne®e cejeþer Yee<esleerDeeÐe leece´Heì Deens. ³eeefµeJee³e DeebyespeesieeF&, jebpeer, ef®eHeUtCe,lesj, meeJejieeJeHejU, HeeìCe F. efþkeÀeCeer cejeþer sKe meeHe[sDeensle. ³ee sKeeb®es mebµeesOeve µeb.iees. legUHegUs ³eebveer DeeHeuîee`cejeþer keÀesjerJe sKe' ³ee ûebLeele kesÀs Deens.

veeiejer efHeer

oneJ³ee µelekeÀe®³ee DeejbYeer DeefKe Yeejleele Lees[îeeHeÀej

efiejveej sKe, eflemejs µelekeÀ


HeÀjkeÀeves ³ee efHeer®ee DebieerkeÀej kesÀse DeeUtve ³eslees. F.DeeþJ³ee µelekeÀeHeemetve oneJ³ee µelekeÀeHe³e¥le efme× ceele=keÀe efHeer®esefkebÀJee keÀeruekeÀMeer<e&keÀ efHeer®es nUtnUt veeiejer efHeerle ªHeeblejnesT eies. GÊej eEnogmLeeveceO³es De#eje®³ee GY³ee ob[eJejerkeÀerkeÀ peeTve l³eepeeieer Dee[Jee ob[ Deee. keÀOeer keÀOeerSkeÀe®eJesUer veJ³ee-pegv³ee De#ejeb®es efceÞeCe efometve ³esles. jeä^ketÀìjepee le=leer³e ieesefJebo ³ee®³ee JeCeer-eEo[esjer DeeefCe jeOeveHetj ³esLeerleece´Heìeble veeiejer®es meJee&le pegves mJeªHe Hene³ee efceUles.HejceejJebMeer jepee JeekeÌ³eeqlejepe ³ee®³ee leece´Heìele veeiejer efHeerHene³ee efceUles. iegpe&jJebMeer jepee eflemeje pe³eYeì ³ee®³ee leeceHeìele`mJenmlees cece Þeerpe³eYeìm³e' ner MesJeì®eer De#ejs veeiejer efHeerleDeensle. F.me. 800 les 1100 ceOeer GÊejskeÀ[er veeiejeroef#eCeskeÀ[er veeiejerHes#ee efYeVe nesleer. GÊejskeÀ[er veeiejer efHeerleerDe#ejeb®es GYes ob[ GpeJeerkeÀ[s MesHeìemeejKes keUss Demele.oef#eCeskeÀ[er De#ejeb®es mJeªHe Ke[ye[erle nesles. ner efHeer³eeoJeeb®³ee, efMeenejeb®³ee efMeesKeebletve Je leeceHeìebletve DeeUles.veeiejer efHeerleer sKe cejeþJee[e, Heef½ece cenejeä^ ,keÀeskeÀCe Jeoef#eCesme yesUieebJeHe³e¥le DeeUleele. efJepe³eveiej®³ee jepeeveebner³ee efHeer®ee DebieerkeÀej kesÀse efometve ³eslees. cenejeäele ³ee efHeereyeeyeesOe efHeer ns veeJe He[s.

DeeþJ³ee µelekeÀeHeemetve DekeÀjeJ³ee µelekeÀeHe³e¥le®³eekeÀeKeb[ele ³ee efHeerceO³es Heg<keÀU efmLel³eblejs Peeer. S', Ðe',`®e', Òe',`He',`ye',`ce',`³e',`',`Je',`µe', `me', Fl³eeoerDe#ejebceO³es Heg<keÀU yeo Ie[tve Deee. De#ejebvee neveceesþîeeµesHeìîee Deeuîee. De#ejeleer GpeJeerkeÀ[s PegkeÀss ob[ GYesPees. De',`Dee',Òe',`He',`HeÀ',`ce',`³e', Fl³eeoer De#ejeb®³ee[eskeÌ³eeJej jsIee Deeu³ee.

yengleskeÀ meJe& cejeþer keÀesjerJe sKe osJeveeiejerle Demeleele.cees[er efHeer JeeHejse SKeeoogmeje leece´Heìner meeHe[lees. ³eeefHeer®eer keÀener Jewefµeäîes veeWolee ³esleer. GoenjCeeLe& F'ns De#ejoesve µetv³es DeeefCe l³eeKeeer GkeÀeje®es ef®evn (070) ³eebveer meeOessDemes lej les Òee®eerve mecepeeJes. Deµeer `F' De#eer, HeUmeosJe,jepeeHetj ³esLeer sKeeble meeHe[les. lemes®e pegvee ef$ekeÀesCeeke=Àleer S'keÀej(V) jebpeer, vesJeemes, jeCeeryesVegj Fl³eeoer sKeebletve DeeUlees.`Dees' ns De#ej DeeWkeÀejeleer ß ÒeceeCes Keesoss DeveskeÀ sKeebceOetve

efomeles. ®e-Je, He-³e,Ie-ye, [-[ ³ee De#ejeb®³ee sKeveele meec³eeqomeles. cejeþer keÀesjerJe sKeele `'keÀej®e Demelees. Ù'keÀejvemelees, HeCe pesLes lees Deens lesLes 'heemetve efvejeUe oeKeefJeC³eemeeþerÙ'keÀetve l³ee®³eeKeeer efÜlee®eer KetCe kesÀser efomeles. Deveg®®eeefjle DevegmJeej DeOe&®ebêeke=Àleerves oeKeefJeC³ee®eer ÒeLee Deens.keÀe¬eÀceevegmeej De#ejeb®³ee JeUCeele HeÀjkeÀ nesle Demes lejerSkeÀ®e SkeÀ efve³ece veener.

yengleskeÀ meJe& cejeþer keÀesjerJe sKeve Lees[îeeHeÀej ÒeceeCeeleDeµeg× Demeles®e. sKeve¢äîee mebHetCe&le: efveoex<e Demee sKe efceUCeskeÀþerCe®e. keÀevee, cee$ee, NnmJe-oerIe&, FkeÀej, GkeÀej, Jesebìer,pees[, efÜÊe, DevegmJeej, efJemeie&, ob[, µetv³e Fl³eeoer sKeveefJe<e³ekeÀleHeµeer keÀesjCeeN³ee keÀejeefiejee De[®eCeerle ìekeÀle DemeeHeeefnpes. Goe. µekeÀ-mekegÀ, Þeer-ñeer,mebJelmej- meJebíj F. yengleskeÀmeJe& keÀesjerJe sKeebletve Hegvne Hegvne ³esCeeN³ee µeyoebmeeþer l³eeb®eermebef#eHle ªHes JeeHejer peeleele. GoenjCeeLe& ie (ieÐeeCe, ieÐeeCekeÀ)ìe (ìebkeÀ), leg (legmeer), legJeew (legmeer Jeewmej), o (oÊe) os(os³e), ê, êe (êcce, oece) Deµee meb#esHeeb®ee JeeHej HebjHetj®³ee®eewN³ee³eµeer®³ee sKeele meJee&efOekeÀ Deens.

keÀesjerJe sKeeb®ee leHeµeerJeej efJe®eej ceeb[le DeeuîeeJejyeéïeer les veeiejer, veeiejer les osJeveeiejer (Jee yeeyeesOe) ns efHeer®³eeHeefjJele&vee®es ìHHes O³eeveer ³esC³eeme ceole nesF& Demee efJeéeeme Jeeìlees.

ceeCetme yeest eiee DeeefCe DeveskeÀ ceeveJeer mecetnebveer SkesÀkeÀOJeeqveHejbHeje efvecee&Ce kesÀer. ³ee HejbHejsleer OJeveeR®³ee meene³³eevesyevess µeyo JeeHeªve ceeCemee®ee Yeeef<ekeÀ J³eJenej ®eelees. HeCens OJeveer DeuHekeÀeU®e efìkeÀCeejs Demeleele. l³eecegUs l³ee OJeveerceeHe&ÀleJ³ekeÌle nesCeeje Deeµe³ener #eCeYebiegj þjlees. DeeHeu³ee yeesC³eeletveJ³ekeÌle Peese efJe®eej, YeeJe, Deeµe³e DeeHeu³ee iewjnpesjerle JeDeeHeuîeeveblejner efìketÀve jeneJee ³ee iejpesletve®e keÀesjerJe sKeeb®eepevce Peee DemeeJee. ³eeletve®e efHeer pevceee Deeu³ee.DeuHekeÀeUele®e efìkeÀCeejs OJeveer efmLej keÀjC³eemeeþer [esÈ³eebveeefomeCeejer ef®evns JeeHejC³eeme Peeser meg©Jeele cnCepes Òee®eerveebveerGlkeÀerCe& kesÀser efHeer nes³e. ³ee efHeer®ee DeeefCe leeW[eves G®®eejsu³eeOJeveer®ee lemee keÀener®e mebyebOe vemelees. yeéïeer, Kejesÿer, µeejoe,veeiej F. efHeeR®eer Jewefµeä³es DeeHeuîeee JeCe&ve keÀªve meebielee


³esleele l³eeb®ee G®®eej meebielee ³esle veener. efHeer DeeefCe G®®eej³eebleer veeles kesÀJeU ªer Jee meceepeceev³eles®es Demeles. keÀeeblejevesOJeefve ef®evne®es mJeªHe yeolesner. l³eecegUs®e efHeer ner mebkeÀuHeveeJeef®ekeÀ®e ceeveeJeer eieles. (cetU DeekeÀeje®ee Deeµe³e keÀe³eceþsJetve l³ee®es sKeve efYeVe jerleerves nesle Demeles cnCetve lej DeeHeerSkeÀceskeÀeb®eer De#ej-sKeve-OeeìCeer SkeÀmeejKeer veener.) HeCe lejernerleer sKeve-He×leer DebieerkeÀejCeeN³eebceO³es keÀener SkeÀ SkeÀJeekeÌ³eleeDemeeJeer®e eieles. veenerlej Yeeef<ekeÀ J³eJenej DeµekeÌ³e nesTve yemes.

keÀesCel³eener sKeveemeeþer mJeerkeÀejser efHeer DeveskeÀ yeeyeeRceO³esme#ece DemeeJeer eieles. mebmke=Àle, efnboer, cejeþer, keÀeskeÀCeer, efmebOeerF. Yee<eebmeeþer Deelee osJeveeiejer efHeer mJeerkeÀejer ieser Deens.efmebOeer Je keÀeskeÀCeer ³eebveer oesve efHeerÒekeÀej mJeerkeÀejs Deensle. eEmeOeer-osJeveeiejer Je efmebOeer DejsefyekeÀ. lemes®e keÀeskeÀCeer-osJeveeiejer Je keÀeskeÀCeerkeÀeve[er. Òel³eskeÀ Yee<ekeÀee ³ee efHeer Je l³eeb®es G®®eej ³eebyeeyelekeÀener $egìer peeCeJeleele®e. SkeÀe De#eje®ee SkeÀ®e G®®eej DeeefCeSkeÀe G®®eejemeeþer SkeÀ®e De#ej Deµeer Deeoµe& efmLeleer osJeveeiejerefHeerle veener. lejerner Fbûepeermeeþer JeeHeju³ee peeCeeN³ee efHeerceOeermJewjlee DeeHeu³eee melele peeCeJele Demeles. l³eeceeveeves osJeveeiejerHeg<keÀU®e efve³eefcele Demeu³ee®es efomeles. FeflenemekeÀeUele osJeveeiejer®eeJeeHej HeÀkeÌle HeÐe ûebLeebHegjlee kesÀe peele neslee. ieÐe sKeveemeeþer

cees[er efHeer®ee mJeerkeÀej kesÀe peele Demes.

cees[er efHeer®es GefÎä

yeeyeesOe De#ejs efefnleevee Òel³eskeÀ De#ej megìs efneJeseieles. SkeÀ®e De#ej efefnleevee DeeHeuîeee sKeCeer JeejbJeejG®eeJeer eieles. l³eecegUs yeeyeesOe efHeerleer De#ejs Jee µeyoefefnleevee meenefpekeÀ®e JesU DeefOekeÀ eielees.

De#ejebyejesyej®e l³eee pees[CeeN³ee keÀevee, cee$ee, DevegmJeej,NnmJe, oerIe& Fl³eeoer mJej ef®evnebcegUs sKeCeer DeveskeÀ JesUe G®eeJeereieles. Goe. - Deewle' ³ee µeyoeceOeer Deew' ns De#ej efntve Hene.ns De#ej efefnleevee DeeHeuîeee meele JesUe sKeCeer G®eeJeer eieles.(Deeke=Àleer 1 Hene.) l³eecegUs ³ee efHeerleer De#ejs efefnleevee JesU

cees ³esLeer efJeþdþ cetleea®³ee Ëo³eeJej keÀesjse <e[e#ejer ceb$e


DeefOekeÀ eielees. ner De#ejs Je µeyo peo efneJe³ee®eer þjefJeu³eemeleer SkeÀceskeÀebvee pees[tve efneJeer eieleele. l³eecegUs meenefpekeÀ®e l³eeDe#ejebvee Lees[er cegj[ ÐeeJeer eieles. YejeYej efefnlee ³eeJes cnCetveyeeyeesOe De#ejebvee cegj[ Ieetve efkebÀJee leer De#ejs cees[tve efefnC³ee®eerpeer He×le megª Peeer eflee®e cees[er efHeer' Demes DeeHeCe cnCet eiees.cees[er efHeerle `Deew' efefnleevee sKeCeer SkeÀoe®e G®eeJeer eieles.(Deeke=Àleer 2 Hene.) Lees[îee JesUele Heg<keÀU efefnlee ³eeJes ³ee Heesìercees[er efHeer®ee pevce Peee. JesUs®eer ye®ele keÀjCes ns cees[er sKevee®esKejs GefÎä nesles; Je les ³ee efHeerves Heg<keÀUmes meeO³e Pees. osJeveeiejerefHeer®es J³eeJeneefjkeÀ ªHe cnCepes cees[er efHeer' Demes Lees[keÌ³eele cnCelee³esF&.

SkeÀesefCemeeJ³ee µelekeÀele cegêCekeÀscegUs efHeer efmLej Peeer.oeoesyee Heeb[gjbie, yeeUµeem$eer peebYeskeÀj, cespej ke@BÀ[er ÒeYegleer lelkeÀeerveHebef[leebveer osJeveeiejermeeþer keÀener efve³ece Ieetve efos DeeefCeHeeþîeHegmlekeÀebcegUs les yejs®e ªner Pees. HeCe efJemeeJ³ee µelekeÀe®³eeÒeejbYeeHeemetve efHeer-sKeve-He×leer®eer ®e®ee& nesle®e jeefner. cejeþerleerleeJ³e G®®eejebleer Goe. ®ene, PeW[e, pe³e ³eebleer G®®eejCeebmeeþerDeeefCe obleceter³e G®®eejebleer Goe. Peyes, penepe, ®ece®ee, PeieeF. ³eebleer G®®eejCeemeeþer SkeÀ®e efefHeef®evn Deens. ceebme, efmebn,mebefnlee ³eeb®es G®®eej Deveg¬eÀces ceebme,efmebn, mebefnlee ³eeb®es G®®eejDeveg¬eÀces ceebvme, efmebJn, mebefJnlee Demes nesleele HeCe `Je' ns efefHeef®evn eqefns peele veener. cebie, ceb$e ³eemeejK³ee meevegveeefmekeÀeb®esef®evn kesÀJeU DevegmJeej vemetve DevegveeefmekeÀe®es Jepeve p³ee Heger JeCee&Jej

He[les l³ee JeCee&®³ee Jeiee&leer DevegveeefmekeÀe®es efefHeef®evn lesLes JeeHejeJesGoe. cebie- ce², ceb$e- cev$e, Deeefbieve- Deeef*dieve, iegbpeejJe-iegppeejJe Demes efneJes Demee Deeûen keÀJeer ceeOeJe p³etef³eve cnCepes®eceeOeJe $³ebyekeÀ HeìJeOe&ve ³eebveer Oeje Je efHeer µeg×les®³ee ®eUJeUere®eÒeejbYe kesÀe. efJe.oe.meeJejkeÀj ³eeb®³ee Yee<eeµeg×er®³ee ®eUJeUerceeiesefefHeef®evneb®ee HegveefJe&®eejner neslee. íHeeF& keÀjleevee DeveskeÀ efKeÈ³eeb®eerpegUJeepegUJe keÀjC³eele keÀeHeJ³e³e nesT ve³es Je Deieesoj®e DeveskeÀefefHeef®evns DemeCeeN³ee Yee<ese íHeeF&®³ee ³egieele ceeies He[eJe³eeme YeeieHe[t ve³es cnCetve efJe.oe.meeJejkeÀjebveer efefHesKeveele keÀener yeomeg®eefJes. Goe. De' ³ee SkeÀe De#ejee e (keÀevee) ns ef®evn pees[skeÀer `Dee' ns ef®evn le³eej nesles. lej `G' ³ee De#ejemeeþer HetCe&le:JesieUs ef®evn keÀµeemeeþer? l³ee®es sKeve JesieUs cnCetve JesieUe íHeeF&®eeefKeUe le³eej keÀjeJee eies l³eeHes#ee `De'e ög efkebÀJee -t DeµeerDeveg¬eÀces NnmJe Je oerIe&lJe oeKeefJeCeejer ef®evns pees[tve Deg' Jee Det'Demes ef®evn le³eej keÀjeJes Demes l³eeb®es cele nesles. lemes®e `j' ³eeef®evnemeeþer Òee®eerve osJeveeiejerceO³es JeeHejs iesss (-~) ns ef®evnJeeHeju³eeme íHeeF& keÀceer ef®evnele keÀjlee ³esF& Demes ÒeefleHeeove nesleslej NnmJe, ñeeJe, $eeme F. ef®evneble `j' oµe&keÀ ef®evn `-~' Demes®eDeens Demes l³eeb®es efvejer#eCe nesles. Je SkeÀ Heìs Demee leke&À¬eÀcenerneslee. Hejbleg le,ve ³ee ef®evnebµeer l³eeb®eer ieÁle nesC³ee®eer µekeÌ³eleenerveekeÀejlee ³esle veener.

JeemleefJekeÀ cejeþer efHeeryeeyele pes keÀener Jeeo Pe[s leslelkeÀeerve efmLeleervegmeej nesle. 1904 ceO³es meeves-iees[yeess-

cees[er cegUe#ejs


neleJeUCes ³eeb®³ee HegekeÀejeves cejeþer®eer sKeveHe×leer' ner HegefmlekeÀeÒekeÀeefµele Peeer. ³ee leerve sKekeÀebveer Deveg®®eeefjle DevegmJeejebvee sKeveHe×leerletve keÀetve ìekeÀeJes Demes meg®eefJes. l³eeJej KetHe Jeeo Pe[s.µesJeìer, eskeÀceev³e eqìUkeÀebveer `kesÀmejer'ceO³es ®eej sKe efntve`keÀeUeÒeceeCes sKevee®es efve³ece yeoeJesle HeCe SkeÀoce IeeF& keÀªve³es' Demee ceO³ececeeie& keÀee. l³eeveblej 1929 ceO³es cenejeä^meeefnl³e Heefj<eosves SkeÀ meefceleer mLeeHeve kesÀer Je ³ee meefceleerves 1932ceO³es Òe®e efle efHeerJ³eJemLesle Kejslej, efHeersKeve efve³eceeble yeomeg®eefJes. lejerner Jeeo-ÒeefleJeeo nesle jeefns, DeKesjerme 1957 -58 ceO³es ceneceb[Ueves sKeveefJe<e³ekeÀ efve³ece efveef½ele kesÀs Je lesDeepeHeeJeslees Òe®eejele Deensle.

Deepe cejeþer®eer peer efHeer Deens leerle SketÀCe 52 JeCe&-Alphabets Deensle. Alphabets Jee JeCe& cnCepes efefKele ef®evns'nesle. l³eeb®³ee mebK³esyeeyelener celeeblejs Deensle. mebmkeÀ=leceOetve

mJeerkeÀejser $eÝ', $eÝ=',`=',`Á='ner ef®evns JeeHeªve HeÀej cejeþerµeyo le³eej nesle veenerle. cnCetve DeveskeÀebveer JeCe&ceesletve leer JeieUeJeerleDemes cele ceeb[s Deens. DeveskeÀebveer `#e', `pe' ³eebvee JeieUs Deens.HejbHejsves ceev³e kesÀser 52 cetU ef®evns JeeHeªve Deepe cejeþer®essKeve, íHeeF& nesles Deens. leer 52 cetU ef®evns Deµeer-

De,Dee,F,F&,G,T,$eÝ,$eÝ=,=, Á=,S,Ss,Dees, Deew, Deb, De:keÀ, Ke, ie, Ie, *d®e,í, pe, Pe, _eì, , [, , Cele, Le, o, Oe, veHe, HeÀ, ye, Ye, ce³e, j, , Je,µe, <e, me, n, U, #e, %e

De#ejmegsKeve j.ke=À.peesµeer


e (keÀevee) s (cee$ee) -b (DevegmJeej), -g (NnmJe GkeÀej), -t(oerIe& GkeÀej) Þe (e), -& (jHeÀej) ê ( /keÀej) jeä^ ( ^) F. ef®evnsJeeHeªve efHeer®es JeCe&, JeCee¥®eer De#ejs nesleele. Deepe mebieCekeÀele cetUG®®eejeb®es JeCe& Je ner ef®evns ³eeb®ee SkeÀ mJeleb$e Je ÒeoerIe& keÀUHeÀkeÀ'Deens. l³ee DeeOeejs Deelee mebieCekeÀer³e sKeve, Ye´ceCeOJeveerleer mebef#eHlemebosµe µekeÌ³e nesle Deens. l³eele DeeCeKeer mebµeesOeve, DeÐe³eeJeleerkeÀjCeJe ieleer ³eeb®eer DeeJeµ³ekeÀlee efvecee&Ce Peeer Deens.

ceeCemeeves oie[, Oeelet ³eebJej keÀesjsu³ee efHeerHeemetve les sKeCeer,ìekeÀ, yeesª, yeµe ³eeb®³ee mene³³eeves efHeer®es kesÀss megboj sKeveeefJe<keÀej³esLeHe³e¥le les mebieCekeÀer³e Je l³ee®e leb$e%eevee®³ee DeeOeejs mebef#eHlemebosµee'He³e&vle®ee ceeveJeer Òe³elve LekeÌkeÀ keÀªve ìekeÀCeeje Deens.

DeKesjerme, ceeCemeeves neleeves Ie[efJeser efHeer efneJeer' keÀµeer³eeyeÎ®es meble jeceoemeebveer meebefieless efve³ece veceto keÀªve Leebyeles,Oev³eJeeo.

meboYe& ûebLe : HegjeefYesKeefJeÐee' µeesYevee ieesKes, keÀeBefìveWì,HegCes

cejeþerleer keÀesjerJe sKe - [e@. µeb.iees. legUHegUsYee<ee Je meeefnl³e: mebµeesOeve Keb[ 1-2, mebHee. Jemeble peesµeer.

cenejeä^ meeefnl³e Heefj<eo ÒekeÀe. HegCescejeþer sKeve keÀesµe: mebHeeokeÀ De©Ce HeÀ[kesÀ, kesÀµeJe efYekeÀepeer

JeUs ÒekeÀe. cegbyeF&efJeÇ SkeÀ cenemecevJe³e : je. ef®eb. sjs


JßWmc` gßJUH$sH$aU Ö nwZamdcmoH$Z

n´m. MÃaoIm Hw$‚\$cH$aJßWnmc , _hcm _hmd⁄mc`, ZßXZdZ co AmD$Q>, ZmJnya -09.

Hw$. d⁄m _. JmS>doJßWmc` , gm∞‚Q>doAa gÑmJma Ö (_mÒQ>a gm∞‚Q>doAa Ö c~_∞Z) ZmJnya

gma Ö Z∞H$ _yÎ`_mnZmV gßÒWm d JßWmc`mßZm AmncmXOm© Q>H$dyZ Ro>dyZ _yÎ`_mnZmV `moΩ` JwU _id `m H$aVmJßWmc`mMo gßJUH$sH$aU H$aUo AmdÌ`H$ Pmco Amho. Z∞H$_yÎ`_mnZm¿`m nwZ\$arV JßWmc`mßZr gßJUH$sH•$V godm n´XmZH$a `m¿`m X•Ô>rZo H$m` AmÏhmZ pÒdH$mamdo, AmU À`mMo Z`moOZH$go H$amdo. `mMr MMm© n´ÒVwV coImV Ho$cr Amho.

n´ÒVmdZm Ö VßÃkmZmV hmoUmao Zd ZdrZ ~Xc, n´À ojjoÃmV CÀH$mßVr AmU `mg H$maUr yV R>aVmV. Wmß~cm Vmo gßncm`m CäVr n_mUoM n[apÒWVrZwgma ~XcUmam nmUr OJmV Q>H$mdYÈ eH$Vmo. AmO¿`m CÉ ejU nÚmcrcm XoIrc hmoUmË`m~XcmMr H$mg YaUo JaOoMo Pmco Amho. gmVÀ`mZo ~XcVOmUmË`m `m g_mOmV emgZmßMo ~XcUmao YmoaU, d⁄mc`mßMnémgZ, d ZdrZ VmßÃH$sH$maU m gdm™Mm dMma H$ÈZM CÉejU joÃmZo ho AmÏhmZ ÒdrH$mam`cm hdo. ZOrH$aU,eWcrH$aU d OmJVrH$sH$aUmMo dmao XoIrc AmO CÉ ejUnÚmcrcm ZdrZ Xem XoV Amho. ~m¯ d AßVJ©V _yÎ`_mnZgßÒWm XoIrc, CÉ ejUmcm EH$ ZdrZ AW© n´XmZ H$arVAmho.

1. CÉ ejU gßÒWßmMo JßWmc` Ö

CÉ ejU nÚmcrV, JßWmc` EH$ Ad^m¡` KQ>H$AgÎ`m_wio, À`mcm _mocmMo _hŒd n´m· Amho. n´ÀòH$_yÎ`_mnZ, d AY_m›`Vm n´H´$ oV XoIrc JßWmc` / _mhVrHo$›X´ / A‹``Z gmYZ Ho$›X´mßMr y_H$m CÑoIZr` Amho. B-caqZJ hr gßH$ÎnZm ÈOw hmoV AgÎ`m_wio JßWmc ßmMo H$m ©joÃ,_wäV ejU nUmcrV À`mßMr y_H$m, AYH$ geäV hmoV Amho.À`mH$[aVm À`mß¿`m H$m`m©Mr JVr XdgoßXdg dmT>dUo, ho AmOAÀ`mdÌ`H$ Pmco Amho, medm`, JßWmc`mßZm Zoh_r A⁄`mdVamh `mMr JaO Amho.

"Z∞H$' g_VrZo J´ßWmc`ßm¿`m gßJUH$sH$aUcm âXcm Amho. ÒWmZr` gdjU Ho$Î`mg Ago AmT>iVo, H$sg⁄pÒWVrV, (2000-2005) m H$mimV gd© _hmd⁄mc`mßMoZ∞H$ _yÎ`_mnZ n´H´$ oMr n´W_ \o$ar nyU© Pmcocr Amho d AZoH$_hmd⁄mc` Z∞H$ ¿`m nwZa\o$arMr V`mar H$arV Amho. `mMAZwfßJmZo, nhÎ`m \o$arV "Z∞H$' g_VrZo gwMdcoco ~Xc, dA›` ~mß~rMm hr dMma, n´À oH$M _hmd⁄mc` n´H$fm©Zo H$arVAmho. "Z∞H$' ¿`m XygË`m \o$arV, JßWmc`mßZm AYH$ n´mYm›`(AßH$) XÎ`m _wio, n´ÀòH$ _hmd⁄mc`rZ J´ ßWmc`gßJUH$sH$aU, BßQ>aZoQ>, gßJUH$sH•$V Omio d ZdrZ CnH´$_mßMmnwZÌM dMma H$arV Amho.

2. JßWmc`mßMo gßJUH$sH$aU Ö

H$moUÀ`mhr JßWmc`m¿`m gßJUH$sH$aUmgmR>r gßJUH$,AmU gßJUH$s` H$m © nÚmcr AmdÌ`H$ AgVo. JoÎ`m H$mhrdfm©V gßJUH$m¿`m H$ß_Vr _‹ o _moR>r KQ> PmÎ`m_wio, n´À oH$JßWmc`mßZm Vo nadS> `m gmaIo AmhoV. gßJUH$mMr IaoXr H$aVodoir, H$mhr ~m~r cjmV KoUo AmdÌ`H$ Amho.

2.1 gßJUH$ IaoXr

gßJUH$m¤mao H$m © H$a `mH$[aVm XmoZ _hŒdm¿`m ~m~rAmhoV.

I. gßJUH$ hmS©>doAa AmU

II. gßJUH$ gm∞‚Q>doAa

hmS©>doAa gßJUH$mcm AmVyZ, d ~mhoÈZ OmoS>Vmo, dÀ`mß¿`m _m\©$V, Cn^moäVm gßJUH$mcm Amnco ZXenmohMd `mMo H$m © H$aVmo. CXm. _m∞So>_, H$s~moS©>, c∞ZH$mS©> B.gßJUH$mMo gm∞‚Q>doAa ho hmS©>doAa ¤mao nmohMdcoÎ`m AmXoeMrVnmgUr H$ÈZ, À`mßMr Aß_c~OmdUr H$aVo. OJm¿`mH$mZmH$monË`mVyZ _mhVr emoYyZ Vr AmnÎ`m gßJUH$mdanmh `mgmR>r gßJUH$mMo hmS©>doAa d gm∞\$Q>doAa CŒm_ X¡`m©Mo


AgUo AmdÌ`H$ Amho. AmO ~mOmamV AZoH$ _m∞So>c Cnc„YAmhoV nU À`mMr ZdS> H$aVmßZm _mÃ V¡kmßMm gÑm d À`mMogdjU H$aUo n´mW_H$ JaOoMo R>aoc.

2.1.1 gßJUH$ hmS©>doAa IaoXr

⇒ gßJUH$mMo A⁄m`mdV Model KoUo AÀ`mdÌ`H$ Amho.

⇒ _Xa ~moS©> (Mother Board) Intel H$ßnZrMm d Intel

Chipset Mother Board Mm _Xa ~moS©> Agmdm

⇒ Processor XoIrc Intel P 4 Mo Agmdo

⇒ RAM 256 MB

⇒ J´ßWmc`mVrc gßJ´hmn´_mUo gßJUH$m¿`m hmS©>doAaMrj_Vm ZpÌMV H$aVm oVo.

⇒ _m∞ZQ>a (Monitor) AmH$ma AmdÌ`H$VoZwgma ZdS>mdm17 BßM / 15 BßM B.

⇒ wnrEg (UPS) ømoUo AmdÌ`H$ Amho. drOnwadR>m Iß[S>VPmÎ`mda `wnrEg _wio, gßJUH$ gwÈ amhVo, À`m_wioAmdÌ`H$ H$m © nyU© H$ÈZ gßJUH$ arVga ~ßX H$a `mH$aVm_XV hmoVo.

⇒ JßWmc`, dmMZ H$jmV _Ywa gßJrV (Soft music) gwÈRo>d `mH$aVm 2+1 ÒnrH$aMm goQ> KoVm oVmo.

⇒ gßÒWoVrc gßJUH$ EH$ XwgË`mcm OmoS> `m H$aVm LAN

Mm Cn`moJ H$ÈZ Xya‹dZr¿`m VmaoZo d Modem ¿`mghmÊ`mZo gßJUH$mcm BßQ>aZoQ> (Internet Connection)

OmoSbo OmVo. À`mA

H$[aVm gßJUH$mV Lancard AgUo JaOoMo Amho. VgoM "h~'H$ßdm [Òd¿`m ghmÊ`mZo EH$mM "h~'/[ÒdMcm OdiOdi AmR> ZmoS>, EH$mM doir _wª` gßJUH$mcm OmoS>Vm

oVmV.

⇒ BßQ>aZoMm Cn`moJ H$arV AgVm, gßJUH$mV EßQ>r Ïhm`ag(Antivirus) AgUo JaOoMo Amho. À`mH$[aVm, Mc-Aeee

Antivirus qH$dm Quick Heal Antivirus Agmdoo.

gßJUH$ IaoXr H$aVoo doir, darc hmS©>doAa doJdoJio IaoXrH$ÈZ, gßJUH$ V`ma H$ÈZ KoVm oVmo, qH$dm ~mOmamV H$mhrHß$n›`mßMo XoIrc V`ma gßJUH$ AmhoV.

2.1.2 gßJUH$ gm∞‚Q>doAa IaoXr

n´À`oH$ hmS©>doAaMo ÒdVÖMo gm∞‚Q>doAa AgVo, hogm∞‚Q>doAa ~mOmamVyZ doJio IaoXr H$a `mMr JaO ZgVo VogßJUH$m¿`m hmS©>doAa IaoXr H$aVodoir À`mß¿`m gm∞‚Q>doAaMrCD _Hß$dm floppy hmS©>doAa gmo~V [XÎ`m OmVo. Am∞nao[Qß>J[gÒQ>_ window 98 CŒm_ Amho. H$maU OmÒVrV OmÒV gßÒWo_‹ owindow 98 n´MbV Amho.

JßWmc`mV gßJUH$mMm dmna hm n´m_wª`mZo _m[hVr gßJ´hV`ma H$aUo, À`mMm emoY KoUo, `mÏ`[V[aäV H$m`m©c`rZH$m_H$mOmgmR>r H$a `mV oVmo. JßWmc`mV gßJUH$ KoVÎ`m ZßVaÀ`mcm Cn`wäV Ago H$moUVo gm∞‚Q>doAa Amho, hm hr n´ÌZCX≤ dVmo JßWmc`rZ Ï`dÒWmnZmVrc ddY H$m_o H$a `mgmR>rAßVJ©V Ï`dÒWmnZ H$m © (hmD$gH$s[nßJ) gm∞‚Q>doAg© Mm Cn`moJHo$cm OmVo.

3. JßWmc` gm∞‚Q>doAa

_hmd⁄mc` AmnÎ`m JaOoZwgma gm∞‚Q>doAa dH$gVH$È eH$Vmo. gm∞‚Q>doAa ÒdVÖ dH$[gV H$a `mMo H$mhr \$m`Xo-VmoQo> AmhoV.

\$m`Xo

1. gßÒWoV MmcUmË`m chmZmV chmZ H$m`m©Mm [dMma H$aVmoVmo.

2. H$m ©aV A[YH$mar, H$_©Mmar, Cn^moäVm mß¿`m e°j[UH$~m°[’H$ nmVirMm [dMma H$aVm oVmo.

3. n∞Ho$OMm Cn`moJ gwÈ Ho$Î`mZßVa AmT>iUmË`m MwH$m XwÈÒVH$aVm oVmV.

VmoQo>

1. gm∞‚Q>doAa n∞Ho$O [dH$[gV H$a `mV ~amM doi Am[Un°gm IM© hmoVmo.

2. AmdÌ`H$VoZwgma doimodoir ~Xc H$aV ahmdm cmJVmo.


3. gßÒWo AßVJ©V V`ma H$a `mV AmcoÎ`m gm∞‚Q>doAan∞Ho$OMr Cn`mo[JVm \$äV EH$mM [R>H$mUr R>a[dVm oVAgÎ`mZo BVa n∞Ho$O¿`m [H$Vr g_VwÎ` Amho ho R>a[dVm

oV Zmhr.

JaOoZwgma ÒdVÖ [dH$[gV Ho$coÎ`m gm∞‚Q>doAa n∞Ho$O¿`m\$m`⁄m-VmoQ>`mßMm A‰`mg H$ÈZ H$moUVr ~m~ \$m`Xoera Amhoho némgZmZo/ Ï`dÒWmnZmZo d JßWnmcmZo R>admdo. `m~m~VAMyH$ ZU© KoUo AmdÌ`H$ AgVo. ~mOma noRo>V AmO AZoH$gm∞‚Q>doAag© Cnc„Y AmhoV Or JßWmc`mgmR>r Cn wäV AmhoV.

3.1 gm∞‚Q>doAa n∞Ho$OMr [ZdS>

1. Cnc„Y Agcoco H∞$Q>cm∞J, ¡`mV n∞Ho$OMr Zmdo, nŒmo,d°[eÔ> o `m ~‘c _m[hVr AgVo.

2. "kmZJßJmoÃr' d "J´ ßWn[adma' [Z`VH$m[cH$mß_YyZgm∞‚Q>doAa ~m~V _m[hVr n´H$m[eV hm oV o Aem[Z`VH$m[cH$mßMm n´À`j dmna H$aUo.

3. n∞Ho$OMm Cn`moJ H$aV AgcoÎ`m Cn^moäÀ`mer MMm©,MM¿`m _m‹`_mVyZ n∞Ho$OMr [ZdS> `moΩ` n’VrZo H$aVm

oVo.

4. gßJUH$sH$aU PmcoÎ`m J´ßWmc`mßZm ôQ> XoD$Z VoWrcJßWnmc, H$_©Mmar dJ©, Cn^moäÀ`mßMm AZw d cjmVKodyZ n∞Ho$OMr [ZdS> H$aVm oVo.

3.2 gm∞‚Q>doAa IaoXr H$aVmZm

1. gm∞‚Q>doAaMr [ZdS> H$aVmßZm Vo H$moUr [dH$[gV Ho$co Amho,Vo nmhUo JaOoMo Amho.

2. n∞Ho$O [dH$V KoVmßZm dm∞a›Q>rMm H$ama H$aUo.

3. n∞Ho$O dH$V KoVÎ`mZßVa Cn`moJm~m~VMo néjU/AS>MUr Xya H$a `mMr gmo Agmdr.

4. n∞Ho$O H$go hmVmimdoV m~‘cMr _m[hVr XoUmar nw[ÒVH$mhdr.

5. gm∞‚Q>doAa n∞Ho$O hmVmi `mg gmono Agmdo (User

Friendly)

6. gm∞‚Q>doAa n∞Ho$OMr [Hß$_V J´ßWmc`mg nadS>UmarAgmdr.

7. [H$Vr JßWmMm S>mQ>m n∞Ho$O¿`m So>Q>m~og _‹ o gßJhrV H$aVmoVo, ho VnmgyZ nhmdo.

8. gßJ´[hV JßWmMr _m[hVr XwgË`m S>mQ>m~og_‹ o g_m`moOZH$a `mMr gmo Agmdr.

9. nÚmcr AßVJ©V ~Xc KS>dyZ Ko `mMr Ï`dÒWm.

10. nÚmcrV H$mhr AS>MUr AgÎ`mg À`mMo [ZdmaUH$a `mMr gmo gßÒWoZo Cnc„Y H$ÈZ ⁄mdr.

3.3 H$mhr gm∞‚Q>doAaMr Vm|S> AmoiI

→→→→→ SLIM : gm∞‚Q>doAa \$m∞a cm`~ár A∞ßS> B›\$_eZ_∞ZO_|Q> h o gm ∞‚Q>doAa _V¿`m AZoH$JwUdeofm_wio ~Ë`mM JßWmc`mV g‹`m dmnamVAmho. [deofH$ÈZ `mMo J´mhH$ [d⁄mnrR> JßWmc`d _m›`da gßÒWm AmhoV. ho gm∞‚Q>doAa DOS ~ogAmho Va Clipper +C `m ^mfoV V`ma Ho$co AgyZnwUo oWrc M/S Algorithms, D-9 Ashirwad,

Karve Road, Kothrud, Pune – 411029 `mßZr[dH$[gV Ho$co Amho. ZmJnyamVrc H$mhr_hm[d⁄mc`rZ JßWmc`mß_‹ o `mMm dmna Amho.

→→→→→ SOUL (Soetware eor UniversityLibraries) : [d⁄mnrR> JßWmc`mMm _moR>m dmMH$dJ©, gßemoYZ d A‹`mnZmVrc H$m © cjmV KodyZ[d⁄mnrR> AZwXmZ Am`moJm¿`m INFLIBNET `m_m›`Vmnm· gßÒWoZo ho gm∞‚Q>doAa V`ma Ho$co AgyZ[d⁄mnrR> VgoM _hm[d⁄mc` J´ßWmc`mV `mMmdmna hmoV AgÎ`mMo [XgVo. m_‹ o JßWmonmO©Z dJ´ßWmonÒH$ma, Vm[cH$sH$aU, XodKod, [g[a`cH$›Q¥>moc Am[U JßWÏ`dÒ_mnZ BÀ`mXr _m∞S> yÎgAmhoV. ZmJnyamVrc H$mhr _hm[d⁄mc` `mnÚmcrMm dmna H$aVmV, naß›Vw `m gm∞‚Q>doAaMoH$m`m©c` [Hß$dm n´[V[ZYr, Cnc„Y ZgÎ`m_wio~Ë`mM AS>MUtZm Vm|S> ⁄mdo cmJV Amho.

→→→→→ LIBSYS : ho gm ∞‚Q>doAa 1988 nmgyZdoJdoJi`m J´ ßWmc`mV dmnaco OmV Amho.[deofVÖ [d⁄mnrR> J´ßWmc`, IIT, IIM, [agM©c∞~moaQ>[aO B. gßÒWm `mßMm dmna H$aV AmhoV.


^maVmVrc gd© [~´Q>re H$m°[›gc JßWmc o `mMmdmna H$aVmV. ho gm∞‚Q>doAa DOS, LAN, UNIX

`m Am∞na[Qß>J [gÒQ>__‹ o MmcVo. Va mgmR>r ‘C’

`m ^mfoMm dmna Ho$cm Amho. n´ÒVwV gm∞‚Q>doAaM/S LIBSYS CORPORATION, D-7/4,Rockview elats, Munirka, New Delhi –110067 `m gßÒWoZ o [dH[gV Ho$co Amho.[dX^m©Vrc AZoH$ _moR> m JßWmc`mß_‹ o mMm dmnaAmho. hr gm∞‚Q>doAa nÚmcr _hmJ AgÎ`m_wioJ´m_rU _hm[d⁄mc`mßZm Vr nadS> `m gmaIrZmhr.

→ LIB-MAN : "[c~_∞Z' ho gm ∞‚Q>doAaJ´ßWmc`mgmR>r AÀ`ßV Cn`wäV AgyZ Imcrc_m∞S>`yÎg _‹ò Amho. Ogo ∑ Acquistion &Catoaloging, ∑ Circulation, ∑ OPAC- online Public Access Catalogue, ∑ SerialControls, ∑ MIS Reports ∑ Utility medm`gm∞‚Q>doAaMr d°eÔ>` nwT>rc n´_mUo %Free Bar-code eacility, %Multi Lingual Devnagrieonts, %No limitation on books, %Journals,Well documented Manuals, %Windowbased ho gm∞‚Q>doAa _mÒQ>g© gm∞‚Q>doAa (Master

Soetware) 1456 A New Nandanvan,

Nagpur – 09 (MS) `mßZr [dH$[gV Ho$co Amho.À`m gm∞‚Q>doAaMr [Hß$_V 30,000/- È. Amho.

n´m_wª`mZo EH$ JmoÔ> gmßJVm oB©c H$s JßWmc` gm∞‚Q>doAaV`ma H$aUmË`m H$mhr gßÒWm H$m`m©c`rZ H$m`m©H$[aVm XoIrcgm∞‚Q>doAa V`ma H$aVmV. EH$mM gßÒWoH$Sy>Z Oa Xmo›hr gm∞‚Q>doAa[dH$V KoVÎ`mg LAN ¤mao _m[hVrMr XodmU KodmU H$a `mggmono OmVo. Xmo›hr gm∞‚Q>doAa doJdoJi`m gßÒWmßMo AgÎ`mg_m[hVr gßJ´hmMo H$m © doJdoJio H$amdo cmJVo À`m_wio doi OmÒVOmVmo, _m[hVrMo XodmU KodmU H$aVo doir ~Ë`mM AS>MUtZmVm|S> ⁄mdo cmJVo.

V`ma gm∞‚Q>doAa _‹ o Lib-Man gm∞‚Q>doAaMm nm_wª`mZoCÑoI H$aVm oB©c.

4. [c~_∞Z/Lib-Man Ö nmÌd© y[_ d [dH$mg Ö

Lib-Man gm∞‚Q>doAa V`ma H$aUmar Master’s

Software hr gßÒWm Amho. m gßÒWoMo gßMmcH$ ZmJnya [d⁄mnrR>

gßJUH$ [d^mJmMo yVnyd© [d^mJ n´_wI "lr. gmo_mUr' AmhoV.`mß¿`m _mJ©Xe©Zm Imcr [c~_∞Z Mo [Z[_©VrH$ma "lr. `moJoenmQ>rc (MßXńya), VgoM `mcm `mß[ÃH$ d Vmß[ÃH$ X•Ô>`m g~i~Z[d `mMo H$m`© "lr. gßO` Pm"(_‹`n´Xoe), d "cVmdmgdmZr'(ZmJnya) `mßZr Ho$co.

gm∞‚Q>doAa V`ma H$aVmßZm À`mßZm JßWmc` emÒÃm¿`mV¡kmßMo _mJ©Xe©Z VgoM ghH$m © cm^co Amho. À`mV nm_wª`mZo_mZZr` S>m∞. nr. Eg. Or. Hw$_ma ga ( wVnyd© JßWnmc-amÔ¥>gßVVwH$S>moOr _hmamO ZmJnya, ZmJnya [d⁄mnrR> JßWmc`), lr.n[ahma, lr. Ama. EZ. XoenmßS o>(Ïhr.EZ.Am`.Q>r.), lr. T>dio(JßWnmc Eg.~r.gr.Q>r. _hm.), lr. O°Z, lr. Jdir, lr.[MH$mQo>, lr_Vr Hw$‚\$_cH$a(J´ßWnmc-_. _hm.) lr_VrXoenmßSo> (J´ßWnmc-H$.Zo._hm.) BÀ`mXtMr Zmdo CÑoIZrÀmhoV.

gd© nW_ 2000 _‹ o "[c~_∞Z cm ~mOmanoRo>V AmUÎ`mJoco. ¡`mMo n´mÀ`m[jH$ "YZdQo> Z∞eZc _hm[d⁄mc` dNUCLA ¿`m gß`wäV [d⁄_mZo Am`mo[OV H$a `mV Amco.MMVyZ AmcoÎ`m C[UdmßZm XwÈÒV H$ÈZ Adø`m ghm _[h›`m¿`mAßVamimV [c~_∞Z gm∞‚Q>doAa ~mOmanoRo>V nwZZ©Ï`m ÒdÈnmVAmUÎ`m Joco. AÎnH$mimVM m gm∞‚Q>doAa¿`m H$jm dmT>dyZlr. gmo_mUr d BVa M_yZr H$m`m©c`rZ H$m_H$mOmH$[aVm XoIrcCMS-7.0 `m gm∞‚Q>doAaMo [dH$gZ Ho$co.

0

20

40

60

80

100

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

df© [c~_∞ZMr dmT> d [dH$mg Xe©[dUmam

VäVm (2000-2005)

[dX^m©V [dH[gV gd©n´W_ J´ ßWmc`rZ [c~_∞Zgm∞‚Q>doAacm (2000 Vo 2005) `m nmM dfm©¿`m AÎnH$mcmdYrVM _hmamÔ¥>mVyZM ZÏho Va _hmamÔ¥>m ~mhoa Vm[_iZmSy>,

EHw$U _hm[d⁄mc

`


AmßY´ n´Xoe, Òdm`V [d⁄mnrRo>, A[^`mß[ÃH$s Am[U d°⁄[H$`_hm[d⁄mcò Am[U [dkmZ, H$cm Am[U dm[U¡`_hm[d⁄mc`mß_YyZ XoIrc _mJUr òdy cmJcr. [d[dYÒVamVrc EHw$U 225 _hm[d⁄mc` VgoM emgH$s`H$m`m©c`m_‹ o XoIrc `mMm Cn`moJ Ho$Î`m OmV Amho, À`mM~amo~a Ho$ai, Vm[_iZmSy>, AmßY nXoe, _hmamÔ¥> Am[U h[a`mUm`m [R>H$mUr XoIrc [c~_∞Z gm∞‚Q>doAaMm Cn`moJ hmoV Amho.[c~_∞Z gm ∞‚Q>doAa gmYmaUVÖ 100 ZmdmOcoÎ`m_hm[d⁄mc`mß_‹ò èÒdr[aÀ`m H$m`©H$arV Amho. VgoMJß mc`mß_‹ o A›` gm∞‚Q>doAa da H$m © Ho$co AgVm, À`mVrcH$mhr Vmß[ÃH$ AS>MUt _wio ÃÒV PmcoÎ`m _hm[d⁄mc`rZJßWmc`mßZmß [c~_∞Z gm∞‚Q>doAaMr _XV ø`mdr cmJcr Amho[d⁄mnrR> d À`mßZm gßcæ _hm[d⁄mc`rZ JßWmc`mß_‹ o Ho$Î`mOmUmao gd© Vmß[ÃH$ H$m © m gßJUH$ gm∞‚Q>doAa ¤mao H$aUo ghOeä` Amho. `m AmkmdcrMm EH$mM doir AZoH$ Cn^moäVo(Users) Cn`moJ H$È eH$VmV. ho gm∞‚Q>doAa hmVmi `mggmonr d n´~i Amho. `m gm∞‚Q>doAaMm Cn`moJ H$a `mH$[aVmCn^moäÀ`mcm gßJUH$mMo n´mW_H$ kmZ Zgco Var, Vmo hogm∞‚Q>doAa ghO[aÀ`m hmVmiy eH$Vmo.

gm∞‚Q>doAa d Cn^moäVm `mV Am[À_`Vm [Z_m©U Ïhmdr`m X•Ô>rZo, [c~_∞Z gm∞‚Q>doAaMr _mJ©Xe©H$ nw[ÒVH$m (_∞› wAc)_amR>r_‹ o V`ma H$a `mV Amcr Amho. VgoM BßJOr _‹ o XoIrchr nw[ÒVH$m cdH$a Cnc„Y H$ÈZ Xo `mV oUma Amho. _amR>r^mfoV [cfl`mßVaUmMr gmo XoIrc `m gm∞‚Q>doAa _‹ o Cnc„YAmho.

4.1 [c~_∞Z gm∞‚Q>doAa _‹ò ghm n´_wI [d^mJmV[d^mJco Amho.

4.1.1. Acquisition & Cataloguing :

hm [d^mJ gyMZmgßMmVrc _hŒd nyU© [d^mJ Amho. `m[d^mJmV JßW JßWmc`mV IaoXr H$a `mnmgyZ Vo JßW gßJ´hmVrcJßW a‘~mXc H$a `m¿`m gd© ZmßoXr `m [d^mJmV Ho$Î`m OmdyeH$VmV. VgoM `m [d^mJmVrc gdm©V _hŒdmMo H$m © JßWßmMrZm|X H$aUo hmo .

4.1.2. Circulation (JßWXodKod [d^mJ) Ö

m [d^mJmV nm_wª`mZo Cn^mäÀ`m ~‘cMr gßnyU© _m[hVrgmR>dyZ Ro>dcr OmVo. JßWmc`mVrc XodKodrMo gßnyU© H$m © `mM[d^mJmV Ho$co OmVoo. VgoM ~wH$ ~±H$Mo H$m © XoIrc Ho$co OmVo.nÀ oH$ ~r.Q>r. Mm [dÒV•V Ahdmc ~K `mMr gmo XoIrc Amho.VgoM ~maH$moS> Mr Ï`dÒWm gm∞‚Q>doAa _‹ o Ho$cr Amho.

4.1.3. OPAC (Cn`moOH$mßgmR>r gßJUH$s` Vm[cH$m) Ö

J´ßWmÎ`mV Cn^moäVm ÒdVÖ dmnÈ eH$Vrc AergßJUH$s` Vm[cH$m. `mV Cn^moäVm ¡`m n´_mUo JßWmMr _m[hVrAgoc À`m _m[hVr n´_mUo Cn^moäVm gßnyU© JßWm~‘c _m[hVrjUmYm©V [_idy eH$Vmo. VgoM nćoImVrc _wª` e„X gßko¤mao


d ~w[c`Z Am∞naoQ>aMm (and, or, not) d Q¥ß>Ho$eZMm Cn`moJH$ÈZ XoIrc nćoImMr gßnyU© _m[hVr n´m· H$aUo eä` Amho.

4.1.4. Serial Controls :

`m pd^mJmV H´$_H$mpcH$m / pZ`VH$mpcH$m (Journals /

Magazines / Periodicals) `mßMr gßnyU© ZmoßX Ho$cr OmVo.JßWmÎ`mV oUmË`m gd© [Z`VH$m[cH$mß¿`m IaoXr ZmßXr nmgyZ Vo[Z`VH$m[cH$mß¿`m ~mßYUr n ©V¿`m gd© ZmoßXr mV H$aVm oVmV.dV©_mZ nÃmMr Zm|X XoIrc m [d^mJmV H$aVm oVo. m [d^mJmMod°eÔÁ> ÂhUOo [Z`VH$m[cH$ n[anÃH$ d dV©_mZ nÃmßMr[ZXoe©H$m V`ma H$ÈZ À`mMm Ahdmc ~KVm oVmo.

4.1.5. MIS Reports : `m [d^mJmV JßWmb`mV Ho$Î`m OmUmË`m gd© H$m`m©Mm

Ahdmc ~KVm oVmo. JßWnmcmMr Oer JaO Agoc À`m Zwgma`mVrc Ahdmc ~KVm oVmV. ho Ahdmc gßª`mÀ_H$ ÈnmVMZÏho Va Vo AmcoI ÈnmV XoIrc ~KVm ody eH$VmV. Z∞H$ dBVa _yÎ`_mnZmH$[aVm hm [d^mJ A[Ve` Cn`moJr Amho.

4.1.6. Utility :

`m nUmcrVrc gdm©V eodQ>Mm [d^mJ Amho. m [d^mJmVÒdVÖ JßWnmc H$m © H$È eH$Vmo. nUmcrMm H$moUVm [d^mJ H$moUrCn`moJmV AmUmdm ho JßWnmc R>ady eH$Vmo. ¡`m_wio nÚmcr dJßWmc`mVrc gd© H$m`m©da JßWnmcmcm [Z ßÃU Ro>dUo gmono OmVo.

5. JßWmc` gßJUH$sH$aUmV Ö H$mhr AS>MUr / g_Ò`m

→ gm∞‚Q>doAa _‹ o nćoIßmMr Zm|X H$moUr H$amdr

→ _hmd⁄mc`rZ J´ßWmc`mß_‹ò, OoWo nćoIr` gm_J´rA[YH$ n´_mUmV Amho, [VWo Ow›`m nćoIr` gßJ´hm¿`mZm|Xr H$moUr H$amd`mV, hm `j n´ÌZ AgVmo.

→ AÌ`m n[apÒWVrV, JßWnmcmßZm ho H$m © H$aUo A[Zdm ©R>aVo. A›` H$m_mMm ~moOm, d gßJUH$mVrc A[V[aäVH$m_o, `mV g_›d` gmYUo AZoH$Xm H$Ô>n´X R>aVo. `mV[deof gßJUH$ AmYm[aV néjUmMr XoIrc JaO^mgVo.

→ JßWmc`mV H$m © H$aUmam BVa H$_©Mmar dJ© Ï`mdgm[`H$d gßJUH$ néjV ZgÎ`m_wio, gßnyU© H$m_ À`mß¿`mdagmon[dUo Omo_I[_Mo (risky) R>aVo. `m Ï`[V[aäV,J´ßWmc`mVrc AßVJ©V némgH$s` Ï`dÒWmnZmV BVaH$_©MmË`mßMr _XV Ko `mH$_aVm, À`mßZm n[ejU JaOoMoR>aVo.

→ gßJUH$ nÚmcr Ï`dpÒWV / gwairV Mmcd `m¿`mX•Ô>rZo dmaßdma AZoH$ AS>MUrZm gm_moao Omdo cmJVo.

→ JßWnmc, d JßWmc`mVrc H$_©MmË`mßMr JhUj_Vm È[M,ZdrZ H$m_ eH$ `mMr d H$a `mMr B¿N>m, nÚmcrcmèÒdr[aÀ`m Mmcd `mV / ~ßX H$a `mV H$maUr yVR>aVmV.

→ drO ZgVmßZm, H$m_mMr [¤d•Vr Q>miVm oV Zmhr

→ Cn^moäVm/dmMH$ dJm ™cm XoIrc gwÈdmVrcmgßJUH$sH•$V _m[hVr emoYmV AZoH$ AS>MUr oVmV.

6. Cnm`moOZm

→ H$mhr J´ßWmc`mß_‹ò, Ï`dÒWmnZmMo MßmJco hmV~iAgÎ`m_wio, Hß$ÃmQ>n’Vrda J´ ßWmc` d _mhVremÒÃmVrc d⁄mœ`m™Zm, [Z[dXm _mJdyZ n´M[cV Xam(rates) n´_mUo ho H$m_ ~mhoÈZ H$a `mMr n‹XV Amho.gm∞‚Q>doAa [dH$[gV H$aUmar M_y XoIrc A[V[aäVqH$_VrV, ho H$m_ H$arV AgVo. naßVw ho n´ÀòH$_hmd⁄mc`rZ JßWmc`mßZm gß d Zmhr.


→ JßWmc`mVrc gßJ´h cjmV KodyZ, _hmd⁄mc`, gßÒWmd Ï`dÒWmnZ g[_Vr H$Sy>Z ¯m ~m~r R>adyZ ÒdVÖJßWnmcmZo ho H$m © H$amdo, A›`Wm AmO gßJUH$mV _mhVrgßJ´h H$ÈZ Xo `mH$[aVm, AZoH$ Ï`mdgm`r JQ>, ho H$m ©H$a `mH$[aVm VÀna AgVmV, À`mßZm gßnH©$ H$ÈZ gßJhm¿`mZm|Xr gßJUH$sH•$V H$aVm ody eH$VmV.

→ gßJUH$mMr gßª`m [ZpÌMV H$aVmßZm JßWmc`mMm Ï`mncjmV KodyZ gßJUH$mßMr gßª`m [ZpÌMV H$amdr.JßWmc`mV H$_rV H$_r VrZ gßJUH$ [ZpÌMV Agmdo.EH$ gßJUH$ J´ßWnmcmOdi, EH$ XodKod d^mJmV,Cn^moäÀ`mZm OPAC dÈZ _mhVr emoY›`m H$_aVm.

→ gm∞‚Q>doAaMm Cn`moJ H$gm H$amdm mMo néjU XoIrcJßWnmcmZo d JßWmc`mVrc n´À oH$ H$_©MmË`mßZo ø`mdo.JßWnmcmg doi ZgÎ`mg À`mMo H$m © BVa H$_©Mmar H$ÈeH$Vrc.

→ JßWmc`mVrc JßWmMr XodKod H$aVoo doir ~maH$moS> V`maH$amdo cmJVmV, ho H$m © XoIrc JßWmc` ÒdVÖ qH$$dmHß$ÃmQ> n‹XVrZo H$È eH$Vo.

→ gßJUH$sH$aUmMo gßnyU© H$m © IM©H$ AgÎ`m_wio Vo EH$mMdoir Z H$aVm, À`mßMo gwZ`moOV d^mOZ H$ÈZ H$aUoAmJÀ`mMo R>aVo.

7. g_mamon Ö

_mhVr - VßÃkmZm¿`m dmT>À`m n´ mdm_wio JßWmc`m¿`mnmaßn[aH$ H$m`m©_‹ o ~Xc KSy>Z oV Amho. À`mg Vm|S> Xo `mgmR>r

nmaßnm[aH$ J´ßWnmcZ nwao nS>Uma Zmhr. À`mM ~amo~a Z∞H$g_Vr¿`m Anojm nyU© H$a `mg J´ßWnmcmßZm J´ßWmc`mcmgßJUH$sH•$V H$ÈZ ZdrZ godm H$em XoVm oB©c `mH$So> Amncocj Hoß$X´rV H$amdo. OwZo dÒÃ Q>mHy$Z, ZdrZ n[aYmZ d À`mM~amo~arZo cmJUmao ZdrZ Am yfU ÒdrH$ma H$aUo hr H$mimMrJaOM ZÏho Va, JßWnmcmßZm Ï`dgm`mV ÒdVÖcm Q>H$d `mgmR>r`medm` A›` n`m© Zmhr.

n´ wäV ÒÃmoV

1. IoaSo>, _mohZ ""J´ßWmc` gßJUH$sH$mUmMo _ycÀdo''JßWmc` gßJUH$sH$mUmMo _ycÀdo, A_amdVrÖ 2000.

2. JmS>do, d⁄m AmU _mZH$a, AM©Zm ""~XcVo VßÃkmZd e°jUH$ JßWmc`'' JßWn[adma 18, (Owc° 2003) Ö2-6.

3. JmS>do, d⁄m ""b~_∞Z _∞› wAc'' _mÒQ>a gm∞‚Q>doAa,ZmJnya Ö 2003.

4. J´ßWmc` gßJUH$sH$mU nÚmcr ""H$m`©nw[ÒVH$m''èdßVamd MÏhmZ _hmamÔ¥> _wäV d⁄mnrR>, ZmeH$ Ö2000, 56.

5. _mÒQ>a gm∞‚Q>doAa ""b~_∞Z JßWmc` Ï`dÒW_mnZ nUmcr''_mÒQ>a gm∞‚Q>doAa, ZmJnya Ö 2002.

6. dra, Y_©amO ""JßWmc` AmU _mhVremÒÃ'' JßWn[adma20 (_mM©-E[nć 2005) Ö 21-23.


g⁄:‡MbV A›` _amR>r \$m∞›Q> d h[ae XodZmJar

(Hardv01) \$m∞›Q> `mßMo VwbZmÀ_H$ A‹``Z.

Comparative study between other Marathi fonts and Hardv01 font

‡emßV Y_m©YH$mar

‡ÒVmdZm : ^mfobm g_•’ H$a `mgmR>r AmYwZH$VßÃkmZmVrb gßJUH$mMm dmna hr H$mimMr JaO Amho.

gßJUH$mMr ghO Cnb„YVm Xdg|Xdg KamoKar dmT>VAmho. BßJÓr _m‹`_mVyZM gßJUH$mMm OmÒV dmna hmoV Amho.B¿N>m AgyZhr _amR>r Q>m`qnJ H$aUo A›` g⁄: ‡MbV \$m∞›Q>_wio BßJÓr¿`m VwbZoZo päbÔ> Amho. À`m_wio _amR>r-gßÒH•$V-qhXr `m XodZmJar ^mfmß¿`m A‹``ZgmR>r gßJUH$mMm dmnahmoV ZgÎ`mZo m XodZmJar mfmßMm dH$mg d ‡gma Pmbm nmhOoÀ`m JVrZo hmoV Zmhr.

hr AS>MU Xya Ïhmdr ÂhUyZ g‹`m¿`m gßJUH$m¿`mghmÊ`mZo ghOnUo _amR>r (gßÒH•$V) XodZmJar bnrVrb Q>m`qnJH$aVm oB©b m —Ô>Zo lr h[ae Vfim (gßÒH•$V^maVr, _wß~B©) mßZrH$ÎnVoVyZ V`ma Ho$bobm Hardv01 hm \$m∞›Q> AÀ ßV gwb^ Amho.ImoboÌda _hmd⁄mb`mVrb gßJUH$ d^mJmV m —Ô>Zo A‰`mgMmby AgyZ AZoH$ d⁄mWu d ‡m‹`mnH$ `mß¿`m ngßVrV hm\$m∞›Q> CVabm Amho. _amR>rMo deof kmZ Zgbobo AmßΩbd⁄md yfV d¤mZ _amR>r d gßÒH•$V Q>ßH$boIZ AÀ ßV gwb^VoZoH$È eH$VmV.

ZÓH$f© : 1) Hardv01 hm \$m∞›Q> AVe` gwb^ Amho.

2) _amR>r _w–U AYH$ ‡^mdr hmody eH$Vo.

A›` \$m∞›Q> nojm Cn w∫$ H$gmü?...

1) Hardv01 A›` \$m∞›Q>¿`m H$s ~moS>©Mr aMZm JwßVmJwßVrMrAgÎ`m_wio À`m \$m∞ Q>Mm gamd AgÎ`medm` Q>ßH$boIZH$aUß AdKS> OmVß.

2) hm \$m∞ Q> gßÒH•$V¿`m CÉmaemÒÃmda (phonetics).AmYm[aV AgÎ`m_wio BßJÓr d _amR>r g_mZ CÉmaAgUmar Ajaß gwb^VoZo Q>ßH$bIV H$aVm oVmV.

Ogo.

g = S ~ = B

H$ = K O = J

3) deofV: gßÒH•$VgmR>r Z_m©U Ho$bm JoÎ`m_wio AZoH$OmoS>mja Ogo ˆ⁄ _Yrb "ˆ' d "⁄' _hmamÔ¥>_Yrb Ô¥>Aer AZoH$ Aja `m \$m∞›Q> _Yo AmT>iVmV Or A›`\$m∞ Q>_‹ o π$MVM AmT>iVmV.

4) _amR>r d gßÒH•$VM deof kmZ Zgbobo BßJÓr^mfH$XoIb `m \$m∞ Q>¿`m ghmÊ`mZo CÀH•$Ô> Q>ßH$boIZ H$ÈeH$VmV.

5) http:harishtanna.tripod.com Zmdm¿`m do~gmBQ>dahm \$m∞›Q> ZewÎH$ Cnb„Y Amho.


gma :

‡ÒVwV emoYZ~ßßYm_‹ o JßWmb`mMo gßJUH$sH$aU ÂhUOooH$m`? gßJUH$sH$aUmMr AmdÌ`H$Vm À`mM‡_mUo JßWmb`mMogßJUH$sH$aU H$arV AgVmZm AmIUr H$em‡H$mao H$amdr,J´ßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aUmMo Z`moOZmVrb _hÀdmMo KQ>H$ dnm`Ë`mßMr MMm© Ho$br Amho. JßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aU AmdÌ`H$KQ>H$mß_‹ò J´ßWmb`mMo Ï`dÒWmnZ d X°ZßXZ H$m_mgmR>rAmdÌ`H$ Agbobr JßWmb` gßJUH$ H$m ©‡Umbr (JßWmb`~w[‹X^mJ ) Mm ‡m_wª`mZo dMma H$amdm bmJVmo. moΩ` JßWmb`H$m ©‡Umbr gßM H$gm Agmdm À`mMn´_mUo ^maVr` ^mfßm_‹ oAgboÎ`m JßWmb`mVrb JßW d BVa dmMZgmhÀ`mMo ‡boIdU©Z, ‡H´$`m d _mhVrMr ‡V ‡m· d godm `m_‹ò

oUmË`m g_Ò`mßMm ‡m_wª`mZo dMma Ho$bm Amho. d⁄m‡gmaH$_ßS>i, R>mUo `m gßÒWo¿`m e°jUH$ KQ>H$ gßÒWmß¿`mgßJUH$sH$aUmMm AZw^d d ~h˛^mfH$$ dmMZgmhÀ`m¿`mgßJUH$sH$aUmV AmboÎ`m g_Ò`mßMr MMm© m emoYZ~ßßYm_‹ oHo$br Amho.

AmYwZH$ H$mim_‹ o JßWmb o ÂhUOo Aem gm_mOH$gßÒWm AmhoV H$s ¡`m R>H$mUr JßW AmU BVa dmMZgmhÀ`mMmgßJh Ho$bm OmVmo d m _‹ o _hÀdmMm C‘oe AgVmo Vmo dmMH$mßZmJßWmb`mVrb dmMZgmhÀ` À`mß¿`m JaOoZwgma Cnb„Y H$ÈZXoUo AmU ÂhUyZ JßWmb` d _mhVremÒÃmZwgma m JßWmb`mMr_mßS>Ur d Ï`dÒWmnZ Ho$bo OmVo.

JßWmb`mßMm BVhmg nmhbm Va AmnUmg B. g. ny.VZ hOma dfm© nydu gw‹Xm JßWmb o AÒVÀdmV AgÎ`mMm CÑoIAmT>iVmo . maVm_‹ o XoIrb ‡mMrZ H$mir AVe` g_•‹X dOmJVH$ _m›`Vm‡mflV J´ßWmbò hmoVr. ^maVmVrb ‡mMrZd⁄mnrR>o> ‡m_wª`mZo ZmbßXm, Vjebm B. hr À`mß¿`m g_•‹XJßWmb`mßgmR>r ‡g‹X hmooVr. AZoH$ dXoer A‰`mgH$mßZr `mJßWmb`mMm dmna Ho$Î`mMm Jm°adnyU© CÑoI maVm¿`m BVhmgmVAgÎ`mMm AmnUmg AmT>iVmo.

J´ßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aU AmU _amR>r

nydu¿`m H$mir JßWmb o hr JßWßmMm gßM` d OVZH$a `mMr R>>H$mUo ÂhUyZ ApÒVÀdmV hmooVr d JßWnmb hm À`mR>H$mUmMm aIdmbXma Ï`dÒWmnH$ `m ÒdÈnmMr Ï`∫$s Ago,Aem JßWmb`mßMm _hÀdmMm C‘oe hm JßWßmMr OnUyH$ H$aUo AgmhmoVm d `m JßWmb`mßMm dmna g_mOmVrb R>amdH$ C¿MnXÒWd C¿MdUu` JQ>mnwaVmM _`m©XV hmoVm. H$maU À`mH$mim_‹ o_w–UH$bm d JßWZ_uVrMr AmYwZH$ ßÃUm Cnb„Y ZÏhVr,naßVw nßYamÏ`m eVH$m_‹ò _w–UH$boMm emoY bmJÎ`mZßVaJßWZ_©Vr d ejUmMm ‡Mma d ‡gma AVe` doJmZo Pmbm.AÎnmdYrV AZoH$ JßW Cnb„Y hmooD$ bmJÎ`mZo JßWmb`mß_‹ oXoIrb JßWgßª o_‹ o PnmQ>`mZo dmT> hmoV Jobr. À`mM~amo~aejU‡gma XoIb PmÎ`mZo JßWmb`mMo nyduMo ÒdÍ$n d w_H$m`m_‹ o PnmQ>`mZo ~Xb hmoV Jobm d JßW hoo Cn`moJmgmR>r AmhoVd JßW OVZ H$a `mnojmhr À`mßMm dmna dmMH$mßZm H$ÈZ ⁄mdmhr gßH$ÎnZm nwT o > Ambr. À`mM‡_mUo J´ ßWmb`mß¿`mÏ`dÒWmnZmgmR>r JßWmb` emÒÃ hr ZdZ d⁄memIm Z_m©UPmbr d moΩ` dmMH$mbm moΩ` _mhVr H$_rV H$_r qH$dm moΩ`doioV Cnb„Y H$ÈZ Xo `m¿`m —Ô>rZo J´ ßWmb` AmU_mhVremÒÃmMm dH$mg hmooV Jobm.

dgmÏ`m eVH$m_‹ o _mZdr OrdZ gwIH$a H$a `m¿`m—Ô>rZo AZoH$ emoY bmJbo À`m_‹ o gßJUH$mMm CÑoI ‡m_wª`mZoH$amdm bmJob. mM eVH$m¿`m CŒmamYm©_‹ o _mZdr OrdZm¿`m‡À oH$ joÃm_‹ o gßJUH$mMm dmna gwÈ Pmbm d JßWmb`gw‹XmÀ`mbm AndmX Zmhr. gßJUH$m¿`m H$mhr AßJ^yVJwUd°eÔ>`m_wio JßWmb`m_‹ o emÒÃr` Ï`dÒWmnZmZo X°ZßXZH$m ©, dZmdbß~ d AMwH$ _mhVrgodm XoUo eä` hmoD$ bmJbo.À`m_wio JßWmb`mßMm dmna hm OmÒVrV OmÒV hmoD$ bmJbm.

JßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aUmMm _hŒdmMm C‘oe ÂhUOo JßWmb`H$_©MmË`mßMr ZÀ`H$_m©VyZ gwQ>H$m H$ÈZ À`mß¿`m Hw$dVrZwgmaAmYH$ ~w[‹X_Œmo¿`m H$m_mgmR>>r d dmMH$gßnH©$ dmT>d `mgmR>>rgdS> _idyZ Xo `mMr j_Vm gßJUH$mV Amho. gßJUH$m_‹ o

‡m. ZmamÙ gß.~mago

JßWnmbOmoer-~oSo>H$a _hmd⁄mb`, R>mUo.


Agbobr ‡MßS> _mhVr gßJh H$a `mMr À`mM‡_mUo gmS>dboÎ`m_mhVrMo AMyH$ n•W:H$aU H$ÈZ JaOoZwgma _mhVrMr‡[V‡mflVr, gmR>>dbobr _mhVr JßWH$ma, JßWZm_, [df`, gßkmB. H$moUÀ`mhr‡H$mao emoY KoUo `m gd© d°[eÔ> ßm_wio JßWmbÀm[U _mhVr H|$–m_‹ o gßJUH$ d _mhVr gß‡ofU VßÃkmZmMmdmna _moR>Ám ‡_mUmV hoV Amho.

JßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aU ÂhUOoM JßWmb` Ï`dÒWmnZmMrAer n‹XV H$s ¡`m_‹ o JßWmb`mMr gd© X°ZßXZ H$m_o OgoJßWmonmO©Z (JßWIaoXr ) JßWmonÒH$ma (JßW ‡[H´$`m) JßWXodKodZ`VH$mbHo$ Ï`dÒWmnZ, _mhVr godm d gßX © godm BÀ`mXrH$m_o gßJUH$ _mhVr d gß‡ofU VßÃkmZm¿`m gmhÊ`mZo H$aUo.

AmßVaJ´ßWmb`rZ XodKod, d VmbH$sH$aU `m gd©Ï`dham_‹ o AmYwZH$ _mhVr d gß‡ofU VßÃkmZmMm dmna Ho$bmOmVmo. `m VßÃkmZßmMm dmna H$ÈZ ‡_mUVVm, AMwH$Vm, doJgm‹` H$ÈZ _mhVr Omi`m¿`m _m‹`_mVyZ BVa JßWmb`mßZmAmnbo JßWmb` OmoSy>Z JßWmb`mMo Omio Z_m©U hmoV Amhoo.À`mM‡_mUo ‡À`jmV JßWmb`mV Z OmVm XoIrb dmMH$mßZmAßmVaOmbm¿`m _m‹`_mVyZ JßWmb` godm KoVm oD$ eH$VmV.Ogo gßHo$V ÒWi VmbH$m (Web OPAC )

_mhVr AmU gß‡ofU VßÃkmZm¿`m dmnamVyZ JßWmb`m¿`mAmYwZH$sH$aUm_wio nmaßnm[aH$ JßWmb`, gßJUH$sH•$V JßWmb`,BboäQ¥>m∞ZH$ JßWmb`, S>rOrQ>b JßWmb` Aem ddY Q>flfl ßm_‹ odH$mg KSy>Z Ambm Amhoo d AmVm Va ÏhMw©Ab JßWmb`mMrgßH$ÎnZm ‡À`jmV oV Amhoo.

H$moUÀ`mhr J´ßWmb`mMo gßJUH$sH$aU H$a `mgmR>rZ`moOZ~‹X AmamIS>m V`ma H$ÈZ À`m‡_mUo _mJ©H´$_U H$aUoAmdÌ`H$ R>aVo. d⁄m‡gmaH$ _ßS>i R>mUo gßMbV kmZ¤rnmdaAgboÎ`m nmM e°jUH$ d^mJm¿`m JßWmb`mßMo gßJUH$sH$aUH$aVmßZm XoIrb Imbrb nm`Ë`mßMm dMma H$ÈZ gßnyU©gßJUH$sH$aUmMo C‘Ô> R>adbo.

1) gßJUH$sH$aU ZU© KoUo

2) AS>MUr d VS>OmoS>tMm dMma H$aUo

3) H$mb~’ Z`moOZ AmamIS>m V`ma H$aUo

4) IMm©Mm AßXmO KoUo

5) JßWmb` H$m ©‡UmbrMo dÌboofU, aMZm d dmna.

6 ) gßJUH$sH$aUm_wio hmoUmË`m \$m`⁄ßmMm A‰`mg H$ÈZAmdÌ`H$VoZwgma H$m_m¿`m gßJUH$sH$aUmMm H$_ R>adUo.

7 ) _ZwÓ`~i d H$_©Mmar ‡ejU

JßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aUm_‹ o darb Q>flfl`mß_‹ o AmnÎ`mJ´ßWmb`m¿`m H$m`©‡UmbrMo [d˚bofU H$ÈZ `moΩ` J´ßWmb`gßJUH$ H$m ©‡Umbr gßMmMr (library software )ZdS> H$aUoAVe` _hŒdmMo H$m_ Amho. H$maU ZdS>boÎ`m H$m ©‡UmbrgßMmda JßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aUmMo èmnè Adbß~yZ AgVo.JßWmb` gßJUH$ H$m ©‡Umbr gßMmMr ZdS> H$aVmßZm gmYmaUnUonwT>rb KQ>H$mßMm dMma H$amdm bmJVmo.

1) J´ßWmb` gßJUH$ H$m`©‡UmbrMm dH$mg H$moUr Ho$bmAmho? Ï`∫$s? gßÒWm?

2) ‡ÒVwV JßWmb` gßJUH$ H$m ©‡Umbr H$Vr JßWmb`m_‹ odmnabr OmVo?

3) H$_Vr¿`m VwbZoV Cn`moJVm.

4) VmßÃH$ ~m~r (A) _yiH$m ©‡Umbr (O/S)

(a) ßÃ^mJmMr AmdÌ`H$Vm (R>) ‡_mUHo$ (Hard-ware) (H$) ‡_mUH$mßMm dmna... (Standard ISO1709 CCF) (R>) _mhVrgßJ´h j_Vm, ‡H´´$`m‡V‡mflVr JVr.

5) H$m`©‡UmbrgßM ddY ^mJmV Cnb„YVm(Userfirendliness)

6) H$m ©‡Umbr gßJUH$Omio gßnwaH$ Amhoo H$m ?

7) ~h˛ mfH$ _mhVr Ï`dÒWmnZ

8) gßHo$VÒWi gßnyaH$Vm

9) dH´$s nÌ¿`mV godm (H$ß_V)?

10) ZdrZ Amd•Œmr YmoaU

d⁄m ‡gmaH$ _ßS>i R>mUo m gßÒWo¿`m kmZ¤n e°jUH$gßHw$bmda AgboÎ`m H$bm-dmU¡`, emÒÃ, VßÃZHo$VZ,Ï`dÒWmnZ gßÒWm d dYr _hmd⁄mb` `m nmMhr KQ>H$gßÒWmßMr gßnfi J´ßWmbò AmhoV `m gd© J´ßWmb`mMo gßnwU©gßJUH$sH$aU Pmbobo AgwZ gd© JßWmb o kmZ¤n e°jUH$_mhVrOmi`m¿`m gm¯mZo EH$_oH$mßZm OmoS>bobo AmhooV. ‡À oH$JßWmb`mMm Am∞ZbmBZ np„bH$ A∞H$gog H∞$Q>bm∞J JßWmb`mV


dmMH$mßgmR>r Cnb„Y Amho. À`mM‡_mUo gd© JßWmb`mßMm _iyZEH$ÃV gßHo$V ÒWi VmbH$m (Web OPAC) d⁄m ‡gmaH$_ßS>imMo gßHo$V ÒWi (www.vpmthane.org) da Cnb„YAmhoo. `m gßHo$V ÒWi VmbHo$Mo d°eÓQ>Á ÂhUOo XodZmJarbnr_‹ò Agbobr _mhVr ‡V‡mflV hmoVo. d⁄m ‡gmaH$_ßS>im¿`m gd© ‡m‹`mnH$, ejHo$Va H$_©Mmar, d d⁄mWu`mßZm~maH$moSo>S> AmoiInÃ Xbobo AmhooV. À`mM‡_mUo gdm™Mr _mhVr_hmd⁄mb` gßHw$bmda Cnb„Y Amho. À`mM‡_mUo nmMhrJ´ßWmb`mVrb gd© dmMZgmhÀ`mMr _mhVr J´ßWmb`m¿`m_‹`dVu gÏh©a_‹ o Cnb„Y AgyZ gßHo$V ÒWi gÏh©ada XoIrb_mhVr A⁄`mdV ÒdÈnmV Cnb„Y Amhoo. gd© JßWßmZm XoIrb~maH$moS> bo~b MH$Q>dbobo AgÎ`m_wio ~maH$moS> ÒH∞$Za dmnÈZJßW XodKod hmoVo.

d⁄m ‡gmaH$ _ßS>im¿`m J´ßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aUm_‹òXodZmJar bnr¿`m gßX^m©V AmboÎ`m AS>MUr d ZdmaU

d⁄m ‡gmaH$ _ßS>im¿`m KQ>H$ _hm[d⁄mb` JßWmb`mßMmYmoaUmÀ_H$ ZU©` PmÎ`mZßVa ‡W_V: H$mhr gßJUH$sH•$VJ´ ßWmb`mßZm ôQ>r XoD$Z ‡mW_H$ _mhVr _idbr dgßJUH$sH$aUm¿mo Imbrb‡_mUo ddY Q>flno R>ad `mV Ambo.

1) gd© J´ ßWmb`mß_‹ò AgboÎ`m J´ ßWßmMr J´ ßWgyMr dÏ`dÒWmnH$s` _mhVr gßJUH$m_‹ o Zm|X H$aUo.

2) Zm|X ~ZMwH$ hmoo `m¿`m —>Ô>rZo gd© J´ßWmMr _mhVrZmßoXd `mgmR>>r S>oo>Q>merQ≤>g N>mnyZ Ko `mV Ambo d ‡À`jmVJßWmdÈZM _mhVr âbr Jobr Ï`dÒWmnH$s` _mhVr(~b Zß~a, XZmßH$, J´ßWdHó$À`mMr _mhVr) XmIbZm|Xdhr dÈZ Ko `mMo R>abo.

3) ‡W_V: \$∫$ J´ßWgyMr` _mhVr â `mMo R>ad `mVAmbo. d À`mZwgma JßWßmMrM _mhVr (BibliographicDatabase ) V`ma H$a `mMo H$m_ hmVr Ko `mV Ambo.

4) gd©gmYmaU dMma dZ_` d JßWmb` d _mhVr emÒÃVkmß¿`m gÎÎ`m‡_mUo/_mJ©Xe©Zm‡_mUo CDS/ISIS¿`m DOS(DISK OPERATING SYSTEM)_yiH$m`©‡Umbrda MmbUmË`m J´ ßWmb` gßJUH$H$m`©‡UmbrMr ZdS> Ho$br d À`mZwgma NISSAT `mgßÒWo¿`m _m‹`m_mVyZ CDS/ISISMr AYH•$V ‡VÈ. 1500/- bm ‡mflV Ho$br .

5) CDS/ISISMo ‡ejU KoVbobo H$_©Mmar gßÒWoVAgÎ`mZo gßÒWo¿`m JßWmb`mß¿`m JaOm bjmV KoD$Z dS>oo>Q>m BßQ¥>r dH©$erQ> V`ma Ho$br d _mhVr â `mMo H$m_gwÈ Ho$bo.

6) ‡À`jmV _mhVr a `mMo H$m_ gwÈ PmÎ`mZßVa gßÒWo¿`mJßWmb`mß_‹ o AgboÎ`m _amR>r h›Xr d gßÒH•$V nwÒVH$mßMrZm|X H$a `mMr gmo` CDS/ISIS_‹ò ZgÎ`m_wioAS>MU Z_m©U Pmbr. À`m H$mimV CDS/ISIS daXodZmJar _‹ o Zm|X H$amd`mMr Agob Va CDAC ¿`mGIST H$mS>m©Mm n`m©` Cnb„Y hmooVm naßVw dMmamßVrgßÒWobm Vmo Ï`dhm © dmQ>bm Zmhr.

À`mM‡_mUo XodZmJar bnr_‹ o AgboÎ`m JßWmß¿`mTeranslitesation Zm|Xr Z H$aVm XodZmJarVM H$amd`m¿`mAmhoV Agm ZÌM` XoIrb Ho$bm Jobm. H$maU S>m`H´$sQ>rH$bn‹XVr¿`m moΩ` dmnamedm` XodZmJarMm C¿Mma AMyH$ hmooUoH$R>>U dmQ>V hmooVo, ÂhUyZ CDS/ISIS _‹ o Zm|Xr H$aVmßZmnmMhr JßWmb`mß¿`m \$∫$ BßJOr JßWm¿`m Zm|Xr H$a `mV AmÎ`m.gd© J´ ßWmb`mVrb Zm|Xr H$ÈZ PmÎ`mZßVa \$∫$ _mhVr‡V‡mflVrgmS>r S>o>Q>m~oog EH$ÃV ÒdÈnmV Cnb„Y Pmbm.CDS/ISIS hr JßWmb` gßJUH$ ‡Umbr CŒm_ JßWgyMr Z ßÃU( Bibligraphic Control) gmYZ ÂhUyZ dH$gV Ho$br JobrAgÎ`mZo JßWmb`mMo gßnyU© gßJUH$sH$aU eä` ZÏhVo hr g_Ò`mbjmV KoD$Z d⁄m ‡gmaH$ _ßS>imZo nwUopÒWV “Soft -Aid”gßJUH$” mßZr V`ma Ho$bobr Ï`mnmar VŒdmda Cnb„Y AgbbrJßWmb` gßJUH$ H$m ©‡Umbr Librariansuite IaoXr H$ÈZCDS/ISIS _‹ o gßnyU© âbobr JßWgyMr` _mhVr À`m_‹ oâ `mV Ambr. AWm©VM À`m H$mimV Cnb„Y AgUmË`m BVaJßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aUmgmR>r Cnb„Y AgUmË`m gd© ‡UmbtMmVm°bZH$ A‰`mg H$ÈZ Librarian Suite hr H$m`©‡UmbrKo `mMm ZU© Ko `mV Ambm. naßVw m H$m ©‡UmbrZo XodZmJarbnr_‹ o AgboÎ`m JßWmß¿`m Zm|Xr H$aUo, emoY KoUo, ZXeZH$aUo, d ddY AmdÌ`H$ Ahdmb (Report) XodZmJarVwZÏhmdo hr Am_Mr Anojm AnyU© amhbr, AmU ÂhUyZM XodZmJarbnVrb JßWßm¿`m Zm|Xr H$aVm AmÎ`m Zmhr.

B. g. XmoZhOma n ©V [d⁄m ‡gmaH$ _ßS>im¿`m gd© KQ>H$gßÒWm¿`m JßWmb`mßMm S>o>Q>m~og [Z`mo[OV AmamIS> m‡_mUo V`maPmbm hoVm. naßVw _ßS>im¿`m gßHo$VÒWimda J´ßWmb`mMm


S>oQ>m~ogda OPAC da Cnb„Y H$ÈZ Xo `mMr _hÀdH$mßjr`moOZm, À`mM‡_mUo gd© JßWmMo ~maH$moS> V`ma H$aUo, d ~maH$moS>AmYm[aV [d[Z_` ‡À`jmV gwÈ H$a `m_‹ o Librarian Suite`m Fox pro _‹ o [dH$[gV Ho$boÎ`m ‡Umbr_‹ o H$mhr ÃwQ>rAgÎ`mZo Soft-Aid `m Hß$nZrZo À`mß¿`m gßemoYZ [dH$mg dZdrZ Amd•Œmr H$mT> `m¿`m YmoaUmZwgma Lib Suite asp Amd•Œmr~mOmamV AmUbr d ho H$aV AgVmßZm AmYr¿`m J´mhH$mßZm`moΩ`[H$_VrV ZdrZ Amd•Œmr Xo `mMo YmoaU Amdbß[~boo.

`m Z[dZ JßWmb` gßJUH$ ‡Umbr_‹ o ~hw m[fH$ S>oQ>m~ogV`ma H$aUo, [ZX©ooeZ H$aUo _mhVr ‡[V‡mflVr H$aUo ghOeä`hmoB©b Agm [dÌdmg Soft-Aid `m Hß$nZrZo [Xbm. hr ZdrZAmd•Œmr _mhVr Omi gßnwaH$ AgÎ`mZo [d‡_ßS>im¿`m gd©J´ßWmb`mßMm S>o>Q>m~og gßHo$VÒWi Vm[bHo$¿`m _m‹`_mVyZAmnÎ`m gßHo$VÒWimda Cnb„Y Ho$bm. ^mfo¿`m gßX©^mVH$moUVmhr AS>ga Z oVm hr Lib Suite asp hr ZdrZ JßWmb`gßJUH$ ‡Umbr KoD$Z gd© J´ßWmb`mgmR>r EH$ J´ßWmb`_mhVrOmi (Library Server ) d EH$ do~ _mhVrOmi(Web OPAC Server ) gßJUH$ Cnb„Y H$ÈZ Agbobm_mhVr gßJ´h `m ZdrZ JßWmb` gßJUH$ ‡UmbrV ‡ÒWmnVHo$bm. [Z`mo[OV AmamIS> m‡_mUo gd© JßWmb`m¿`m XodZmJar,~maH$moS> d gßHo$VÒWi Vm[bH$mgh gßnyU© gßJUH$sH$aU nyU©H$a `mV Ambo.

naßVw Varhr ‡À`jmV XodZmJar [b[n_‹ o Zm|X H$a `mMrOPAC d Web OPAC da gmo H$ÈZ [Xbobr AgyZhr AOyZImbb g_Ò`m `m gwQ>boÎ`m ZmhrV .

Lib Suite hr JßWmb` gßJUH$ ‡Umbr EHw$U gmV _wª`[d^mJ d Cn[d^mJm_‹ò (Module & Sub Modules)Cnb„Y Amho. Vm[bH$sH$aU, XodKod, emoY, [Z`VH$mbsHo$Ï`dÒWmnZ, JßWmonmO©Z, goQ> An, d Ï`dÒWmnZ (House-keeping) ho [d^mJ `m H$m © ‡Umbr_‹ o AmhoV.

gd© [d^mßJmVyZ [Z_m©U hmoUmË`m Ahdmbmß_‹ o _amR>>rJßWmMr _mhVr [dÒH$irV ÒdÈnmV [_iVo. _amR>>r JßWmß¿`mÏ`dÒWmnZ gßX^m©V nwT>rb g_Ò`m AOwZhr À`m_‹ o AmhoV.

1) Vm[bH$sH$aU [d^mJm_‹ o _amR>>r JßWmßgmR>>r doJio (DataEntry Sheet) dmnamdo bmJVo. À`mM‡_mUo H$mhr_mhVr BßJÓrV âmdr bmJVo. CXm. J´ßWmMr qH$®_V,

Xo H$mgß~Yr _mhVr, ‡H$meH$mMo Zmd, ‡H$meZ df,Amd•Œmr, n•ÓR>o> B. . .. ‡À oH$ JßWm¿`m JßWH$mamMoZmMZmm|XdÎ`mda JßWmßH$ BßJÓr JßWm‡_mUo V`ma hmoV Zmhr.`m [d^mJmVwZ V`ma hoUmË`m AZoH$ Ahdmbmß_‹ o _amR>>rJ´ßWßmMr [dÒH$irV Ajamß_‹ò (Garbage) [XgVo.~maH$moS> bo~bda J´ßWmßH$ Ï`d[ÒWV [Xg `mgmR>>rBßJÓrVyZM Zm|Xdmdm bmJVmo. XmIbZm|X (AccessionRegister) _mÃ Ï`d[ÒWV V`ma hoVo.

2) XodKod [d^mJm_‹ o ~maH$moS>Mm dmna hmoV AgÎ`mZog_Ò`m ZmhrV nU [d[dY gß~ßYV gm ßª`rH$sAhdmbm_‹ o _amR>>r¿`m gßX© mV [dÒH$irVnUm [XgVmo

3) emoY [d^mJm¤mao _amR>>r JßWmßMm emoY Ko `m_‹ o AZoH$AS>MUr [ZXe©Zmg oVmV.

4) JßWmonmO©Z [d^mJm_‹ o AdbmoH$ZmW© / AZw_VrgmR>>rRo>dboÎ`m _amR>>r JßWmßMr Zm|X H$aU`mMr Ï`dÒWm Zmhr.

5) [Z`VH$mbH$ [d^mJm_‹ò [Z`VH$mbH$mMr Zm|XBßJÓrVyZM H$amdr bmJVo.

6) JßWmb` Ï`dÒWmnZmgß~YrMm gd© nÃÏ`dhma / B. _ob`m JßWmb` H$m ©‡UmbrVyZ BßJÓrVM H$aVm oVmo.

gßX © gwMr

• Faruqi, Khalid K . Automation in Libraries .New Delhi : Anmol Publication 1997.

• Kochar, R.S.& Sudarshan, K.N. LibraryAutomation ( Issues and Systems ). New Delhi: APH Publishing . 1997

• Malavya , V.C. Library Automatiuon . NewDelhi : Commonwealth Publishers , 1999.

• Sehgal , R.L. Handbook of library SoftwarePackages . New Delhi : Ess Ess Publications1998.

• Sharma, S.K. Fundamentals of LibraryAutomation . New Delhi : Ess Ess Publication.1995

• Singh, Pramod Kr. Library Automation. NewDelhi : Shree Publishers , 2005.

• Vasant N. & Mudhol , Mahesh V. SoftwarePackages For Library Automation. New Delhi: Ess Ess Publications , 2000.


_amR>r AmU BßQ>aZoQ> : g_Ò`m AmU g_mYmZ

‡drU h. ^mbogB©Z

M.Tech., IIT RoorkeeSenior Software Engineer

Accenture Services Pvt. Ltd. India.

C‘oe :

BßQ>aZoQ> hm OJmbm OmoS>Umam gdmŒm_ Xwdm AmU _amR>r^mfoMr BßQ>aZoQ>darb JaO, À`mdf`r¿`m g_Ò`m, À`mßMog_mYmZ AmU VmßÃH$ ~m~r `mßdf`r _mhVr XoUo.

BßQ>aZoQ> :

XmoZ qH$dm À`mnojm AYH$ gßJUH$ OmoS>bo H$s ZoQ>dH©V`ma hmoVo. Ago OJâmVrb bmImo ZoQ>dH©$g≤ (Omir) ¡`mg_mZ _m‹`_mVyZ OmoS>br OmVmV À`m OmJVH$ ÒVamdarbZoQ>dH©$bm "BßQ>aZoQ>' ÂhUVmV.

BßQ>aZoQ>da Xbobr qH$dm nmR>dbobr _mhVr hrOJâmVyZ Ho$di jUmYm©V Bp¿N>V R>H$mUr nmohmoMVo. À`m_wio_mhVrMm ‡gma \$ma doJmZo VgoM AÀ ßV ‡MßS> ‡_mUmV hmoVmo.BßQ>aZoQ> hm _mhVrMm ‡MßS> _moR>m gmR>m Amho. nmhOo À`mdf`mdaMr _mhVr emoYVm oVo. AJXr d° ∫$H$ _mhVrnmgyZVo emÛr`, d°kmZH$ Aem Hw$R>Î`mhr df`mdaMr _mhVr_idVm oVo.

naßVw gdm©V _moR>r AS>MU ÂhUOo hr gd© _mhVr OmÒVH$ÈZ \$∫$ BßJÓr_‹ò Cnb„Y Amho. VgoM dH$gV dnwT>mabobr amÓQ¥>o À`mßMr _mhVr À`mß¿`mM ^mfmß_YyZ ‡gm[aVH$aVmV. wamonAZ AmU OnmZr bmoH$ À`mß¿`m _mV• mfo_YyZBßQ>aZoQda> Amnbr _mhVr nmR>dVmV.

AmVm H$m∞Âfl`wQ>a_‹ò doJdoJ˘`m ^mfmß_‹ò dmnaH$a `mgmR>r AZoH$ ~w’^mJ (Software) Cnb„Y PmboboAmhoV. À`m_wio gd©gm_m›` _mUyg AmVm gßJUH$mMm dmna H$ÈbmJbm Amho. naßVw BßQ>aZoQ>¿`m ~m~VrV _mÃ maVr` mfmß_‹ odeof OmJÈH$Vm Zmhr. À`m_wio AZoH$ VmßÃH$ AS>MUr AmhoV.

_amR>r AmU BßQ>aZoQ> `m df`r bhrV AgVmZmAmnU _amR>r ^mfoV wamonAZ, OnmZr bmoH$mß¿`m ~amo~arZoÀ`m mfoMm ‡gma, ‡Mma AmU dmna OmJVH$ ÒVamda H$aUmaAmhmoV.

Cnb„Y ~w’^mJ (Software) :

_amR>r_‹ò gßJUH$mda H$m_ H$a `mgmR>r AZoH$gm∞‚Q>doAag≤ Cnb„Y AmhoV.

CXmhaUmW© :

1) C-DAC Zo ~Zdbobo ileap

2) lr-bnr

3) AmH•$Vr BÀ`mXr.

g_Ò`m :

1) AZoH$ Hß$n›`mßZr doJdoJio ~w’^mJ (gm∞‚Q>doAag©)AmUÎ`m_wio À`mß¿`m_‹ o gwgyÃVm Zmhr. ‡À oH$mMr H$m_H$a `mMr, _mhVr gmR>d `mMr qH$dm Vr _mhVrH$m∞Âfl wQ>ada XmId `mMr nX≤YV doJdoJir Amho.

2) ‡À oH$OU EH$M ~w’^mJ (gm∞‚Q>doAag©) dmnaV AgobVaM EH$mZo ~Zdbobr _mhVr XwgË`mbm dmMVm oVo.A›`Wm Q>mBqnJ Ho$bobo H$mhr OßH$ (junk) Xgm`bmbmJVo.

3) Oa EH$mM H$m∞Âfl wQ>ada H$m_ H$am`Mo Agob Va AmhoÀ`m gm∞‚Q>doAa _‹ o H$m_ H$aVm oVo nU Oa _mhVrEH$m gßJUH$mdÈZ XwgË`mH$S>o nmR>dm`Mr Agob qH$dmAmnÎ`m H$m`m©~‘b XwgË`mßZm gmßJm`Mo Agob Va Vo‡_mUrH$aU ZgÎ`mZo eä` hmoV Zmhr.

4) VwÂhr Q>mB©n Ho$bobr _hVr EH$m ‡H$ma¿`m bnr_‹òAgob Va Vr BßQ>aZoQ>dÈZ XwgË`mH$S>o nmR>dÎ`mZßVaÀ`m¿`m gßJUH$mda Oa Vr bnr CnbY Agob Va À`mbmdmMVm oB©b.

5) Oa C⁄moJ YßXo dmT>dm`Mo AgVrb Va AmnÎ`m H$m_mbmBßQ>aZoQ>da ‡g’r XoVm Ambr nmhOo. naßVw AS>MU ÂhUOo


‡_mUrH$aU ZgÎ`m_wio VwÂhr ~Zdbobr _mhVr gJioMOU Oa dmMyM eH$Uma ZgVrb Va H$m` H$aUma?

6) BßQ>aZoQ>da AZoH$ do~gmB©Q>g≤ Cnb„Y AmhoV. naßVw ~hVoH$BßJÓr_‹ o AmhoV. Va OmÒVrV OmÒV _amR>r qH$dm BVa_mV•^mfmß_YyZ BßQ>aZoQ>da do~gmB©Q> ~ZdÎ`m VaMgd©gm_m›` _mUyg À`mH$S>o AmH$f©V hmoB©b. À`m_YyZC⁄moJ dmT>ob.

7) BßQ>aZoQ>Mm dmna hm ‡À oH$ joÃmVrb _mhVrgmR>r H$aVmòVmo nU Oa _mUgmbm À`m¿`m _mV•^mfoVyZ _mhVr_imbr VaM Vmo BßQ>aZoQ>¿`m _m‹`_mVyZ AZoH$ H$m_o H$ÈeH$Vmo.

8) AmOH$mb ‡À oH$ Hß$nZr À`mß¿`m Hß$nZrZo ~Zdbobo \$m∞›Q>g≤(Fonts), gm∞‚Q>doAag≤ dmnam`bm gmßJVo nU Oa AmnUEImXm \$m∞›Q dmnÈZ _mhVr BßQ>aZoQ>da Q>mH$br Va Vmo\$m∞›Q> XwgË`mH$S>o hr Agmdm bmJVmo. qH$dm AmnÎ`mbm⁄mdm bmJVmo. naßVw ~hVoH$ doim Oo bmoH$ BßQ>aZoQ>da AZoH$do~gmB©Q>g≤ ~KVmV À`mßZm bJoM _mhVr _amR>r_‹òXgbr VaM Vo AmdS>rZo Vr gmB©Q> ~KVmV A›`Wm OßH$(Junk) JmoÔ>r XgÎ`mda Vo gmB©Q> nmh `mMo Q>miVmV.

9) BßQ>aZoQ> dmnaUmar ‡À oH$ Ï`∫$s hr H$mhr VmßÃH$—ÓQ>ÁmOmJÈH$ ZgVo. Oa AmnÎ`m gßÒWoMr _mhVr qH$dmC⁄moJmMo ÒdÈn ‡^mdrnUo _mßS>m`Mo Agob Va AmnUM`m g_Ò`mßda Cnm` XoUmar ZdrZ VßÃkmZo dmnÈZ _amR>rMmOmÒVrV OmÒV dmna BßQ>aZoQ>da H$È eHy$.

g_Ò`mßMo g_mYmZ :

darb ddoMZmdÈZ AmnÎ`m bjmV Ambo Agob H$sBßQ>aZoQ>da _amR>rMr AmdÌ`H$Vm H$m Amho AmU À`m~amo~a AZoH$g_Ò`m hr AmhoV.

g‹`m boImMr MMm© doJdoJ˘`m ~m~tda Z ZoVm Ho$diEH$mM df`mda AmnU H|$–rV H$È. Vo ÂhUOo BßQ>aZoQ>da_amR>r_‹ò _mhVr ‡gm[aV H$aUo AmU gm_m›` _mUgmbmHw$R>bmhr VmßÃH$ Ãmg Z XoVm À`mbm Amnbr _mhVr XgbrnmhOo. VgoM `mM df`m_‹ o WmoS>o Imobda OmD$Z VmßÃH$_mhVr gw’m KoUo.

¡`mdoiog AmnU BßQ>aZoQ>da Amnbr _mhVr ‡gm[aV

H$aVmo VoÏhm do~gmB©Q> ~Zdmdr bmJVo. do~gmB©Q> ~ZdVmZm AmnUdoJdoJio \$m∞›Q>g≤ dmnaVmo. EH$Xm do~gmB©Q> ~Zdbr H$s BßQ>aZoQ>dagmB©Q>da \$m∞›Q> nU ⁄mdm bmJVmo. Vmo \$m∞›Q> dmnÈZ gm_m›` _mUygAmnbr do~gmBQ> dmMy eH$Vmo.

`m_‹ o VmßÃH$ AS>MU Aer H$s Oa Vmo \$m∞›Q> Cnb„YhmoD$ eH$bm Zmhr Va bmoH$ Vr gmB©Q> nmhˇ eH$V ZmhrV AmU~Ë`mMXm \$m ∞›Q> S>mD$ZbmoS> (Download) H$ÈZ VmoH$m∞Âfl wQ>a_‹ o BßÒQ>m∞b (Install) H$a `mMo bmoH$ Q>miVmV. `mg_Ò oMo g_mYmZ ÂhUOo "S>m`Z∞_H$ \$m∞›Q>' (Dynamic Font)AmnU \$m∞›Q>, S>m`Z∞_H$ \$m∞›Q>, À`mßMo ‡H$ma, À`mMm dmnaH$a `mMr VmßÃH$ ~m~r `mßdf`r WmoS>r MMm© H$È.

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gßX © :

www.adobe.comwww.bitstream.comwww.truedoc.comwww.microsoft.com


The number of languages spokenthroughout the world is estimated to be 6,000(Grimes, 1992). Although a small number oflanguages, including Arabic, Bengali, English,French, Hindi, Malay, Mandarin, Portuguese,Russian, and Spanish serve as important linklanguages or languages of widercommunication around the world, these arevery often spoken as second, third, fourth, orlater-acquired languages. Fewer than 25% ofthe world’s approximately 200 countriesrecognize two or more official languages, witha mere handful recognizing more than two(e.g., India, Luxembourg, Nigeria). However,despite these conservative governmentpolicies, available data indicate that there aremany more bilingual or multilingual individualsin the world than there are monolingual. Inaddition, there are many more childrenthroughout the world who have been andcontinue to be educated through a second ora later-acquired language, at least for someportion of their formal education, than thereare children educated exclusively via the firstlanguage. In many parts of the world,bilingualism or multilingualism and innovativeapproaches to education that involve the useof two or more languages constitute the normaleveryday experience (see, e.g., Dutcher, 1994;World Bank, 1995). The results frompublished, longitudinal, and critical researchundertaken in varied settings throughout theworld indicate clearly that the development ofmultiple language proficiency is possible, andindeed that it is viewed as desirable byeducators, policy makers, and parents in manycountries.

Human language technologies obtainedthe valid political understanding and support.At the third UNESCO Congress on Informatics

Multi-lingual Software Development

and Education held in Moscow, July 1996,more than 40 countries representativesconfirmed their willingness to participate in theestablishing multilingual telematics support foreducational needs. The relevance of linguisticand cultural aspects of the Information Societyin Europe has been stressed by the EuropeanCouncil meetings in Corfu, 24-25 June 1994,in Cannes, 26-27 June 1995 and on the G7Conference of Ministers in Brussels, 25-26February 1995. In May 1995 the EuropeanCommission has adopted the upcoming FifthRTD Framework Programme which includespoints devoted to developing human languagetechnologies.1

Technological Multilingualism

In the multilingualism problem there existsone important factor which usually slips out indiscussions of this issue. The high level oftechnology of the modern civilizationbroadens the notion of multilingualism ininformation society including in it artificialintellectual electronic devices. This newlyarisen complex communication structure formsthe Cyberspace that is marked by extremelycomplex processes of control and self-development. In the Cyberspace thehumanitarian multilingualism interacts with thetechnological multil ingualism ofcommunication protocols, computerinterfaces, programming languages and dataprotection methods. Communicationmultilingualism of computing devices is tosome extent being solved by introducingconventional technological standardsregulating data exchange and transformationprocesses. Different computers in networkscan transmit information using standardpopular protocols TCP/IP (TransmissionControl Protocol / Internet Protocol), IPX/SPX

Sachin GandheSCPL- Operations In charge S/w

[email protected]: 9324312153


(Internetwork Packet Exchange / SequencedPacket Exchange) or SNA ( System NetworkArchitecture). Such protocols as FTP (FileTransfer Protocol), HTTP (Hyper Text TransferProtocol), address standard URL (UniformResource Locator), standard sluice interfaceCGI are in active use in the INTERNET. Highexpressive possibilities of Web pages rely onimplementations of HTML and Java languages.For protecting information from different formsof eavesdropping cryptographic protocols SET(Secure Electronic Transfer) , SSL (SecureSockets Layer) and some others have beenelaborated. The “hardware multilingualism”aggravates the problem of the humanitarianmultilingualism in the Cyberspace.

It is interesting to note some resemblancein humanitarian and technical multilingualism.Communication multilingualism is stormydeveloping and to some extent repeats thedramatic way of human multilingualism. Herealso numerous languages and dialectscurrently appear and die, conflicts ofstandards, programming languages andinterfaces is an usual event. Any technologicalinnovation can lead to the chain, or may be itwill be better to say “domino”, reaction ofexpressive and communication means.

Dynamic Font

Dynamic fonts are font style files thatdownload right along with the page that willuse them. Think of them as an image. That’sthe basic concept.

When you use these fonts, the font filewill download into your cache just like animage. Once there, as long as you don’t clearyour cache completely, the font will be therefor all future visits. It is fun to watch the pagethe first time you use these fonts. The pagewill come in fully with the text in the defaultformat. Then, once the font, or fonts,download, the entire page reloads and comesto life. It’s a great effect.

The use of these fonts is basically aNetscape Navigator 4.0 or better deal.However, you can also view the fonts using

MSIE 4.0 and above if you also include, alongwith the font, an Active X helper application.I’ll tell you more about that a little later oneafter I explain how the fonts actually work.

What is Unicode?

Fundamentally, computers just deal withnumbers. They store letters and othercharacters by assigning a number for eachone. Before Unicode was invented, there werehundreds of different encoding systems forassigning these numbers. No single encodingcould contain enough characters: for example,the European Union alone requires severaldifferent encodings to cover all its languages.Even for a single language like English nosingle encoding was adequate for all theletters, punctuation, and technical symbols incommon use.

These encoding systems also conflictwith one another. That is, two encodings canuse the same number for two differentcharacters, or use different numbers for thesame character. Any given computer(especially servers) needs to support manydifferent encodings; yet whenever data ispassed between different encodings orplatforms, that data always runs the risk ofcorruption.

Unicode provides a unique number forevery character, no matter what the platform,no matter what the program, no matter whatthe language. Such industry leaders as Apple,HP, IBM, JustSystem, Microsoft, Oracle, SAP,Sun, Sybase, Unisys and many others haveadopted the Unicode Standard. Unicode isrequired by modern standards such as XML,Java, ECMAScript (JavaScript), LDAP,CORBA 3.0, WML, etc., and is the official wayto implement ISO/IEC 10646. It is supportedin many operating systems, all modernbrowsers, and many other products. Theemergences of the Unicode Standard, and theavailability of tools supporting it, are amongthe most significant recent global softwaretechnology trends.


Incorporating Unicode into client-serveror multi-tiered applications and websites offerssignificant cost savings over the use of legacycharacter sets. Unicode enables a singlesoftware product or a single website to betargeted across multiple platforms, languagesand countries without re-engineering. It allowsdata to be transported through many differentsystems without corruption.

Finally selection of multilingual tools is amatter of choice availability, ease of use,economics and wider acceptance.

With technology changing over the lastfew years the same is adapted based onpopular use and acceptance.

A software programmer needs to takecare that the target audience is not ignored atany point in development. The short fall is tobe coupled with a wider and universalcompliance to any development.


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Why do we need Unicode?

The Advantages

It has become mandatory to keep datain Unicode for Marathi as it is the only globalstandard followed across the globe. In this eraof Information Technology, we are talkingabout global resource centers for datacollection and dissemination. Unicode issupported by all the major Operating Systems.Unicode is being supported by all the majorOperating Systems. Unicode is beingsupported by all new digital devices. With thisbackground we can investigate the challengesin implementing

Unicode in Marathi.

Unicode - Global Standard

Unicode - Independent of OperatingSystem

Unicode - Supported by MS Office andOpen Office

Unicode - Supported by web browsersand web application development tools

Unicode - Supported by Mobile Handsetsfor SMS

Unicode - Supported by PDAs

Unicode - Supported by search engineslike Google

The Disadvantages

Unicode is a 16 bit coding system andhence the total data storage is double that ofconventional non Unicode storage.

It does not work in older OS like Windows98 etc.

Challenges in implementation of Marathi UnicodeM. S. Sridhar

Joint Managing Director,Cyberscape Multimedia Limited, Navi Mumbai.

It requires the OS to be loaded with thelanguage components before using the same.The user has to configure the additionallanguages. Many users do not know thisprocedure or their version of OS does not havethis facility. You require the OS that supportsMarathi.

The Code Sequence

The table below gives the codingsequence for the Unicode page for Devagarithat takes care of Hindi, Marathi and Sanskrit.The sequence covers the entire character setof Devnagari in the following manner.

Modifiers - chandra bindu, anuswarand visarga.

Vowels - aa to of.

Consonantas - ka, kha till ha.

Matras - Aa_matra to of_matra.

Vedic Characters - many symbols used inVedic Sanskrit.

Nukta Characters -Ka, Kha, Ga, Ja, DA,DHa, Pha, Ya.

Numerals - 0 to 9 in Marathi.

Symbols - om, viram, double viram.

Marathi Characters - sha, la, Ra, Ya.

Sindhi Characters - GA, JA, DA, BA.

The code page spans from 0x0900 to0x097D and has some blank unusedcharacters in the middle to maintainconsistency with other Indian Languages.


The ISCII Code sequence

The table below shows the charactersequence in ISCII proposed in 1988 and lateramended in 1991, the BIS standard for IndianLanguages. The code ranges form 161 to 234.As you can see the Unicode character set hasbeen adapted from ISCII and other symbolshave have been included to accommodate theexceptions. Unicode has a direct one to onecorrelation with ISCII and it is very easy toconvert the data to and from Unicode andISCII.

The Pre Requisites

Unicode is supported in Windows 2000,XP and 2003 and the new releases of Linux.We are restricting this discussion to Windows,as that is the most widely used OperatingSystem. This indicates that Unicode cannot beeffectively used in Windows 98 OperatingSystem, that is most widely used in the state.Unicode implementation is very good inWindows XP coupled with MS Office XP, MSOffice XP, MS Office 2003 and Open Office.Org version 1.4 onwards.

The Limiting Factors

Unicode is not usable in Windows 98.Windows 95 usage is minimal and can beignored. It is partially implemented in Windows2000 and Windows NT.

With such limitations, will we be able toused Unicode effectively ?


The solution and the path to follow

We have to realize that we cannotcontinue any longer following non-standardcharacter coding and multiple character setsfor Marathi. It is essential that we move toUnicode at the earliest. The action plan shouldbe :

Convert all data to Unicode.

The new data should be generated inUnicode.

Systems having Windows 98 can havetwo way converters to convert Unicode datato Non Unicode data and vice versa.

This approach ensures that completemigration can be achieved in 2 to 3 years andwe reap the benefits of moving to Unicode rightfrom today.

The typical issues

In Marathi, we have two specialcharacters that are extra. One is Ra andanother is Ya. In Unicode 0930 is ra and 0931is Ra which gets displayed as ra with a dot. Inthis position Marathi Ra can be used. For thispurpose, we can generate a font that has thatglyph in that position. Similarly 092F is ya and095F us Ya. The character at 095F can bemodified to accommodate the Marathi Ya.

There is a little difficulty in the collatingsequence of the sorting order. The charactersksha, tra, dnya will not come after ha. Theyare conjuncts or jodakshars and will come inka, ta and ja respectively, There is a facility tofollow a special collating sequence in Ms SQLof Oracle database. This however will not workproperly in other software and in The othercharacters that are typically different in Marathiare sha and la. These characters should bechanged in the glyph level.

How to proceed with the conversions

The typical usage can be classified as

Word Processing - *.doc files.

Spreadsheets - *.mdb files.

Database - *.htm, *.html.

Text files - *.txt

The converters are capable of convertingexisting data in any of these formats any ofthe font to Unicode and vice versa. This willenable the data migration from legacysoftware.

The Unicode Fonts

The most popular Unicode fonts areMangal in Widows, Raghu-8 Windows andLinux. There are may other Unicode fonts limeMarathi etc. The coding differences are therebetween the fonts. For that matter, thecharacter Ta_Ta will look like this in ≈> this inRaghu-8 and Qm Q≤>Q this in Mangal. Suchdifferences exist in many characters. We needto understand that both are correct and simplytwo different forms of representing acombination. Today many aesthetically goodlooking typefaces are available for Marathi inUnicode. The user has a wide range to chooseform and we have many vendors to providethe same.

The Unicode Web Sites

It is essential to develop and design websites in Unicode. The main advantage to aUnicode enabled wed site is easy search.Search engines like Google etc. give searchresults in Unicode. It is possible to view theseweb sites in other Operating Systems also.With emerging technologies, It is possible toview Unicode data in a dynamic fashion withthe help of dynamic fonts.

Unicode Web Application

We are at a stage where manyapplications are being developed over theInternet or Intranet. They are browser baseapplications. They can be from a impleinteractive web site form to a vary large e-governance software that is deployed all overthe state or country. It is essential suchapplications are developed in Unicode and thedatabase is all maintained in Unicode and thedatabase is also maintained in Unicode.Unicode database is very convenient to use


and it is very easy to offer facilities like indexingand sorting in Marathi. The web applicationrequires a typing engine to type the data inUnicode.

The Tools

We at Cyberscape Multimedia Limitedhave developed the complete range ofsoftware tools to work in Unicode and toconvert any type of data in any Marathi font toUnicode and vice versa. The tools can saveinvaluable time and provide and easy path tomigrate to Unicode. We also have a specialweb enable that allows the user to displayUnicode text and a facility to accept Unicode

text and a facility to accept Unicode text froma Windows 98 computer. This will dramaticallyincrease the usage of Unicode in the nearfuture.

The conclusion

There are many hurdles before acomplete migration is achieved in porting thedata to Unicode. If we succumb to thesehurdles, then we will have to face greaterchallenges later when Unicode will be veryessential for any application. We advocateearly use of these tools to migrate easily andeffectively.


The paper deals with the following topicsi.e.

1. Science, Technology and Managementaspects of “Sanganak Ani Marathi”

2. Review of the present scenario

3. Mathematical Marathi or Marathi as aFormal Language

4. Computational Marathi and MarathiCompiler

5. Marathi as a Natural Language andMarathi Corpora Creation andManagement

1. The Science, Technology andManagement aspects of “Sanganak andMarathi”

Sanganak comes from the backgroundsof science, technology and management.Science deals with proving conceptsmathematically / experimentally. Technologytakes off from where science leaves byproducing a prototype of the concept is morelike the sense of ‘The proof of pudding lies inhaving it’. Technology demonstrates theproduction on a mass scale of the productwhich was prototyped after scientists provedit. Management concerns itself with valueaddition in the society. Management beginswhere Science and Technology leaves.Science and technology thus mass produceseveral products. Management introducesthese products in to the society and does avalue addition to the society.

2. Review of the present scenario

We hypothesized last time that weshould define Marathi as a formal languageand write programs in Marathi since a Marathi

Marathi as a Formal Language and development ofa Marathi Compiler

(i.e. Marathitun Adnyavali Vikasit Karane)

Prof. Mukund DhaygudeEmail : [email protected]

Basic interpreter/compiler is now available.The Mbasic.exe is available onwww.mbasic.8m.com website. One can haveit from us by contacting address given above(by phone or by email).

To familiarize the use of Marathi, we areproving Marathi to be mathematically andcomputationally complete. Later we willdevelop system softwares in Marathi and thenwe will develop application softwares inMarathi. The present system softwares are inEnglish. Operating systems are now gettingconverted to show Marathi icons. We will thendevelop interpreter/compiler that will enableus to program in Marathi and that is what thiswhite paper talks about.

3. Mathematical Marathi or Marathi as aformal language

An alphabet A of a language L comprisesof a set of all possible letters/characters thatare fundamentally or derivable in theLanguage. A language L comprises of agrammar G. The Grammar G uses thealphabet A. A Grammar G comprises of setof rules of the grammar. These rules aredefined in terms of tokens, symbols,operators, precedence, and mathematical\Boolean\digital operators, statements,computational statements, conditionalstatements, loops, programming constructsetc. The rules are structured from elementarylinguistic formations such as letters/characters, words, sentences, paragraphs,stories, essays, news, dialogues, pages etc.

4. Computational Marathi and MarathiCompiler

Having defined the mathematical Marathiwe then represent it using the language


representation schemes (such as Unicode etc)in the keyboard, printers, sanganak, operatingsystem etc and then proceed to see theMbasic.exe software that demonstrates theability to interpret the simple sample programsthat are distributed with it. Having executedthe user programs the control is returned tooperating system.

Marathi Basic or just MBasic for short isan experimental version of an interpretercreated to consider the possibility of a full-fledged programming language based on theMarathi Language. This language will defineits own syntax and statements that will beextremely close to the spoken Marathilanguage. MBasic being experimental, wehave experimented at converting the entireinterface to Marathi. But rather than forcingWindows Operating System itself to changethe system font, which is done by a good manysoftwares, MBasic only keeps its own interfacein Marathi while leaving other applications incontrol of their own. Hence, MBasic respectsother applications privacy and will work in co-operation with accompanying software.

The name Marathi Basic was coined froma Marathi-to-basic transliterator that we hadcreated to help Marathi medium students learnQBasic. But what resulted were new syntax,statements and entire interfaces in Marathi.MBasic has been designed to be extensibleas a language and new statements should beeasily integrated as and when required. Thisis a task for which I require your commentsand suggestions. Please send me ideas andsuggestions on how to improve, increase orchange MBasic so that it can be a better pieceof work.

MBasic 5.0 is a complete remake of theentire MBasic engine. Right from the compiler,interpreter, to the display, everything has beeninternally revamped. MBasic 5.0 is very slow.Unlike its predecessors, it provides featureswhich cannot be compiled or even pseudo-compiled. They have to be interpreted. In awindows environment this costs systemresources such as memory and more

importantly, the processor’s attention. MBasic5.0 has more debugging and erroridentification support. It checks and double-checks your code for errors. Yet, at this time itis not able to suggest solutions to the errors.

One may use, distribute and copy MBasicas many times as you wish, though you maynot in any way modify MBasic.

We are desperately in need of someonewriting a good help file on MBasic. Please helpme. For now, you are provided with sampleprograms. I have tried to provide sampleprograms that use almost every variant of theMBasic syntax. You should be aware that aperson with some programming knowledgemust read the sample files and provideexplanations for someone with absolutely noprogramming knowledge. Some reading,experimentation, interpolation and creativityshould be enough to give you the hang ofMBasic. As the author, I must say thatprogramming in MBasic can be quite fun.

Modifications, Undocumented features,changes, additions, restrictions and things youshould know about:

1. One may have to enclose a syllableconsisting completely of a vowel in as thetransliterator program is unable to determinewhen a syllable has ended. For example, toenter the word ‘file’ in devnagri, if one typesonly ‘phaaila’, the transliterator will notunderstand that ‘phaa’ is one syllable while ‘i’itself is an independent syllable since noconsonant comes between the two. Hence,one will have to type in ‘phaa i la’ to get theproper transliteration. For more information onthese conversion rules, please visitOmkarananda Ashram websitewww.omkarananda-ashram.org. MBasic usesthe transliterator developed by them for itsconversion routines. For complex devnagrientry, it would be a good approach to visit andread about the ITrans transliteration schemethat is used by the translators.

2. Interlaced devnagri and roman text inthe program is allowed. Even strings may


contain interlaced Roman and Devnagri text.Input and display functions support this featurecompletely. One may enter Roman as well asDevnagri text mixed together. Stringcomparisons will take this into considerationwhen comparing two strings. To interlaceroman text within devnagri text, just enclose itin ##. This feature is useful for entering specialcharacters such as ‘‘ and ‘’ which arerecognized by the transliterator and need tobe explicitly placed within ##s in order to showup.

3. Obviously, there is absolutely no wayto add a # in the program. Sorry about this.Also, there is yet no facility to add a “ within astring. Sorry again. Though the input functionprovides this facility, the editor will not allowthis. We are working on schemes to providethese facilities. Such special features increasethe load on the CPU exponentially and will beadded only in case a lot of people demand it.

4. Provision for making stand-aloneexecutables is provided. Of course, theseexecutables still need support dll’s and alsothe true type fonts. But they can run completelyindependent of the MBasic IDE. They alsocontain a pseudo-compiled code that is verydifficult to decipher.

5. Graphics support for drawing lines,circles, boxes and points. These routines arethe most fun to use. They have a very flexiblesyntax. They are almost natural Marathilanguage instructions. Very easy to read anduse once you get the hang of them.

6. The find and replace utility searchesonly the upper text box which takes in phoneticuser input. It does not search in thetransliterated text box displayed below it. Thetransliteration displayed in the find and replaceutility is provided for your reference and is notconsidered by the MBasic Editor whensearching for text.

7. Sometimes the transliterator candisplay garbage in the output window at the

end of a line. In this case, just add some extraspaces at the end of the line to correct thisproblem. We still have to analyze why thishappens. A possible cause might be thatMBasic uses dll’s compiled from a lot manylanguages including VC++, Delphi, VB, etc. Itmay be the transfer of strings from so manydll’s that causes this.

8. The garbage collection in MBasic isvery bad. It hogs a lot of memory. So it isadvisable for one to save one’s work regularly.Please save thy work before running anyprogram. If it gives any problems, just restartit and it will work fine (since MBasic only runson windows, you should be quite familiar withthis practice).

MBasic has been a voluntary effort todevelop MKeyboards, MBios, Mcomputers,Mprinters, and other Msoftwares so that wecan check them out and fil l up theirweaknesses. We also have our hardwaredevelopment projects in Marathi. If you likeMBasic, please contact us for furtherdevelopment.

5 Marathi as a Natural Language andMarathi Corpora Creation and Management

We can now read Marathi Dailies i.e.Newspapers (Lokmat, Maharashtra Times,and Loksatta, Sakal etc) online on theInternet. We may need to download fonts ifrequired. Unicode addresses this issueregarding the aesthetics of the written textualinformation.

We are in process of development ofMarathi Sanganakiya ParibhashikShabdkosh. Some of the words that we havefound suitable are already put in use in ourcommunications. We also have found thatJanbharati group of CDAC/NCST hasreleased a Linux version with Marathi icons/symbols. VPM Thane has also developed andreleased e-books on works of VishnushastriChiplunkar. Sanganakiya Marathi ParibhashikShabdkosh development is also in progress.


Introduction

As we all know computers areindispensable today. Further a computerwithout appropriate software to run on it is asgood as junk. We routinely use wordprocessing, email, presentation, spreadsheet,web browser, database software. As withmost other modern technology, computersbeing a western innovation, English is thedefault language of use in the software weuse on a day to day basis.

In this paper I will introduce a revolutionin computer software called Free / OpenSource Software ( FOSS) movement.

I will present an overview of how and whyopen source software movement started.

I will briefly present how it is possible andindeed beneficial in terms of savings,usability and security to use open sourcesoftware to do most of our day to daycomputing tasks.

I will present the current status of OpenSource software availability in Marathi.

Most importantly I will introduce howusing the open source software WE TheGroup Of People Present Here Today,can make a large amount of computersoftware available in Marathi quiterapidly.

The aim of this conference is to studyand promote the use of Marathi on computersthus taking computer to every Maharashtrianirrespective of his English abilities.

The life force of any computer is thesoftware running on the hardware.

Open Source Software Movement and its relevance toMarathi on computers

Koustubha KaleDirector

Anant Corporation, Infinity TechServ Pvt. Ltd.

To use the computer in everyday life weneed at least the following software

a) Operating system e.g. Windows, Linux,Unix, Mac OS

b) Office suite with word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, database

c) Internet browser

d) Email software

e) Utilities like Personal InformationManager, Calculator, Spell Checker,Dictionary

In addition depending on user we mayneed several other software like image editing,software for playing music movies etc.Professionals have additional requirements ofspecialized software to do their job.

The cost of the above basic softwareitself today is more than the computer’shardware cost.

This prohibitive cost makes it impossiblefor average man to own a computer and useit legally.

At this point it is very interesting to notethat much of all the software developmentstarted in universities in western world. Theacademia needed software to work with thecomputers, do research, collaborate withcolleagues. They started making the basicbuilding blocks of software development likethe programming languages, the protocolswith which programs & computerscommunicate with each other. They freelyshared software, code & ideas among eachother which allowed others to build on whatwas already developed and take the generaleffort forward. Indeed much of the computer

c


including the internet as we know today wasborn this way.

At some point companies startedproducing software and selling it for profit.Much of it initially was based on programminglanguages, protocols, software developed bythe academia. As it was in their commercialinterests and to overcome competition, thesecompanies stopped sharing code. Theyintroduced hitherto unheard of policies forselling software called software licensing. Thisingenious piece of legacy reduced the buyerof software to just a licensed user from ownerof purchased property.

This prompted outrage among theuniversities and laboratories which had donemuch of the groundwork so far. Thus was borna formalized movement of free / open sourcesoftware.

The free / open source softwaremovement is based on a simple term, freedom.Freedom to run the program as you wish forany purpose, freedom to study and changethe source code as you wish, freedom to makeand redistribute copies, and freedom topublish modified versions.

If you bought something say a car wouldyou not have the freedom to run it as youchoose? Freedom to look at its internals likeengine? Freedom to enhance it with a musicsystem? Freedom to lend it to a friend? Resellit after you no longer need it? It is this samebasic freedom denied by the commercialsoftware makers prompted the birth of free /open source software movement.

People like Richard Stallman, LinusTrovalds made sterling contributions to themovement . Thousands of like minded peoplejoined the movement and it soon became anew revolution in the field of computing.

Free / Open source software has severalinherent advantages over commerciallyproduced software.

a) Users contributing ideas & code to FOSSare motivated by peer recognition and

their own need for the same softwarethan by commercial interests. Softwarecode is accepted only if meets theapproval of project members. This makesfor much better quality of code.

b) The source code of the software is open& free for all to see, use and modify. Thisensures that thousands of developerssee the code thus quickly finding &eliminating any vulnerabilities,weaknesses and security threats.

c) Thousands of contributions mean muchmore rapid development of software.

d) A very large talent pool is available whichis impossible for any individual softwarecompany to match.

Thus FOSS is more stable, secure & freeto boot.

Some of the leading examples of FOSSare…

a) Gnu collection of compilers and othersoftware

b) Apache web server

c) Linux, BSD operating systems with KDE,Gnome desktop managers

d) Mozilla / Firefox browser

e) Open Office office suite

f) Mysql, Postgres Relational & otherDataBase Management Systems( RDBMS)

g) Programming languages like Perl, PHPetc.

There are as many as 1,09,863 projectson sourceforge.net website, a foundry forsoftware development projects. Covering allaspects of computing from super computingto software for mobile phones & PDA’s.

These efforts allow us to use FOSS forour everyday needs comfortably as manyprojects have achieved a very high degree ofmaturity. For example the Apache web server


is THE most widely used web server on theinternet, the Linux operating system is themost prevalent server operating system onthe internet and is making rapid inroads intothe market share of all other operatingsystems, the Open Office suite has all thatthe best commercially available office suitesfeatures plus offers the advantages of savingfiles in any of the competing formats forexample that of Microsoft Word or Excel.

To take computing to masses in ourcountry, it is imperative to meet tworequirements..

a) As seen the cost of essential softwareis prohibitive. FOSS offers a simple,secure free alternative.

b) Make software available in our ownlanguage.

FOSS has the unique advantage ofaccess to source code. This makes it possibleto adapt it and make it available in ourlanguage. In fact as FOSS is made bythousands of developers from countriesaround the globe, it is already available inhundreds of languages. Also most FOSSprojects have made it very easy for even nonprogrammers to adapt their software todifferent languages by making special tools.

Some examples...

a) The Open office project is alreadyavailable in Hindi among 100s more.

b) The Linux operating system along withGnome & KDE desktop managers withhundreds of day to day useful tools like,PIM ( Personal Information Manager),Calculator, Games, Email client is alsoavailable in Hindi along with hundredsof other languages.

These umbrella projects make it possiblefor us to use our computers in multiplelanguages. an Example..

Most of these projects are sadly lackingin Marathi support. This is only due to lack ofvolunteers to do the job of translation.

As we have seen it is very much possibleto have a very complete computer userexperience with FOSS.

Also it is possible to adapt FOSS to ourown language. Indeed most of the FOSSprojects have made it possible for even nonprogrammers to contribute towards adaptationin their own language. This is made possibleby making all the strings comprising part ofthe GUI like the File menu option for exampleavailable as a separate replaceable bundle.Thus by translating & replacing all the stringsin this bundle in our own language it ispossible to adapt the software & use it inMarathi.

What we must do...

a) Adapt projects which are useful / relevantto us;

b) Use the software & give feedback,suggestions thus acting as softwaretester and giving back something to thecommunity which gave us free software.

c) Form groups among ourselves withlanguage experts & software experts toforthwith start Marathi translation effortsof FOSS most useful & relevant to us.

I am making a pledge here to make myexpertise available to any such project.

Lets join hands to start making Marathiavailable on every computer that needs it.


gma Ö

_amR>r mfm dmnamgß~ßYV Am_¿`m CXmgrZ d•Œmr_wioJ´ßWmb`mVrb _amR>r J´ßWgßJ´hmb`m¿`m gßJUH$sH$aUmVAjaeÖ AJUV ‡˝ JßWnmb ÂhUyZ Am_¿`m g_moa AgVmV.gßJUH$sH$aUm¿`m AmO Cnb„Y AgUmË`m Amkmdbr dm‡Umbr ~ZdÎ`m OmV AgVmZm XodZmJar bnrMm Z hmoUmamdMma `mg H$maUr yV Amho.

ÌmmoYgßkm Ö gßJUH$sH$aU, JßWmb`, XodZmJar JßWmb`‡Umbr

‡mÒVmdH$

J´ßWmb`mß¿`m gßJUH$sH$aUm~m~V dMma H$aVmZmJßWmb`mßMo gßJUH$sH$aU ÂhUOo Zo_Ho$ H$m` `m~m~V H$ÎnZmÒnÔ> AgUo AmdÌ`H$ Amho. gd©gmYmaUVÖ AmnÎ`mH$So>JßWmb`mß_‹ o mdf`r ‡À`j H$m_mbm gwÈdmV JoÎ`m Xhm ~mamdfm©V Pmbr. JßWnmbmZo gßJUH$mMm dmna H$amdm hr AnojmdmT>rg bmJyZ H$mhr gßJUH$ AmkmdbtMr Cnb„Yr dmTy>bmJbr. AmO JßWmb`mVyZ ‡m_wª`mZo "b~gg' "b~gwQ>'"gßO`' "gmob' "JßWmb`' B. JßWmb` ‡Umbr dmnaÎ`m OmVmVAgo XgVo. Varhr JßWmb`mßMo gßJUH$sH$aU ÂhUOo nydunmgyZCnb„Y Agbobm gmR>m(nyd©bjr n´ md Í$nmßVaU) d À`mMrgß~ßYV joÃmßMr _mhVr Qß>H$bIV H$arV OmUo EdT>mM _`m©XVAW© bjmV KoVbm OmVmo.

_mÃ `m gd© Cnb„Y gßJUH$ Amkmdbr BßJÓr ^mfm damo_Z bnrbm ‡mYm›` XoUmË`m AgÎ`mZo XodZmJar bnrVAgUmar ^maVr` ^mfmßVrb nwÒVHo$ d Z`VH$mbHo$ `mß¿`mgßJUH$sH$aUm~m~V gwb^Vm Z_m©U hmoV Zmhr. EH$ Va Cnb„Ygd© ‡Umbt_‹ o Cnb„Y H$Í$Z Xbobr XodZmJar bnrMr gmo^fi ^fi ÒdÈnmMr Amho. ‡À oH$ AmkmdbrVrb H$i\$bH$doJim Amho. `mV ‡_mUrH$aU Zmhr d Xwgao ÂhUOo gmd©OZH$JßWmb o deof JßWmb o e°jUH$ JßWmb o `mßMm Ogm dMma

J´ßWmb` gßJUH$sH$aUm gß~ßYmV _amR>rMm dmna

H$amd`mg hdm Vgm Ho$bobm Zmhr. H$maU ^maVr` ^mfmßVrbJßW hm `m Amkmdbt¿`m —Ô>rZo XwÊ`_ df` Amho.

CXmgrZ —Ô>H$moZ

emgZmMm _amR>r dmna `mgß~ßYrMm AmJh EH$sH$So> AmUemgZÏ`dhmamV BßJOrM dmnabr OmUo hr dÒVwpÒWVr XwgarH$So>ho XoIrb m _mJrb EH$ H$maU Amho. _mV• mfm ÂhUyZ _amR>rMmA^_mZ ~miJUmao emgZ Ï`ÒWoVrb gd© KQ>H$ _amR>r¿`mdmnamMm AmJh YaVmZm XgV ZmhrV. mMm Òdm^dH$ n[aUm_BßJÓr dmna `mV hmoVmo. BßJÓr kmZ^mfm Amho Agm BßJÓrMm"nmoH$i' nwaÒH$ma H$arV ahm `m_wio _amR>r¿`m dH$mgmMr hrAdÒWm Amho. J´ßWmb`rZ H$m_H$mOmV gßnyU© gßJUH$sH$aU‡H$`m m_wioM eä` hmoV Zmhr. H$mhr R>H$mUr Va bfl ßVamMm(Q¥>m›gbQ>aoeZ) n`m©`hr ÒdrH$mabm OmVmo. JU nÃm_YyZYoS>JwOar BßJÓrMm _amR>rgmR>r hmoUmam dmna nmhbm H$s^mfo~m~V AmÂhr H$Vr "ghÓUw' AmhmoV ho bjmV oVo. BßJÓr_m‹`_mMm A^_mZ YÍ$Z _amR>rVyZ ejU Cnb„Y ZgUmË`mgßÒWmß¿`m JßWmb`mßMo darb ‡H$ma¿`m VS>OmoS>r H$Í$Z EH$doi^mJVo nU _hmamÔ¥>m¿`m BVhmgmV _moRo> moJXmZ AgUmË`m _amR>rd Img H$ÈZ gmd©OZH$ JßWmb`mß¿`m gßnyU© gßJUH$sH$aUmV

oUmË`m AS>MUtMm OmUdnyd©H$ dMma Pmbobm XgV Zmhr.

gßJUH$sH$aUmMm dMma H$Í$ OmVm XodZmJar bnrdmnaUmË`m _amR>r d A›` mfmßVrb JßWßmMm dMma H$ÈZ ÒdVßÃ‡_mU d ÒdrH$mamh© JßWmb` ‡Umbr (~wp‹X^mJ) V`ma hmoB©b`mMr JaO d eä`Vmhr H$_r hmoV AmU AmhoV. BßJÓrbmMkmZÏ`dhmam¿`m ^mfoMm XOm© Xo `m_wio Ago hm oUo hoAÒdm^mdH$ Amho Agohr ÂhUVm oV Zmhr. naßVw `mMm AW©_amR>r J´ ßWmß¿`m _mhVr¿`m gmR>m Z_©VrV dm nwT>rbgßJUH$sH$aU ‡H$`mßV AS>MUr oV ZmhrV Agm Zmhr. EIm⁄mJßWmb` ‡Umbr_‹ o AgUmar `m~m~VMr gmo g_OmdyZ KoUod À`m gmo rZwgma _mhVr gmR>m Z_©Vr H$aUo ho _wimV AS>MUrMoR>aVo Vo H$i\$bH$m¿`m ^fiVo_wio. EH$m ‡UmbrV EH$ gmo Va

‡m. _mohZ nmR>H$

JßWnmb~mßXmoS>H$a dkmZ _hmd⁄mb`, R>mUo.


XwgarV Xwgar. m~m~V H$moUVohr ÒdrH$mamh© R>aVrb Ago ‡_mUZ`_ ZmhrV.

JßWmb`mg_moarb AS>MUr (EH$ CXmhaU)

JßWmb`m¿`m gßJUH$sH$aU ‡UmbrV Oo ddY H$m ©KQ>H$(_m∞S>`wÎg) AgVmV À`mVrb Z`VH$mbH$mß gß~ßYmVrbH$m ©KQ>H$mMo nwT>rb CXmhaU nhmVm oB©b.

`m H$m ©KQ>H$mV Z`VH$mbHo$ Z AmÎ`mg nmR>d `m¿`mÒ_aUnÃmMm Z_wZm V`ma Agmdm Aer Anojm AgVo. hm Z_wZmBßJOr Z`VH$mbH$mßZm ghO nmR>dVm oVmo. AWm©V ho Ò_aUnÃJUnÃmZo nmR>dbo OmVo VgoM N>mnrb ‡V XoIrb nmaßn[aH$Q>nmbmZo nmR>dVm oVo. naßVw Aem ‡UmbrV V`ma AgUmam_amR>r Z_wZm JUnÃmZo nmR>dUo eä` hmoV Zmhr. _amR>r JßW dBVa gmhÀ` mßMm _mhVrgmR>m Z_m©U H$a `mMr gmo hr À`mß¿`m—Ô>rZo nwaoer AgVo. BVa Ï`dhmamßgmR>r BßJÓrMm dmna hmoUma hoJ•hrV Yabo OmVo. `m_wio _amR>r Z`VH$mbH$mßZm _amR>rVyZÒ_aUnÃo Z nmR>dVm BßJÓrVyZM nmR>dmdr bmJVmV.J´ßWmb`mVrb H$m_mMr gmo` nmhbr OmUo AmdÌ`H$ Amho."bbV' "ejUg_rjm' "H$dVmaVr' "gmYZm' "g_mO‡~moYZ nÃH$m' `mgmaª`m _amR>r Z`VH$mbH$mßZm _amR>rVyZÒ_aUnÃ JUnÃmZo dm _w–V ‡V nmaßnm[aH$ Q>nmbmZo nmR>dUo(BßJÓr ‡_mUo ) Ïmm A›` nÃÏ`dhma ( CXm. dJ©UrZyVZrH$aUdmMH$ ‡VH´$`m B.) _amR>rVyZM H$aUo ho AYH$ gß wpäVH$Amho. nU bnr¿`m AZwnb„YVo_wio d deofVÖ J´ßWmb`‡UmbrVrb bnr¿`m AS>MUt_wio ho eä` hmoV Zmhr.

zho Pmbo EH$m H$m`©KQ>H$m~m~V. dmMH$mßZm Ò_aUnÃonmR>dUoµ JßWßmgmR>r _mJUrnÃ nmR>dUoµ, dmMH$m^_wI VmbHo$V_mhVr emoYUoµ, XoUJrXmamßZm Am^manÃo nmR>dUo B. AZoH$H$m_o JßWmb`mV _amR>rVyZ H$aUo AmdÌ`H$ d AnojV AgVo.nU `m gd© H$m_mßMr gmo AgUmar gßJUH$ ‡Umbr ZgUo hrAmO Var AS>MUrMr ~m~ Amho. AmO Cnb„Y AgUmË`m"b~gwQ>' "ÒmßO`' "b~gg' "gmob' B. ‡Umbr dmnaVmZm`m AS>MUr OmUdVmV. JßWmb` ‡Umbr H$moUVr ø`md`mMr hoR>adVmZm `m ~m~rMm \$ma AmJ´hXoIrb Yabm OmV Zmhr.deofVÖ JUnÃmgmaIr gmo dmnÈZ H$VrVar H$m_o gmonr hmoD$eH$VmV. gßJUH$mMm ‡gma Pmbm. _mhVr VßÃkmZmgmaª`memIm Z_m©U PmÎ`m Varhr J´ßW ‡H$meH$ dVaH$ VgoMdmMH$gw‹Xm `m JUnÃm¿`m gmo rMm OVä`m ‡_mUmV dmnaH$amdm`mg hdm VVä`m ‡_mUmV H$arV ZmhrV Ago _mPoZarjU d AZw d Amho. `m_wiohr _amR>r ^mfm Ï`dhmamMmgßJUH$‡UmbtV dMma XwÊ`_ R>abm Agob.

g_mamon d Cnm`

`m d Aem g_Ò`mßdarb Cnm` WmoS>ä`mV Ago

1. gßJUH$m¿`m JßWmb`mVrb Cnm``moOZm~‘b _mZgH$Vm~Xbm`bm hdr.

2. _amR>r d A›` gd© maVr` mfmßH$So> nhmd`mMm —Ô>H$moZAm_ybmJ´ ~Xbm`bm hdm.

3. JßWmb` gßK AmU ZoQ>dH©$g≤ mßZr H$m_ H$a `mMr ZVmßVJaO Amho.


ÂmamR>r ^mfoMr KS>U Ö

_amR>r ^mfo¿`m CJ_mMm dMma H$aVmZm ^maVmV XmoZ^mfmHw$iß n´mYm›`mZo bjmV KoVbr nmhOo.

1. Am © mfmHw$i (d°XH$)

2. X´mdS>r^mfmHw$i (V_i)

‰mmfmemÛkmßZr ^maVmVrb ^mfmßMr Am ©, X´mdS>r,_wßS>m(Am∞pÒQ¥>H$) AmU MZr≠V~oQ>r `m Mma Hw$imßV d^mJUrH$Í$Z _amR>r hr Am`©Hw$imVrb ^mfm R>adbr Amho. V¿`mCJ_mMm AmU KQ>ZoMm dMma H$aVm gßÒH•$V AmU n´mH•$V `m^mfm n´mYm›`mZo dMmamV KoVÎ`m JoÎ`m. S>m∞.nmß.Xm. JwUo `mßZrgßÒH•$V≠nmH•$V¿`m OmoS>rbm ã"An^ße'`m AmUIr EH$m XwÏ`mH$So>bj doYbo.

_yb^mfm Am © mfm d°XH$ gßÒH•$VgßÒH•$Vmoÿd

_hmamÔ¥>r n´mH•$V

An ße

_ËhmQ>r ^mfm(kmZmo~m, MH´$Ya,VwH$mo~m)

naßVw `mM~amo~a hm gd© dMma EH$mßJr AgyZ _amR>rMrKQ>Zm VnmgVmZm XjUr mfmßMm defVÖ X´mdS>r Hw$imVrbgdm©V OwZr d n´mMrZ V_i ^mfoMm dMma Pmbobm Zmhr AgmAmjon lr. dÌdZmW I°ao mßZr KoVbm. H$mb m VÀdmMm mfodahmoUmË`m n[aUm_m~amo~aM bmoH$ d Xoe `m VŒdmßMm dMmaAn[ahm © Amho. _hmamÔ¥>mVrb bmoH$^mfoV XjUrMm dmda Iyn_moR>`m n´_mUmda Amho.

_amR>r ^mfm ≠ KS>U,n[adV©Z AmU n[a^mfmZ_©Vr

n´m. AZb ^m~S>

AYÏ`mª`mVm, _amR>r ^mfm d^mJ¡mmoer≠~oSo>H$a _hmd⁄mb`, R>mUo

lr. I°ao mßZr _amR>r¿`m gßX^m©V Or EH$ mfH$ CnnŒmr _mßS>brÀ`mgmR>r gß_V Aer gßkm dmnabr.

gß_V ÂhUOo gßÒH•$V≠_amR>r≠V_i ^mfmÃHy$Q>.

_amR>rMm dMma gßÒH•$V d V_i `m Xm oZ^mfmHw$imß¿`m AmYmao Ho$bm Va ^maVm¿`m ^yJmobmda Ogm_hmamÔ¥> Ver ^mfmßµ_‹ o "_‹ o _hm^maV_≤' ÂhUyZ _amR>r XmoZ^mfmHw$imßVrb Xwdm ÂhUyZ C^r R>mH$Vo.

_amR>r ^mfoMm dÒVma, d•’r gd© XemßZr hmoV Amho.

_amR>r mfo¿`m CJ_mer V¿`m KS>UrMr Aer MmMnUrHo$Î`mZßVa À`mdoir _ËhmQ>r ^mfm H$er hmoVr Vo nmhbo nmhOo.‘‘Mm_w S>am | H$ad`b|, JßJamOo gwÀVmb| H$ad`bßo’’ ho dmä`ldU~oiJmoi òWrb ~mh˛~br¿`m nwVi`mImbr Agbobo_amR>rVbß nhbß dmä` _mZbß Var À`m~‘b EH$_V Zmhr. eßß.Jmo.Vwinwio `mßZr AmnÎ`m "H$moard _amR>r boI' `m JßWmV AjrMmebmboI (eHo$ 905) hm Am⁄ebmboI _mZyZ Vmo bIV_amR>rMm nhbm nwamdm Amho Agß ÂhQ>bo. hm dmX ~mOybm Ro>dbm

marazI

[Mga`jaI va paotu-gaIja

[tr paScaa%ya BaaYaa

saMskRt

farSaI

³AvaosqaagaT´ ArbaI¸ tukI-

1. Aaya-kuL ihMdI¸ baaMgalaa¸ gaujaratI¸

AaorIyaa¸ AsaamaIyaa¸ isaMQaI¸

2. dàivaDIkuL kanaDI¸ tolagaU tmaIL

gß_V ÃH$moU(gßÒH•$V≠_amR>r≠V_ri)

gßÒH•$V

_amR>r

1.Am`©Hw$iqhXr, ~mßJbm, JwOamVr,

Amoar`m, Agm_r`m, qgYr,2. –mdS>rHw$iH$mZS>r, VobJw,

V_ri

BßJÓrd nmoVw©JrO

BVa nmÌMmÀ`^mfm

\$maer(AdoÒWmJQ>)Aa~r, VwH$s©


Var À`mZßVa Adø`m XmoZ VrZeo dfm™ m H$mbmdYrV kmmZoÌdar,brimM[aÃmgmaª`m JßWmßZr EH$mMdoir J⁄ AmU n⁄mMr g_W©naßnam Z_m©U Ho$br `mVM _ËhmQ>r ^mfoMo _moRo>nU ‡À``mbm

oVo. kmZoÌdarV _mPm _ËhmQ>mMr ~mobwß H$dVwH|$' Ago kmZoÌdamßZrÂhQ>bß Amho. À`mMm AW© H$m` ? EImXr ZD$dmar gmS>r, Mmoir,_moRß> Hwß$Hy$ bmdbobr qH$dm AmS>dm _idQ> ^abobr, nm`mVOmoS>dr,ZW, XßS>mV Vmoi~ßX`m Agm nohamd Agbobr ÛrnmhÎ`mda AmnU H$m` ÂhUVmo? hr _amR>_moir Ûr Amho.`mVrb _moir ÂhUOo S>moä`mdaMr bmH$S>mMr _moir ZÏho Va BWo_moirMm AW© n’Vr. _amR>_moirMm AW© gmYr gmonr n’V,naßnaoZo MmbV Ambobr Agm Amho. AmnU OoÏhm OodUmVH$mßXm,^mH$a, PwUH$m Ago nXmW© AgVmV VoÏhm ÂhUVmo H$s ho"AÒgb _amR>_moiß OodU Amho' À`mMmhr AW© VmoM H$s ho gmYßOodU Amho. ÂhUyZM kmZoÌda OoÏhm _mPm "_ËhmQ>mMr ~mobwßH$dVwH|$' Ago ÂhUVmV, VoÏhm À`mßZm AÀ ßV gmYr, gmonr Aer_ËhmQ>r mfm ÂhUOo VÀH$mbrZ bmoH$^mfm, ~mob^mfm AnojVhmoVr.

JßWZ_©Vrdarb bmoH$^mfm, ~mob^mfoMm n´ md Ö

kmZoÌdarV n´m_wª`mZo bmoH$^mfm, Ï`dhma^mfm Amho.AZoH$ e„X ho eoVrÏ`dgm`mVyZ Ambobo AmhoV. kmZXodmo ÂhUo_r MmSo> mVrb MmSo> hm e„X kmZoÌdamß¿`mM ZÏho Va AmO¿`mgßJUH$ wJmVrb eoVrÏ`dgm`mVhr H$m`_ Amho. MmSo> ÂhUOo~r noa `mgmR>r Oo bmH$S>r AdOma dmnaVmV Vo. bmoH$^mfoVrbe„XmßMm dmna H$Í$Z kmZoÌdamßZr _ËhmQ>rVrb lo> H$mÏ`mMraMZm Ho$br. XwgË`m ~mOybm brimM[aÃmVyZ MH´$YaÒdm_t¿`mbrim gmßJVmZm ÂhmBß^≈>mZo AÒgb bmoH$^mfoMm, Ï`dhma^mfoMmM dmna Ho$bm Amho. bIV ÒdÍ$nmV, H$moUÀ`mhrn´H$maMr ogi Z hmoVm À`mdoir n´À`j ~mobbr OmUmar ^mfmOer¿`m Ver AmO AmnÎ`mn ©V nmohMbr ho brimM[aÃmMßIaß _hŒd Amho. À`mdoi¿`m Mmbr[aVr, Í$T>r, naßnam `mß¿`mOmoS>rZo EoVhmgH$ AmU m°JmobH$ n´XoeßmMo XmIbo _iVmV.ÂhUyZ hm JßW EH$ gm_mOH$ XÒVmEodO qH$dm "gmoeb S>m∞ä w_|Q'>R>abm. IoS>monmS>r AmU bhmZ _wbmbm "H$mdi`mßM Ka hmoVßeoUmMß, M_UtMß Ka hmoVß _oUmMo' hr JmoÔ> gmßJVbr OmVo. hrJmoÔ> Oer¿`m Ver ÂhUOo "H$mD$i`mMo Ka goUmMo, gmiB©MoKa _oUmMo' brimM[aÃmV AmT>iVo. mMmM AW© JßWZ_©VrdabmoH$^mfoMm, Ï`dhma^mfoMm n´MßS> nJS>m hmoVm. gßVH$mÏ`mMrnaßnam gVV Mmby amhbr. _moJbr AmH´$_Um_wio _hmZw md

nßWr`mßZr 21 gmßHo$VH$ bfl`mßMm dmna H$Í$Z À`mßMo gmhÀ`gm_m›` _mUgmnmgyZ Xya Ro>dbß. gßV gmhÀ`m¿`m gßX^m©VAmnU OoÏhm "VwH$m Pmbmgo H$ig' Ago ÂhUVmo VoÏhmA^ßJdmUrMm OZ_mZgmda Agbobm nJS>m gyMV hmoVmo.VwH$mo~mßZr gd©gm_m›`mßMr gmonr, VmoS>mßV ghOJÀ`m Í$iob AemVimJmimVrb bmoH$^mfoMm dmna Ho$bm. ^mfm hr Zoh_rCÉmagm°H$`m©H$So> diVo. gmononUm, H$mQ>H$ga, n´dmhrnUm,OdßVnUm hm mfoMm Òd^mdY_© Amho. VwH$mo~mß¿`m mfoV Zo_Ho$AW©dmhr e„X AmhoV. À`mV H$mQ>H$ga, gwQ>gwQ>rVnUm Amho.bmoH$^mfm d Ï`dhma ^mfm Amho. À`mV gw mfVdOm dmä ßAmhoV, J⁄ d n⁄mMm gwßXa _bm\$ Amho.

Zmhr Z_©i _Z, H$m` H$arb gm~U ! _hmnwao PmS|> OmVr, VoWo bÏhmir dmMVr !

_mobo KmVbo aS>m`m, Zmhr Amgy Zmhr _m`m !

OmoS>moZ`m YZ CŒm_ Ï`dhmao, CXmg dMmao doM H$ar !

À`mdoi¿`m n´MbV _amR>rMmM dmna À`m ß¿`mA ßJdmUrV Amho. À`m_wio AmOhr J´m_rU ^mJmV VwH$mo~mßMrdmUr bmoH$n` Amho. Jm_rU mJmVrb XodimßV AmOhr À`mßMrgw^mfVo bhbobr AmT>iVmV. BVH$m VwH$mo~mßMm nJS>mOZ_mZgmda Amho. ÂhUyZ "VwH$m Pmbmgo H$ig' hr CäVrgmW© R>aVo. AmOhr _amR>rVrb CäVr m ~Ïhßer VwH$mam_mß¿`mMAmhoV.

VwH$mo~m (VwH$m Pmbmgo H$ig)n⁄+ J⁄(gw mfVdOm,gmonr,gwQ>gwQ>rV mfm)

kmZmo~m MH´$Ya Òdm_r(n⁄ naßnam) (J⁄ naßnam)

_hmamÔ¥>r^mfm ≠ XoerH$ma boUo

AmO¿`m AmYwZH$ _amR>r¿`m KS>Urda ÂhUyZMVwH$mam_ßmMm \$ma _moR>m nJS>m Amho. AmYwZH$ _amR>r H$dtdahr

_ËhmQ>r ^mfm

(bmoH$^mfm,~mob^mfm)


VwH$mo~mßMm \$ma _moR>m n´ md Amho, _J Vo "_T>H$a' AgmoV dm"Hw$gw_mJ´O' AgmoVµ."nd©Ur' H$dVoV H$dr Hw$gw_mJ´OmßZm

Ï`W© Jobm VwH$m, Ï`W© kmZoÌda ü&gßVmßMo nwH$ma, dmßP Pmbo !

Ago bhVmZm À`mßZm gmVÀ`mZo gßVßmMr AmR>dU hmoVo.

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^mfm. ~h_ZrH$mimnmgyZ AJXr edH$mbmn`™V naH$sAß_bm_wio _amR>rda \$maerMm nMßS> n^md hmoVm. \$maer~amo~aAdoÒWm JQ>mVrb Aa~r d VwH$s© mfmßMmhr amOÏ`dhmamda nMßS>n´ md hmoVm. Xa~mar ^mfonmgyZ Vo bmoH$^mfon ™V VMm gd©ÃgßMma hmoV hmoVm. hm n^md noedmB©n ™V H$_r ≠ AYH$ n_mUmVQ>Hy$Z amhbm. nU Bgam`br bmoH$mßMr Or "h~y' ^mfm VrhrH$mhr H$mbmnydu _•VM hmoVr nU Bgam`bgmaª`m XoemZo VbmZdgßOrdZr n´m· H$Í$Z Xbr AmU AmO Vr À`m XoemMrbmoH$^mfm Pmbr Amho. m_wio emgZgßÒWm ho mfm gßdY©ZmgmR>r_hŒdmMo gmYZ R>aVo.

ÂmamR>rVrb ^mfH$ n´ moJ AmU n[adV©Z Ö

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AmYwZH$ _amR>rMm dmT>Vm dÒVma

AmYwZH$ _amR>r

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gßÒH•$V

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AmYwZH$ _amR>r AmYwZH$ _amR>r

gßÒH•$VmMm ‡^md

Amª`mZH$ H$dVmnmodmS>m µ(H$gXm)

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~Ia dmL≤>_`BVhmgmMo gmYZ

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AmYwZH$ _amR>r

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nßS>Vr H$mÏ`µ(nßV)


\$mago è Ambo Zmhr.

BßJÓrMm n´ md Ö

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BßJÓmßZm am¡` H$a `mgmR>r BWÎ`m ZoQ>ÏhmßMr amOZ>H$maHw$Zr Ï`dÒWm Z_m©U H$amd`mMr hmoVr. À`mgmR>r mfmßVa wJgwÍ$ Pmbo. ~m∞Â~o nogSo>›grMm nhbm JÏh©Za bm∞S©> Eb\$›ÒQ>Z`mZo òWrb bmoH$mßZm AmYwZH$ ejU ÒWmZH$ ^mfoV,bmoH$^mfoV CXm. _amR>r mfoV Xo `mMm AmJh Yabm. nU BßJOram¡`H$V AmnÎ`mbm H$_r boIVmV, À`mgmR>r AmU AmnbmAmÀ_g›_mZ Q>H$d `mgmR>r ejUmMo _m‹`_ ÂhUyZ AmnUMBßJOr _m‹`_mMr _mJUr H$Í$Z H$aßQo>nUm Ho$bm&S>m∞. mD$ XmOrbmS> ho J±Q> _oS>rH$b H$m∞boO_‹ o A∞Zm∞Q>m∞_r hm df` _amR>rVyZ(earaemÛ) eH$dV AgV. hm BßJÓrMm AmJ´h _oH$m∞boZo_m›` Ho$bm AmU BßJÓrMo ho yV AmnÎ`m _mZJwQ>rda BVHß$ K≈>~gbß H$s AmVm Amnbß eara H$moUVß AmU yV H$moUVß hoMAmnÎ`mbm AmoiIVm oB©Zmgo Pmbo! ÂhUyZ amOdQ>r m mfo¿`mdH$mgmbm VmaH$ qH$dm _maH$ R>aVmV. bmoH$_m›`mß¿`m amOH$s`Midir_wio _amR>r ^mfobm nw›hm Zdß VoO n´m· Pmbß. À`mß¿`md•ŒmnÃr` boIZmßZ _amR>r ^mfobm Zdr Pimir _imbr.À`mßMmhr gmofl`m ^mfoH$So> H$b hmoVm. Q>iH$ VwÍß$JmVyZ gwQ>boVoÏhm AJboImbm H$m` erf©H$ ⁄m`Mo m ddßMZoV À`mßMo gßnmXH$hmoVo. À`mßZr bhbo, "Q>iH$ ~ßY_wäV Pmbo!' Q>iH$ ÂhUmbo,ho bmoH$mßZm H$m` H$iUma? À`mßZr erf©H$ Xbo " Q>iH$ gwQ>bo !'

"H$R>rU bhUo gmono Agbo Var gmono bhUo H$R>rU AgVo.'AmMm © AÃo, lr. _. _mQo>, dZmo~m ^mdo, gmZoJwÍ$Or `mßMr^mfm hr Iar, gmonr _amR>r ^mfm hmo .

ÒdmVßÕ`dra gmdaH$a Ö gmdaH$amßZm BßJÓr d naH$se„XmßMo _amR>r d qhXr mfoVyZ CÉmQ>Z H$amd`mMo hmoVo. À`mgmR>rÀ`mßZr n`m© r _amR>r e„X V`ma Ho$bo. CXm. H´$_mßH$, XZmßH$,Xya‹dZr, ‹dZjonH$ A⁄`mdV (AnQw>So>Q>), gßÒH•$Vr BÀ`mXr.MÃnQ>g•Ô>rMr `mM gw_mambm ZwH$VrM gwÈdmV Pmbr hmoVr.ÂhUyZ _‹ ßVa, ~m¯MÃU, H$bmJ•h, H$bm_ßXa, AmV ≠~mhoaAgo gmono e„X À`mßZr Xbo. AmOH$mb n´MbV Agbobm e„X"_hmnm°a' hmhr e„X À`mßMmM Amho. AmnÎ`m R>m `mV ZJa dmMZ_ßXa Amho. m e„XmßMm nhbm n´ moJ gmdaH$amßZr doßJwÎ`m©VrbZoQ>Ïh OZab bm`~árgmR>r Ho$bm. nU ^mfobm Y_© MH$Q>Vmohr gmdaH$amßMr y_H$m ddm⁄ Amho. ZmhrVa AmVm BßJÓrAmU \$maer, CX©y e„X dJim`Mo Va ^mfH$ Ï`dhma H$R>rUhmoD$Z ~gob. CXm. Ja_ Obo~r V`ma Amho. ho dmä` qgYr^mfoV Ogo¿`m Vgo dmnabo OmVo. _J ho dmä` qgYrVyZdJim`Mo H$s _amR>rVyZ Aer MMm© Z H$aVm `m XmoZ ^mfmß_‹ oH$m` gß~ßY Amho `mMm emoY KoUo C◊moYH$ R>aob. "Ombr_ ZoZOa go Oha nbm`m!' `m dmä`mda \$maerMm n´ md AmhoÂhUyZ Vo qhXrVyZ dJiUo ZaW©H$ R>aob. À`mMn´_mUo ÀgwZm_rAmU [aäem ho _yiMo OnmZr e„X AmO _amR>rV Í$T> PmboboAmhoV. À`m_wio _amR>r ^mfoMr CbQ> gmo M Pmbobr Amho.

2. n[a^mfm Z_©Vr Ö

‡ÒVwV boIH$mbm AZoH$ joÃmV H$m_ H$a `mMr gßYr_imbr. nßMVmamßH$V hm∞Q>ob Ï`dÒWmnZ, ZmJar godm narjm(ÒnYm© narjm), AmH$medmUr, XyaXe©Z, R>mUo _hmZJanmbH$mAmU EH$ XeH$mhˇZ OmÒV H$mi A‹`mnZmMo joÃmgmaª`mImOJr, emgH$s` AmU Z_emgH$s` joÃmV H$m_ H$a `mMrgßYr _imbr. Aem ddY joÃmV doJdoJ˘`m AYH$manXmdaH$m_ H$aVmßZm Oo H$mhr AZw d Ambo. À`m AmYmao H$mhr ZarjUZm|Xdbr AmhoV.

n[a^mfm Z_©VrMm dMma H$aVmZm S>moi`mßg_moa Í$Q>b∞ΩdoO, _yi mfm hdr. AmYr ÂhQ>Î`mn´_mUo maVmV XmoZ _yi^mfm AmhoV. EH$ d°XH$ (gßÒH•$V) AmU Xwgar ÂhUOo X´mdS>r^mfm. gßÒH•$V hm d°XH$ ^mfoMm nwT>bm Q>flnm Amho. V¿`mV


n[a^mfm Z_©VrMr n´MßS> j_Vm Amho. nU AmO Zo_H$s hrM^mfm AmnU Ï`dhma—Ô> m hadyZ ~gbmo AmhmoV. mfoVrb e„XVrZ gmYZmßZr V`ma hmoVmV Ö

1) n´À``

2)CngJ©

3)doJdoJi`m d•Œmr (AW©)

gßÒH•$VmV Aem nmM d•Œmr AmhoV. CXm. EH$eof d•Œmr,V⁄V d•Œmr BÀ`mXr.

CXm. gw X´m ho ÛrMo Zmd, VMm Omo _wbJm Vmo gm° X´.Hwß$VrMm _wb_m H$m¢Vo , amYoMm _wbJm amYo . gm° X´ hm e„Xn´ À` AWdm CngJm©Zo V`ma Pmbobm Zmhr. Va d•Œmr_wio V`maPmbm. BWo V⁄V d•Œmr Amho.

^mfH$ KQ>H$mß_wio EH$ YmVynmgyZ AZoH$ gßkm V`mahmoVmV. CXm. "dY≤' YmVynmgyZ ≠ dYmZ, dYo H$, dYr,dYm`H$, dY_ßS>i ho gd© e„X H$m`⁄mer ZJS>V AmhoV.^mfoMr `m j_VoMm Cn`moJ H$Í$Z nm[a^mfH$ gßkm V`maH$am`bm nmhOoV. `m ^mfH$ gßkm _amR>rV V`ma H$aVm oVZmhrV. BßJOrVrb gßkm naV naV dmnÍ$Z À`m Í$T> PmÎ`m AmUXrK©H$mim_wio À`m MbZmV amhÎ`m.

BßJOr mfoVrb gßkm m JrH$ d b∞Q>Z mfodaM AmYm[aVAmhoV. BßpΩbe_‹ o nmUr ew’ H$aUmË`m ßÃmbm “A∞π$m∞JmS© ’’>©hm e„X dmnabobm Amho. À`mVrb ã“A∞π$m’’ hm e„X b∞Q>Z_YyZAmbobm AgyZ À`mMm AW© “nmUr’’ Agm Amho. A∞π$m∞Mm AW©nmUr Agbm Var BßJÓrV “dm∞Q>aJmS©’’> Agm e„X Í$T> Zmhr.“A∞π$m∞JmS©>’’ hm e„X BßJÓrV dÒVy~amo~a Í$T> Pmbm. À`mbmn`m©`r _amR>r e„X “ObgßajH$’’ Agm gmßJVm òB©b.À`mMn_mUo hm`S¥>m∞bH$ BßOZrà m e„Xm¿`m ~m~VrVhr darbn´H´$`m gmßJVm òB©b. `m e„Xmbm n`m©`r _amR>r e„XObA^ ßVm Agm gßÒH•$Vmoÿd e„X Í$T> Pmbm Amho. À`mbm"nmUr A^ ßVm' ÂhUVm oUma Zmhr. gm_m›` _mUgm¿`m Vm|S>rghOJÀ`m Í$iVrb Ago e„X ^mfoV dmnaUo JaOoMo Amho.AYm© Ωbmg Mhm, MhmdmÎ`mH$So> _mJVmZm gm_m›` _mUyg"H$qQ>J' Agm e„Xn´ moJ H$aVmo. Vmo AmVm OdiOdi gdm™ZrÒdrH$mabm Amho. BßJÓrVrb "gæb' hm e„X gm_m›` H$Ô>H$ar"qeJb' Agm CÉmaVmo. gmdaH$amßZr `m e„Xmbm _amR>rV

"AæaW J_ZmJ_Z gyMH$Xe©H$ bmohn≈>rH$m' Agm bmß~bMH$n`m© r e„X gwMdbm. naßVw hm e„X CÉmaon ™V ΩmmS>r Ho$ÏhmAmbr AmU Ho$Ïhm ZKyZ Jobr ho H$ibogw’m Zmhr ! hm e„X_amR>rV Í$T> hmoUß Aeä` Amho.

‰mmfoo_‹ o gVV e„XmßMr â nS>V AgVo. ^mfm, OmV,Y_©, nßW nmiV Zmhr. _amR>rVbo AZoH$ e„X ho g_mOmVrbddY Ï`dgm`mVyZ ^mfoV Í$T> Pmbobo AmhoV. gßVH$mÏ`mVZahar gmoZma, gmdVm _mir, goZm ›hmdr BÀ`mXt¿`m aMZo_‹ oÀ`mß¿`m Ï`dgm`mVrb e„X \$ma _moR>`m n´_mUmda AmT>iVmV.AZoH$ dmH≤$n´Mma ho ddY Ï`dgm`mVyZ Ambobo AmhoV. "BßJm\$aUo' (BßJm XmIdUo) hm e„Xn´ moJ M_©H$ma Ï`dgm`mVyZ,"R>Ê`m XoD$Z ~gUo' hm e„Xn`moJ gwVma H$m_m¿`m Ï`dgm`mVyZAmbm Amho. AZoH$doim H$mhr e„X Í$nH$Í$nmZo oVmV AmU^mfoV H$m`_Mo Í$T> hmoD$Z ~gVmV. nydu nmoœ`m bhrV AgV.EImXo Aja ZH$mo AgÎ`mg À`m¿`mda "haVmirMo MyU©'\$mg `mMr n’V Ago. EIm⁄m AmnŒmr_wio Oa Ï`dhma ~ßXRo>dm`Mm Agob qH$dm XwH$mZo ~ßX Ro>dyZ Amnbm CX≤doJ Ï`äVH$Í$Z XmIdÎ`mg À`mbm "haVmi nmiUo' (À`mdÍ$Z qhXrVhS>Vmb) Agm e„Xn`moJ Í$T> Pmbm. AmYwZH$ H$mimV _amR>r^mfoV ZdgmhÀ`mbm g_mßVa Agm "XbV gmhÀ`' hm AVeÒdßV,agaerV Agm Zdm gmhÀ` n´dmh Z_m©U Pmbm. À`mVHo$di AZw dmMoM Zmd›` ZÏhVo Va ^mfoMohr Zmd›` hmoVo.Vr VimJmimVÎ`m, nXXbVmßMr, gm_m›`mßMr ^mfm hmoVr."_hmamÔ¥>r' hm _amR>r ^mfo¿`m dH$mgmMm EH$ Q>flnm Agob,AmU lrYa Ï`ßH$Qo>e Ho$VH$a `mßZr "_hmamÔ¥>' `m e„XmMr"_hmamßMo amÔ¥> Vo _hmamÔ¥>' Aer _mßS>bobr Ï wÀnÀVr bjmV KoVm_ËhmQ>r mfoMr Zmi hr VimJmimVrb _mUgmer, nXXbVmßerOmoS>bobr Amho ho _m›` H$amdo bmJob. XbV gmhÀ`mVrbZdZdrZ e„X^mßS>ma VnmgyZ À`mVÎ`m Ï`dhma mfoV Í$T> hmodyeH$UmË`m e„XmßMm ÒdVßÃnUo emoY KoUo AmdÌ`H$ Amho.ZmeH$H$S>o dßOmar g_mO ~mobrV XyY VmndVmZm Vo OoÏhmß^mS>Ámß¿`m Vimer bmJVo VoÏhm "XyY waßS>bo' Agm H$`m dmMH$e„X Amho, Vmo IoS>monmSr gam©g dmnabm OmVmo. "À`mMr JX©ZN>mQ>br' m dmä`mVrb "N>mQ>br' H$`mnX Hw$Ry>Z Ambo? eoVH$arOoÏhm eoVmßVyZ H$mo~r AWdm \w$bdarMo (‚bm∞da)H$mßXo nmoÀ`mVâVmo À`mdoir À`m H$mß⁄mMm VimMm AZmdÌ`H$ nmÎ`mMm mJd˘`mZo NmQy>Z Q>mH$Vmo VoÏhm À`mbm "H$mo~r N>mQ>br' AgoÂhUVmV. À`m¿`mdÍ$ZM "N>mQ> H$b_' hm e„X n´ moJ hr Í$T>


Pmbm Agmdm. AmOhr _amR>rV dkmZ VßÃkmZm¿`m n´MßS>n´JVr_wio gmVÀ`mZo BßJÓr e„XmßMr â nS>V Amho. _amR>rV"_mo~mB©b', b∞nQ>m∞n', H$m∞b g|Q>g©", "BßQ>aZoQ>', B©≠ ~±qH$J,"E.Q>r.E_', "Ho$S>Q> H$mS©> ', "So>~Q> H$mS©> ' Ago e„X g_W©n`m© ZgÎ`m_wio Í$T> hmoD$ bmJbo AmhoV.

Jm_rU, VmbwH$m d OÎhm ÒVamda Ago AZoH$ e„X XrK©d gmVÀ`nyU© dmnamZo Í$T> Pmbo AmhoV. CXm. A^`ßVm,Am wäV, _hmnm°a, ZJam‹`j. nydr© OÒQ>rg Am∞\$ nrg (Oo.nr)ÂhUV À`mMo ZßVa Eg.B.E_ Pmbo.AmVm À`mMo Eg.B.Amo.PmboAmho. (gmjmßH$ZmgmR>r AmnU À`mßMr _XV KoVmo) nydu ehamVZJanVm hm e„X hmoVm. Vmo AmVm ZJagodH$ Pmbm. nydugMdmb` hmoVo. AmVm _ßÃmb` Pmbo.

gßkmßMm AW© hm H$mQo>H$moa AgVo. À`m À`m R>H$mUr VrM^mfm dmnamdr bmJVo. CXm. BßJÓrVrb H$m`⁄mMr n[a^mfm,À`mMo AZoH$ AW© hmoD$Z MmbV Zmhr. CXm. bJb ZmoQ>rg hrÀ`m ^mfoVM V`ma H$amdr bmJVo. B¿N>mnÃ H$m`⁄mVrbVaVwXrZwgmaM V`ma H$amdo bmJVo. VWo VwH$mam_ AWdm~hUm~mB©Mr ^mfm H$er AmUVm oB©b? ÂhUyZ gaH$mar ^mfmZH$mo Agm XwamJ´h H$m` H$m_mMm ? emgH$s` n[a^mfm päbÔ>Amho qH$dm A`moΩ` Amho ho ÂhUUo MwH$sMo Amho. Vr n´MmamVAmbr nmhOo AmU Ï`dhmamV dmnabr nmhOo.

nÀ oH$ kmZemIoMr n[a^mfm, e„Xmdbr H$mQo>H$moa AgVo&Vr gmonr H$a `m¿`m ZmXmV eWb H$Í$ Zò. H$mhr JmoÔ>rOem¿`m Vem ø`mÏ`m bmJVrb. Zmhr Va Zdm n`m©` hmAn[ahm ©nUo _yi ^mfoVbm, gßÒH•$Vmoÿd Agbm nmhOo.

Forwarded with compliments hm e„Xn`moJgwÍ$dmVrbm BßJÓr ~mobUmË`mßZmhr dMÃ dmQ>bm Agob. nUdmaßdma dmnaÎ`mZo Vmo AmVm Í$T> Amho. À`mMo _amR>rH$aUAZwHy$b A^n´m`mgh AJofV `m e„Xn´ moJmZo hmoB©b. nU Vmodmaßdma, XrK© H$mi dmnaÎ`mg Í$T> hmoB©b.

_amR>r¿`m ~m~VrV dMma Ho$bm Va ddYkmZemImßgmR>r n[a^mfm V`ma Amho. (_amR>r dÌdH$moe,ddY n[a^mfm H$moe) dÌdH$mof V`ma H$aUmar _amR>r ^mfmhr XoemVrb nhbr ^maVr` ^mfm Amho. nU A‹``Z AmUA‹`mnZm¿`m nmVirda Oa `m kmZemIm n´g•V PmÎ`m VaMhr n[a^mfm Í$T> hmoB©b. e„Xmdbr AWdm n[a^mfm hr bmoH$mn ©V

nmohmoMbr nmhOo.

CXm. AW©emÛmMr narjm _amR>rVyZ ⁄md`mMr Amho. nUJ´ßWgßnXm n´m_wª`mZo BßJÓrV, A‹``Z AmU A‹`mnZ(eH$dUo) hohr BßJÓrV _J e„Xmdbr Í$T> H$er hmoB©b ?

BßJÓr _amR>r _m‹`_mMo ¤°V Ö

AÏdb BßJÓr H$mim_wio AmU ^mfmßVa wJm_wio VgoM_∞H$m∞bo¿`m YmoaUm_wio BßJOrVyZ ejUmMo yV AmnÎ`m ~moH$mßS>r~gbo. À`m_wio ÒdmVßÕ`moŒma H$mbIßS>m_‹ o 1955 gmbmnmgyZnmMdrEodOr AmR>drnmgyZ BßJÓr gwÍ$ Pmbr. m_mJo A‹``ZAmU A‹`mnZmMo _m‹`_ Xoer ^mfm hmoVrb Aer y_H$mhmoVr. nU nÀ`jmV Vgo Pmbo Zmhr. mM VwH$S>rVbo bmoH$ OoÏhm_hmd⁄mb`mV Jobo VoÏhm À`mßZm BßJÓr _m‹`_mbm Vm|S> XoUßH$R>rU Pmbß 1975 ZßVa 10+2+3 hr narjmn’Vr Aß_bmVAmbr. nw›hm nmMdrnmgyZ BßJÓr gwÍ$ Pmbo. À`m¿`mVhrAmR>drnmgyZ ZdS>H$ d⁄mœ`m™ZmM gßÒH•$V df` Ko `mMrnadmZJr Xo `mV Ambr. Am_¿`m doirhr "H$' VwH$S>r Agm`Mr.EH$m ~mOybm gßÒH•$VMm dmna Ïhmdm, n´gma Ïhmdm Aer y_H$mø`m`Mr AmU embo ÒVamda \$äV ZdS>H$ d⁄mœ`m™Zm gßÒH•$VeH$ `mMr gßYr ⁄m`Mr hm _moR>mM damoYm^mg ÂhQ>bm nmhOo.BVaÃ `m VwH$S>rbm "A' VwH$S>r ÂhUVmV. AmVm nw›hm EH$XmAmR>drnmgyZ go_r BßpΩbe gwÍ$ Pmbo Amho. (JUV, dkmZdf`mßgmR>r) À`mMn´_mUo B`Œmm nhbrnmgyZ BßJÓr gwÍ$ PmbßAmho. À`m_wio e°jUH$ YmoaUmV gmVÀ` Zmhr. BßJÓr AmU_amR>r _m‹`_ `m~m~V H$m`_ gß ´_ Z_m©U Pmbobm AgVmo.Aem n[apÒWVrV _amR>rMm A‹``Z AmU A‹`mnZm¿`mnmVirda dH$mg AmU n´gma H$gm hmoUma ?

_amR>r d BßJÓr _m‹`_m¿`m emim

_amR>r ^mfm df`m¿`m A‹`mnH$mßn°H$s H$Vr nmbH$mßZrAmnbr _wb BßJOr _m‹`_m¿`m emioV KmVbr AmU À`m ~‘bH$Vr OUmßZm À`mMo d°Ó`Â` dmQ>Vo qH$dm H$Vr nmbH$mßMr Amnbr_wb _amR>r emioV KmVbr À`m~‘b À`mßZm H$VnV _mZgH$g_mYmZ _imbo hm MMMm df` Amho. _amR>r emim AmUBßJOr emim mßMr VwbZm Ho$br Va IoimMr _°XmZ, Ioi gmhÀÀmU BVa VÀg_ gwdYmß¿`m ~m~VrV BßJOr_m‹`_m¿`m emim¯m Zoh_rM gag AgVmV. Ka H$m_ H$aUmË`m _hbobm hrAmnbr _wb BßJÓrV eH$mdrV À`mMo ‡_wI H$maU _amR>r


_m‹`_m¿`m d⁄mœ`m™_‹ o Z_m©U hmoUmam › yZJßS>. IaVa _amR>r_wbmßMo bIrV BßJOr Ï`mH$aU —ÓQ>Ám MmßJbo AgVo H$maU À`mßMm^mfm df`mMm nm`m n∏$m AgVo. _r ~mamdr n ™V dkmZ emIoVeH$bmo. dÎgZ _hmd⁄mb`mV _Ãmß~amo~a An[ahm`©nUoBßJÓr ~mobmdo bmJV hmoVo. EH$m H$m ©H´$_mV EH$ _Ã gmaImXadm¡`mOdi ahmV hmoVm. À`mbm nmhˇZ _r XwgË`m _ÃbmÂhUmbmo, ‘His ambition in life’ is to become adoorkeeper!’ À`mda _mo _Ã VmÀH$mi CX≤Jmabm, ‘Youshould say, you want’s to be a doorkeeper, tobecome a doorkeeper can not be an ambition!.’gßÒH$maj_ d`mV _wbmßda KamV _mV•^mfoV gßÒH$ma hmoVmV,BßJÓr_m‹`_mV JoÎ`mda hr _wb BßJÓr eH$dbob EoH$VmV, Vo_maR>rVyZ g_OyZ KoVmV, narjoV bhVmZm _amR>rMo BßJOrH$aUH$aVmV AmU MwH$m H$aVmV, Ag ho —Ô> MH´$ Amho. emboAmU _hmd⁄mb`rZ nmVirda Aer n[apÒWVr AgVmZmgßJUH$mgmR>r AZwHy$b mfm ÂhUyZ _amR>r H$er dH$gV hmoUma?

ÂmamR>r mfoMm embo ÒVamdarb A‰`mgH_ d⁄mœ`m™ZmH$R>rU dmQ>Vmo. À`mV nw›hm ew’boIZm¿`m MwH$m PmÎ`m VaEH$m dobmßQ>r¿`m MwH$sgmR>r AYm© JwU dOm `m n’VrZo AJXr‡mW_H$ÒVamda Ho$bo OmVmV. À`m_wio OmÒVrV OmÒV JwU_id `mgmR>r 12 dr¿`m narjogmR>r _amR>r Ï`V[aäV BVa^mfmßMm CXm. \´$oßM d O_©Z ^mfoMm n`m© ZdS>bm OmVmo.ew’boIZ hm gamdmMm ^mJ Amho. ew’boIZmgßX^m©V XmoZAßJmZr dMma Ïhm`bm nmhOo. EH$ ÂhUOo e„XmßMoËhÒdXrK©Àd. À`m~m~V EH$ H$m`_ ÒdÍ$nr YmoaU hdo. XwgaßÂhUOo e„XmßMm MyH$sMm dmna. nU À`mgmR>r d⁄mœ`m™Zm AmYre„Xg’r AmU e„XmßMr KQ>Zm g_OmdyZ gmßJVbr nmhOo.`moΩ` e„X H$moUVo AmU A`moΩ` e„X H$moUVo Vo À`mßZm eH$dbonmhOo. (nhm≠ bbV, OmZodmar 2006 Mm AßH$ Ö~oew’boIZmMm ~So>Omd≠ _Zmoha ~moS>H$a) H$_mZ embo`nmVirdarb narjoV AndmXmÀ_H$ n[apÒWVrVËhÒdXrK©Àdm¿`m ~m~VrV (e„XmßMm AW© ~XbV ZgÎ`mg CXm.XZ - XrZ) _dmi YmoaU Ro>dyZ e„Xmß¿`m A`moΩ` Í$nm~‘b(~oew’boIZ) H$S>H$ YmoaU Ro>dbo nmhOo. _amR>r ^mfonmgyZ_amR>r ^mfH$ d⁄mWu Xya Om `mMo n´_wI H$maU ÂhUOoew’boIZmMm AVaoH$s XheVdmX AmU Xwgaß ÂhUOo _amR>rÏ`mH$aUmMr päbÔ>Vm. À`mgmR>r _amR>r ew’boIZ AmU _amR>rÏ`mH$aUm¿`m gmononUmda OmÒV a Xbm nmhOo. _amR>r mfm

EH$ df` ÂhUyZ \$äV H$bmemIo¿`mM A‰`mgH´$_mV Amho.dmU¡` AmU dkmZ emIoV nXdr ÒVamßda hm df` Zmhr,nydu hmoVm. À`m_wio _amR>rMo A‹``Z Z Ho$bobo dX`mWu ^mfmd boIZmV H$_r nS>VmV. À`m_wio _wbmIVrV Anè oVo. 12dr ZßVa AJXr nXdr¿`m V•Vr` df© H$bm emIm deofVÖnXdrbm gßnyU© _amR>r df` KoVboÎ`m d⁄mœ`m™Mm V•Vr` dfm©bm

oB© n ™V Ï`mH$aUmer H$mS>r_mÃ gß~ßY ZgVmo. À`m_wio V•Vr`dfm©bm Ï`mH$aU eH$dVmZm AJXr embo ÒVamnmgyZ COiUrø`mdr bmJVo. hrM ~m~ Ï`mdhm[aH$ _amR>r `m AZdm`©df`m~‘b hr gmßJVm oB©b.

narjogmR>r _amR>r _m‹`_mMmhr n`m© Cnb„Y Amho. nUA‹`mnZ ho n´m_wª`mZo BßJÓrV AmU narjogmR>r AmdÌ`H$XOXma A‰`mg gmhÀ` _amR>rV nwaoÌ`m n_mUmV Cnb„Y Zmhr,À`m_wio A‹``Zm¿`m ~m~VrV Jm|Yi hmoD$Z _amR>r _m‹`_m¿`md⁄mœ`m™Mo ZwH$gmZ hmoVo.

nXdrnmVirda ‡W_ df© H$bm emIoV _amR>r ^mfmdf`mbm ‡doe XoVmZm gai gai oX^md hmoVmo. H$_mZ ¡`md⁄mœ`m™Zm ^mfm df`mV MmßJbo JwU AmhoV, ^mfm df`mMrAmdS> Amho À`mßZm V•Vr` dfm©n ™V ^mfm df` Ko `mMr gßYr_imbr nmhOo. nÀ oH$ df`mbm " nmoQ>mnwaVo d⁄mWu' _imbonmhOoV ho Oar Iaß Agbß Var À`mgmR>r _amR>rgmaª`m ^mfmdf`mda JXm H$em gmR>r. nXdr nmVirda AW©emÛ, BVhmg,nm`m^yV A‰`mgH´$_, _mZgemÛ, am¡èmÛ `m gmaª`m_hŒdm¿`m df`mßgmR>r A‰`mg gmhÀ`, _mJ©Xe©H$ ~mOmamVCnb„Y AgVmV. À`mVrb ^mfm nm[a^mf` e„X dmMÎ`mdaZH$mo Vo _amR>r _m‹`_ AgMß d⁄mœ`m™Zm dmQ>Uma. narjoVrb‡˝ nÃH$m BßJÓr d _amR>r ^mfoV AgVo. BßJÓr n´ nÃHo$¿`m^mfmVamßVyZ g’ Pmbobm _amR>r AdVma nmhÎ`mda H$m` hmVwPm AdVma? AgoM XwX£dmZo ÂhUmdo bmJVo.

BWo EH$ _hŒÀdmMm XmIbm XoVm òB©b. U.P.S.C /M.P.S.C. `m ZmJar godm narjmßgmR>r KQ>Zo¿`m AmR>Ï`mn[aeÔ>mV g_mdoe AgboÎ`m H$moUÀ`mhr ^mfoV CŒmao bhVm

oVmV. nU dmMmdo bmJVo BßJOrVyZ _J À`mMo _amR>rH$aU H$amdßbmJVo. _J _amR>rVyZ H$moU narjm bhUma? 1990 gmbr‡ÒVwV boIH$ E_.E.bm eH$V AgVmßZm X°.bmoH$gŒmoMoVÀH$mbrZ gßnmXH$ lr. _mYd JS>H$ar `mß¿`m "Mm°\o$a' gXamMmgßX © KoD$Z ^maVr` ‡emgH$s` godm narjmßda (Am`.E.Eg)


AmYm[aV addmaMm bmoH$gŒmoV EH$ XrS> nmZr boI bhbmÀ`mda _hmamÔ¥> AmU ~•h›_hmamÔ¥>mVyZ hOmamo d⁄mWu,nmbH$mß¿`m n´VH´$`m AmÎ`m ÂhUyZ ‡ÒVwV boIH$mZo 15dfm©nydu `m narjodf`r dÒV•V _mhVr XoUmaß VgoM _amR>r_m‹`_ d _amR>r gmhÀ` hm df` `m godmßgmR>r H$gm Cn wäVR>aVmo, `m~m~V d⁄mWu d nmbH$ dJm©V ejUV¡kmß_‹òOZOmJ•Vr Z_m©U H$a `mgmR>r _amR>r ^mfoVbß nhb nwÒVH$bhbß, À`mM~amo~a AmH$medmUr d XyaXe©Z¿`m _m‹`_mVyZèÒdr d⁄mWu d _mJ©Xe©H$mß¿`m _wbIVr KoD$Z d•ŒmnÃr`boIZ J´ßWZ_©Vr AmU AmH$medmUr XyaXe©Zgmaª`m—H≠lmÏ` _m‹`_mßMm dmna H$Í$Z OZOmJ•VrgmR>r Vhoar_mJm™Mm Adbß~ Ho$bm. AmOn ™V eoH$S>mo d⁄mWu m narjogmR>r_amR>r _m‹`_mgh _amR>r gmhÀ` `m df`mMr ZdS> H$Í$Z_moR>`m ‡_mUmda èÒdr hmoV AmhoV. EH$sH$So> Agm ‡`ÀZhmoV AgVmßZm A‹``Z AmU A‹`mnZm¿`m nmVirda _mÃAmO AmnU BßJÓr _m‹`_ AYH$mYH$ ÒdrH$maV MmbbmoAmhmoV hr _moR>rM emoH$mßVH$m ÂhUmdr bmJob.

BßJÓr e„X AmnU À`m À`m gßX^m©V ÒdrH$maVmo.

CXm. Workshop (H$maImZm) ≠ H$m ©emim (deÔ>df`mdarb H$m ©emim)

Workshop ≠ H$m_ + XwH$mZ = H$m_mMß XwH$mZ =H$m ©emim/H$m ©gÃ

BßJÓr e„X ^maVr` ^mfmßV ÒdrH$ma `mMr _mZgH$VmAmho, nU hoM Oa gßÒH•$Vmoÿd Agob Va Vo ÒdrH$ma `mMrAmnbr _mZgH$Vm Zmhr. EImXm Ï`dhma nV>V H$amd`mMmVa gßÒH•$Vmedm` A›` n`m© g‹`m XgV Zmhr. V`ma Ho$boÎ`me„XmdÎ`m m An[ahm ©nUo gßÒH•$VmoÿdM AgUma. emgZmV\$n[a^mfmH$moe \$ma nyduM V`ma Pmbobo AmhoV. nU Vo YyiImV nS>bo AmhoV. À`mßZm dmidr bmJbr Amho. À`m_wio VoA⁄`mdV hm o `mMr eä`Vm Zmhr. H$maU A‹``Z,A‹`mnZm¿`m nmVirda _amR>rH$aU Zmhr.

‰mmfoMm ‡dmhrnUm Ö

‰mmfm hr gVV ndmhr AgVo. V¿`mV OdßVnUm AgVmo.^mfm AmU bmoH$Ï`dhmamMo AVyQ> ZmVo Amho. Xa 12 H$mogmßda^mfm ~XbVo. Ï`dhma ~Xbbm H$s AW© ~XbVmo AmU mfoV~Xb hmoVmo.

g‹`m AJ´boImV "amS>m gßÒH•$Vr' Agm CÑoI oVmo. hme„X H$Yr Ambm? Va Vmo AJXr H$mb≠nadm dmnamV AmbobmAmho AmU AmVm Va Vmo dV©_mZnÃm¿`m nhÎ`m nmZmdaR>iH$nUo XgVmo. AmH$medmUrda ~mVÂ`m XoVmZm nydu~mob^mfoMm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. H$maU g_moa lmoVo J•hV YaboboAgVmV. XyaXe©Z¿`m „mmVÂ`mß_‹ò nójH$ g_moa AgyZhr~mob^mfoMm hdm VVH$m dmna hmoV ZÏhVm. hrM JmoÔ>dV©_mZnÃmß¿`m ~m~VrVhr bmJy hmoVr. Jmo_ßVH$mV H$moH$Ur^mfoVrb dV©_mZnÃß AmhoV, nU À`mßZr bnrgmR>r XodZmJar ZÒdrH$maVm amo_Z bnrMm AßJH$ma Ho$bm nU À`m_yio m mfoMoXoer gÀd had `mMr eä`Vm Amho. H$moH$Ur ^mfo¿`m ^maVr`_wim_yio XodZmJar EodOr amo_Z bnr¿`m Amhmar JoÎ`m_wio hr^mfm Ame`—Ô> m Amnbß gÀd J_mdyZ ~g `mMr eä`Vm Amho.

~mob^mfoMm AmU Ï`dhma mfoMm n[aUm_H$maH$ dmna"X°ZH$ _hmZJa' `m gmßOX°ZH$mZo AÀ ßV ‡^mdrnUo Ho$bm.À`m_wio Vo AÎnmdYrV bmoH$‡` Pmbo. À`mMo AZwH$aU BVaH$mhr gmßOX°ZH$mßZrhr Ho$bo. dV©_mZnÃm¿`m nwad `mßZr~mob^mfo~amo~aM bmoH$^mfm AmU wdmnT>rbm ^mdob AmUBßJÓrMm _moR>m ‡^md AgboÎ`m ^mfoMm dmna Ho$bm. CXm._wß~B© Q>mB©Âg. À`mdoir BßXmoa oWo AIb maVr` _amR>r gmhÀ`gß_obZm¿`m Ï`mgnrR>mdÍ$Z ZfoY Pmbm AmU Vmo Òdm^mdH$hrhmoVm. naßVy ~XbmMo ho dmao H$mhr Wmß~dVm Ambo ZmhrV. eodQ>rn[adV©Z hm ^mfoMm Y_© Amho.

AbrH$S>¿`m H$mimVrb _amR>r ZmQ>H$mßMr Zmdß nmhÎ`mg

pirBaaYaainaima-tI

SaasakIya nyaayaalayaIna vyavahar

iSaxaNa vyavasqaa³Saalaoya†mahaivaValayaIna Aqyayana† Aqyaapna³n&anaSaaKaa

baaolaBaaYaa laaokBaaYaa gaamaINa kRYaI saMskRtI naagrI saMskRtI

gaamaINa¸ naagar saaih%ya inaimao -tI saaih%ya vyaapar

vyavahar BaaYaa³BaaYaa

vyavahar ´

pirBaaYaainaima-tI

SaasakIya nyaayaalayaIna vyavahar

iSaxaNa vyavasqaa³Saalaoya†mahaivaValayaIna Aqyayana† Aqyaapna³n&anaSaaKaa

baaolaBaaYaa laaokBaaYaa gaamaINa kRYaI saMskRtI naagrI saMskRtI

gaamaINa¸ naagar saaih%ya inaimao -tI saaih%ya vyaapar

vyavahar BaaYaa³BaaYaa

vyavahar ´


bmo¿`m Pmbm ao , hm` ao hm`, h_ Vmo Voao AmeH$ h°, ghr aoghr , emßVoMo H$mQ©> Mmby Ammho! n°MmZ H$moZ? BÀ`mXr. AZoH$ZmQ>H$mßMr Zmdß Va BßJÓr ^mfoV AmhoV. CXm. Am∞b X ~oÒQ>,nmQ>u, Am∞b bmB©Z päbAa, dZ Qy> H$m \$moa, bmdUr S>m∞Q> H$m∞_.hr Zmdß H$m` gwMdVmV Va Vr ^mfoVrb ~Xb gwMdV AmhoV.

na^mfoVrb e„X qbJ, dMZ `m XmoZ ZH$fmV MnIb~gbo H$s Vo e„X Amnbo g_mOmdoV. BßJÓrZo Zo_Ho$ hoM Ho$bo.VZo OJmVrb gd© ^mfmßVrb e„X ÒdrH$mabo ÂhUyZ VMoOmJVH$sH$aU Pmbo. dXoer mfoVrb e„XH$moemßV mdfu gw_mao600 ^maVr` e„X g_mdÔ> Pmbo AmhoV. À`mn°H$s gdm©YH$e„X ho _amR>r e„X AmhoV. Ago ^mfmAm°Xm`© (H$s^mfH$Am°Xm ©?) _amR>rZo XmIdmdo VaM VMm IË`m AWm©ZodH$mg AmU OmJVH$sH$aU hmoB©b. OmJVH$sH$aUm¿`mgßX^m©V "Greateset happiness of the greatestnumber" ho nÝmZgyÃ Amho. _amR>r ^mfo¿`m gßX^m©Vgw’mgm_m›` _mUyg AmU bmoH$Ï`dhma S>moi`mg_moa Ro>dyZ "~hV_mßMo_hŒm_ ^mfH$ gwI' ho nÝmZgyÃ Agbo nmmhOo.

n´ÒVwV boIH$mbm H$mhr n`m© r e„X ZÏ`mZo V`ma H$Í$ZVo ^mfH$ Ï`dhmamV dmna `mMr gßYr _imbr. CXm.nÃH$malr. AZb WŒmo `mßZr _bm "_mo~mB©b' AmU "noOa' `me„XmßgmR>r n`m© r _amR>r e„X dMmabo. WmoS>m dMma H$Í$Z _r_mo~mB©bbm " ´_U‹dZr' AmU "noOa'bm "gßXoeH$m' (noOaZnwßgqbJr ÂhUyZ gßXoeH$ AmU noOaMm AmH$ma N>moQ>`mnoQ>rgmaIm ÂhUyZ gßXoeH$m hm ÛrqbJr e„X) Ago e„X V`maHo$bo. À`mVbm " ´_U‹dZr' hm e„X Í$T> Pmbm. naßVw noOaMÏ`dhmamVyZ ~mX PmÎ`m_wio gßXoeH$m hm e„X Í$T> hmoD$ eH$bmZmhr. ã" ´_U‹dZr' hm e„X Í$T> H$a `mMo lo lr. AZb WŒmo`mßZm OmVo. (nw `mbm dmàbog b±S> bmB©Z `m e„Xmbm"AmH$me‹dZr' Agm MmßJbm e„X Í$T> Pmbm Amho.) `mMn’VrZo JJZXnmßMo _Zmoao (hm`_mÒQ> b∞Ân), ‡ojH$ gÇmm(Ï ˇq`J J∞bar), O°dd°⁄H$s` H$Mam (~m`mo_oS>H$bdoÒQ>),XemXe©H$ H$_mZr, AmH$me M›ho (ÒH$m` gmB©›g) ZyVZrH•$V(aoZmodoQo >S>) AneÔ> (Ho$_H$bdoÒQ>) , nyd©‹dZ_wX´V(n´raoH$m∞So>©S>) Ago AZoH$ e„X némgH$s` ^mfoV ZÏ`mZo Í$T>H$aVm Ambo. AmO¿`m wJmV dV©_mZnÃß AmU MÃdmh›`mßMmg_mOmda _moR>m nJS>m Amho. À`m_wio ^mfoMm dmna H$aVmZm `mn´gma_m‹`_mda \$ma _moR>r O~m~Xmar oD$Z nS>Vo. H$moUVrhr

~mV_r AmnU nhÎ`ßmXm Xbr AmU ~óqH$J ›`yOMo lo`_id `mgmR>r ~mV_rV dmnaÎ`m OmUmË`m ^mfoH$So> Xwb©jhmoVo AmU À`m_wio MwH$sMo e„X AmU e„Xn´ moJ ^mfoV Í$T>hmoVmV. CXm. bÓH$am¿`m CŒmar H$_mZrMo n´_wI. IaßVa `mR>H$mUr "bÓH$am¿`m CŒma VwH$S>rMo n´_wI Agm e„X n´ moJhdm.

‡gma_‹`_mV deofVÖ BßJÓr MÃdmh›`m AmUd•ŒmnÃmVyZ _amR>r ^mfm, gmhÀ`, gßÒH•$Vr, H$bm BÀ`mX‡mßVmVrb _hÀdm¿`m KS>m_moS>r AmU EHß$XarVM _amR>r_mUgmbm H$VnV ÒWmZ _iV hm emoYmMm df` Amho.d.XmßZm kmZnrR> _imbr À`mMr ~mV_r H$Vr BßJOr d•ŒmnÃmßZrXbr d H$er Xbr `mMr VwbZm BVa ^mfoVrb kmZnrR>dOoÀ`mßer Ho$Î`mg VmÀH$mi \$aH$ bjmV òB©b. BßJÓrd•Œmdmh›`mßdahr hr ~mV_r PiH$ `mgmR>r H$Vr Vmg dmQ>nmhmdr bmJbr. ho `m nmú© y_rda Vnmg `m gmaIo Amho.

_amR>r d•ŒmnÃmV ~mVÂ`mßMr erf©Ho$ nmhVmZm Zdb dmQ>Vo.EH$m Ï`∫$¿`m D$¿NßIb dV©ZmMr ~mV_r XoVmZm EH$m _moR>ÁmdV©_mZ nÃmV H$mhr dfm™nydu "Ho$edmZßX Òdm_tMo brimM[aÃ'Aem _W˘`mMr ~mV_r Xo `mV Ambr hmoVr. brim hm e„XdmnaVmZm À`mMm AW© Mmio qH$dm brbm ZgyZ AmR>dUr AgmAmho> AmU Vmo MH´$YaÒdm_ter gß~ßYV Amho. ho `m~mV_rXmambm R>mDH$ Zgmdo. _hmZw^md nßWr` dmL≤>_`m¿`m~mOyZo bmoH$_m›` Q>iH$mßZr H$moQ>m©V gmj Xbr hmoVr. À`m_wio"_amR>r gmaÒdVmMo EH$ ZdrZ XmbZ Iwbo Pmbo' ho hr AmnUdgaVmo. "_hmamÔ¥> Q>mB©Âg' Zo qd.XmßZm kmZnrR> _imÎ`mda_.Q>m.¿`m erf©Zm_mda dß.Xmß.¿`m AmR> ddY _w–m N>mnÎ`mhmoÀ`m, _amR>r _mV• mfm AgUmË`m H$Vr bmoH$mßZm À`mMm gßX ©qd.Xmß¿`m "AÔ>Xe©Zo' m H$dVmgßJ´hmer Amho ho _mhV hmoVo?

n[a^mfmZ_©Vr¿`m AßJmZo Agm WmoS>ä`mV AmT>mdm

KoVÎ`mZßVa m gßX^m©V H$mhr ZÓH$f© _mßS>Uo CMV R>aob.

ZÓH$f© Ö

1. _amR>r ^mfm hr gßÒH•$Vmoÿd Amho. Am © mfmHw$imVrb^mfmßer PmboÎ`m XodmUKodmUr_wio V¿`mV Xoer e„XmßMoânya ^mßS>ma Amho.

2. _amR>r ^mfoMm dMma H$aVmZm S>moi`mg_moa ~mob^mfm,


bmoH$^mfm Agbr nmhOo.

3. OJmV _amR>r ^mfoMm 15 dm H´$_mßH$ Amho. _amR>r ^mfmhr n´MßS> j_Vm Agbobr d°eÔ>`nyU© ^mfm Amho. nUA›` mfH$mßZm Vr eH$VmZm V¿`m gßaMZo_wio Iyn OS>OmVo.

4. ^mfm, Y_©, OmV, nßW _mZV Zmhr. CbQ> À`m_wio ^mfoMogßdY©ZM hmoVo.

5. ^mfo~‘b gmW© A^_mZ Agmdm nU ^mfoMm Xwa^_mZZgmdm. ("gmodiß ZogyZ ^mfm dmT>V Zmhr' - ÒdJu`nßVnYmZ lr. nr. Ïhr. Zaqghamd, nhbr OmJVH$ _amR>rn[afX, _wß~B© )

6. _hmd⁄mb`rZ ÒVamda A‹`mnZmgmR>r _amR>r ^mfmdH$gV Ho$br nmhOo, VaM A‹``ZmV AmUnarjm_m‹`_mV VMm Cn`moJ hmoB©b.

7. amÔ¥>r`H•$V ~±H$mß_‹ò, AmH$medmUr, XyaXe©Z òWrbH$m`m©b`mV amoO amÔ¥> mfm dmT>rgmR>r EH$ e„X, EH$ dmä`\$bH$mda bmd `mV/bh `mV oVo. Agß _amR>r~m~V_hmamÔ¥>mV H$m hmoV Zmhr? À`mM ‡_mUo némgH$s`Ï`dhmamV deofVÖ emgH$s`, ›`m`mb`rZ Ï`dhma ,am¡` d H|$X´ gaH$maMr ddY H$m`m©b`mß_‹ o _amR>rbmnmYm›` Xbo nmhOo, À`mgmR>r mfmV¡kmßMr _XV KoVbrnmhOo. À`mgmR>r "_amR>r ^mfm AYH$mar nXmMr' (OgoH|$Xr` H$m`m©b`m_‹ o ≠ qhXr mfm AYH$mar AgVmV.)Z_©Vr Ïhmdr.

8. _hmd⁄mb`rZ ÒVamda BßJÓr d _amR>r _m‹`_m~m~VMoemgH$s` YmoaU gmVÀ`nyU© d VH©$gßJV Agmdß.

9. embo ÒVamda BßJÓr¿`m ~m~VrV KoVbm OmUmam ZU©hm gmVÀ`nyU© Agmdm. Vmo YagmoS>rMm Zgmdm.

10. n´gma_m‹`_mß¿`m ~m~VrV deofVÖ AmH$medmUr,XyaXe©Z mgmaª`m emgH$s` d^mJmV X°ZßXZ H$m_H$mO,nÃÏ`dhma BßJOr≠qhXr ~amo~aM _amR>rVhr Ïhmdß. _amR>r_m‹`_mVrb nÃH$m[aVo¿`m A‰`mgH$_mMo nXdr ÒVamda_hmd⁄mb`rZ nmVirda EH$ gßnyU© df` ÂhUyZÒdVßÃnUo A‹``Z hmoUo JaOoMo Amho, OoUoH$Í$Z À`mMmCn`moJ _amR>r ^mfoVrb n´gma _m‹`_mßZm hmoB©b.

11. _hmd⁄mb`rZ ÒVamdarb nXdr A‰`mgH$_mV d ÒnYm©narjmß¿`m A‰`mgH$_mV gmYÂ © Agmdo (CXm. CŒmaoH$So>\$ma nydunmgyZ Xmo›hr A‰`mgH´$_mV EH$dmä`Vm dgmYÂ © Amho.)

n[a^mfm Z_©Vr gßX^m©VÖ

A. nm[a^mfH$ e„X ho OmÒVrV OmÒV gßÒH•$Vmoÿd AgbonmhOoV, gßÒH•$Vmoÿd e„X ^mfoV bdH$a Í$T> hmoVmV.

~. na^mfoVrb e„X qbJ, dMZ `m XmoZ ZH$fmßV ~gVAgVrb Va Vo e„X Amnbo ÂhUyZ ÒdrH$mabo nmhOoV.

H$. nmMrZ _amR>r AmU gßÒH•$VmVrb AmdÌ`H$ e„X ZÏ`mZoÍ$T> H$a `mMr JaO Amho. CXm. AY>mVm ( YZr, µ_mbH$hm _yi AW©, Omo brimM[aÃmV AmT>iVmo.) AmVm hme„X kmZemIoMm n´_wI m AWm©Zo hm e„X MmßJbm Í$T>Pmbm Amho.

S>. ^mfoMm H$b hm CÉmagm°H$`m©H$So>, gwQ>gwQ>rVnUmH$So>AgVmo À`m_wio ZdrZ e„Xgw’m gmono, gwQ>gwQ>rV AgbonmhOoV.

B. e„X Í$T> H$a `mV emgZmMr y_H$m AÀ ßV ZU©m`H$R>aVo embo d CÉ ejUmMm Am‰`mgH´$_ R>adUmarV¡k _ßS>itMr y_H$mhr AÀ ßV _hŒdmMr Amho À`m_yio`m XmoZhr KQ>H$mßZr ^mfoMm A‰`mgH´$_ AmU narjm_m‹`_ VgoM _amR>rVrb ËhÒdXrK©ÀdmH$So> Jmß^r`m©Zonmhbo nmmhOo.

ÒmßJUH$m¿`m ~m~VrV ^dÓ`mV H$m` hmoB©b ?

1. AmO BßJÓrV ~mobÎ`mg n´À`j Z bhVm b∞nQ>m∞ndagß mfU bnr~’ hmoVß. _amR>r¿`m ~m~VrV wZH$moS>dH$gV PmÎ`mg AmU gm∞‚Q>doAaMo n´_mUrH$aUPmÎ`mg Vo eä` Amho.

2. nmÌMmÀ` BßJÓr e„XH$moemV (do~ÒQ>g© BµÀ`mXr) VrZbmImda e„X AmhoV. gßnyU© _amR>r ^mfoV dmnamVAgboÎ`m Ow›`m≠ZÏ`m, Xoer≠naH$s` e„XmßMm e„XH$moeV`ma H$Í$Z Vmo gßJUH$mV gmR>dUo eä` hmoB©b.

3. `m e„XH$moemVrb gd© e„X ho n_mUV d ew’boIZm¿`mZ`_mZwgma n´_mUV Pmbobo AgVrb.


4. À`m_wio EH$Xm gßJUH$mda H$m_ H$a `mMr gwÍ$dmV Ho$brVa AmnmoAmn Bp¿N>V e„XmßMr VmßÃH$ VnmgUr H$aUoghOJÀ`m d AÎnmdYrV eä` hmoB©b. ( Spell Check¿`m YVuda)

5. OmJVH$sH$aU hm EH$Xem _mJ© Amho. À`m _mJm©danaVrMo Xmoa H$mnbobo AmhoV. _amR>r ^mfobmhr `mM_mJm©dÍ$Z dmQ>Mmb H$aUo H$_nm· Amho. Globalizationis an irreversible process. naßVw `m~m~VrV Goglobal but shop local (glocalization) Ag YmoaURo>dVm oB©b. ^mfo¿`mhr „mm~VrV hm gwdU©_‹` gmYVm

oB©b. na^mfoVrb An[ahm ©nUo ÒdrH$mamdo bmJUmao e„XdmnÍ$Z ^mfoMo X oer _yi H$m`_ Ro >dVm `oB ©b.(glocalingualization - Òd^mfm OmJVH$sH$aU)

6. ^mfm Ï`dhma hm gd©gm_m›`m ßgmR>r AgVmo.OmJVH$sH$aUmMo "Greatest happiness of thegreatest number’ ho ‡YmZ gyÃ Amho. mfm Ï`dhmamVgm_m›` _mUyg H|$–ÒWmZr Agbm nmhOo, ÂhUyZ ^mfmÏ`dhmamMo mfH$ ‹ o gw’m " ~h˛V_mßMo _hŒm_ mfH$gwI' hoM Agbo nmhOo.

7. gßÒH•$Vmoÿd e„XmßMm, Xoer e„XmßMm OmÒVrV OmÒV dmnaH$Í$Zhr g_W© n`m© Cnb„Y ZgÎ`mg na^mfoVrb e„XÒdrH$ma `mg haH$V Zmhr.

g_mamon

Jm`r¿`m H$inmV OoÏhm EImXß dmgÈ hadVß. VoÏhmßÀ`mbm Amnbr _mVm emoYmdr bmJV Zmhr. yH$ bmJÎ`mda VoAmnÎ`mM _mVobm OmD$Z ~bJVß AmU Vbm nm›hm \w$Q>Vmo.bhmZ _wbmßMm AmnÎ`m AmB©H$S>o Òdm^mdH$ AmoT>m AgVmo._amR>r gmjmV OZZr gßÒH•$V, n´mH•$V qH$dm _hmamÔ¥>r An ´ßeAer MMm© Pmbr Agbr Var _amR>rMo ˆX` ho gßÒH•$VM AmhoAmU gßÒH•$VmnmgyZ VMr Zmi AmVm Oar VmoS>bobr AgbrVar _wimV Vr gßÒH•$Vmer OmoS>br hmoVr. _amR>r ^mfoVrb e„Xho gßÒH•$Vmoÿd Agbo nmhOoV. AJXrM ZmB©bmO Agob Va

_amR>rVrb qbJ dMZm¿`m ZH$fmV ~gUmao na^mfoVrb e„XAmnU pÒdH$mabo nmhOoV H$maU ~XbUo hm mfoMm Y_© Amho._mV• mfm ÂhUyZ _amR>rMm dH$mg Ïhm`Mm Agob Va emboAmU CÉ ejUm¿`m nmVirda, A‹``Z, A‹`mnZ AmUnarjm _m‹`_m¿`m —ÓQrZo _amR>r mfoMm dH$mg Ïhm`bm hdm.`m~m~VrV emgZ AmU mfm Ï`mnmamer ZJS>rV gd© KQ>H$mßMr

y_H$m AÀ ßV _hŒdmMr R>aVo.

Am^ma

hm emoY Z~ßY V`ma H$a `mgmR>r S>m∞. dO` ~oS>oH$a mßZrgVV n´moÀgmhZ Xbo. JßWnmb lr. ~mago `mßZr AmdÌ`H$ JßWCnb„Y H$Í$Z Xbo. n´mMm`m© S>m∞. gm°. eHwß$Vbm qgJ `mßZr hmemoY Z~ßY "gßJUH$ AmU _amR>r ' `m MMm©gÃmV gmXaH$a `mgmR>r _bm nadmZJr Xbr. ‡m. gw mf gmo_U, lr. XnH$Ym|S>o, gm°. ‡V^m _mWya -d°Ì` VgoM _mPo _Ã lr. AaqdXXmoS>o `mßMrhr _bm _XV Pmbr. À`m~m~V `m gdm™Mo AmU‡m. Xm_moXa _moao mßMohr _r _ZmnmgyZ Am^ma _mZVmo. À`medm``m Z~ßYmV H$mhr CUrdm amhÎ`m AgVrb Va À`m _m¬`mMAmhoV Ago _r Z_´nUmZo Z_yX H$È Bp¿N>Vmo.

n[aeÔ≠>1

brimM[aÃmVrb H$mhr _hŒdmMo e„X

(gßX © Ö brimM[aÃ EH$mH$-eß. Jmo. Vwinwio)

AYr>mVm ≠ YZr, _mbH$

Anyd© ≠ ZdrZAhmoamÃo ≠ amÃßXdg

AmgwS>Uo ≠ PQ>Hy$Z Xya H$aUo, AmoTy>U H$mT>Uo.

CKmUr ≠ dmXddmX, MMm©

CßS>m ≠ Jmoim

CnamR>m ≠ CbQ>, CbQ>njr

H$XmMV ≠ π$MV H$Yr Var

H$dmS> ≠ Xma

H$mßQ>rdZ ≠ H$mQo>ar PmS>mßMo amZ

H$m~mS>r ≠ H$Ô> H$aUmam _Owa

H•$À`mH•$À` ≠ H•$VH•$À`, Y›`

ImoS>m ≠ ~oS>r, ~ßYZ


JwÍ$d ≠ XodimVrb Jwad, nwOmar

K•Um ≠ C~J, drQ> VQ>H$mam

M[aVmW© ≠ g\$b, H•$VH•$À`

MmS> ≠ B¿N>m

MnmSo> ≠ H$S>„`mMr VmQo>,

Mmo Q>`m Mwß i ≠ JwßS>mir, doQ>mir

OmZdgm ≠ bæmMo dËhmS>r CŒma `mMo R>H$mU

OßV ≠ dO`mMo g_mYmZ

`emo md OmoS>Uo ≠ n´m· hmoUo, _iUo, _idUo

Q>monao ≠ Q>monrgmaIo eamodÛ

Vami ≠ Jw›¯mmMm emoY bmdUmam qH$dm JÒV KmbUmam nmhaoH$ar.

Vmß~wio ≠ nmZmMo ~So>

nmßJwaU ≠ AßJmda Ko `mMo dÛ CŒmar`

nmoI[aUr ≠ nwÓH$[aUr, Vio_m›` ≠ g›_m›` nmh˛Um qH$dm Am_ßÃV

_yi ≠ ~mobmdUo , Z_ßÃU_moJar ≠ bmH$S>r hmVmoS>m

amCV ≠ KmoSo>Òdma dËhmS> ≠ bæg_maß mgmR>r O_bobm _oimdm.

dmSw> ≠ dmS>r, dgVrMo R>H$mU

dmnm ≠ amono bmd `mMm eoVmVrb AmIrd ^mJ

dmgZm ≠ _V, A^n´m`

Ï`dhmam ≠ gmdH$ma

g^m ≠ nßM ZU© H$aUma

gmßJmVr ≠ gmo~Vr

gmhmO ≠ ghO Òdm^mdH$nUo

grd ≠ erd, gr_m h‘

g|Jwi| ≠ S>mirMm Ho$bobm Im⁄nXmW©

gmonÒH$ma ≠ _Ô>mfi JmoS>YmoS>

ÒWi ≠ dmXmVrb _w‘m qH$dm _V

harIw ≠ hf© AmZßX

hoS>mC ≠ KmoSo> dH$Umam, gm°XmJa

hoim ≠ Ionm

jo_mdUo ≠ jo_mqbJZ XoUo.

VmoH$So> ≠ AÎn, WmoS>Ho$

XmohUo ≠ Yma H$mT>Uo

YmoÃ ≠ YmoVa

Z~ßY ≠ emÛmYma qH$dm H$m`Xm nmhUo

ZamH$aUo ≠ _moSy>Z H$mT>Uo, damoY H$aUo.

nmBH$ ≠ eÛYmar godH$

nmEnwgU| ≠ nm` nwg `mMo dÛ

qnS> ≠ eara, eara~mßYm_T> ≠ deÔ> AmH$mamMo bhmZ XoDß$i

n[aeÔ≠>2

_amR>r ^mfoMo _wi `m dÌdZmW I°ao bIV JßWmVrbH$mhr _hŒdmMo e„X Ö

¡mS>AmoT> ≠ dúmVÎ`m OS> nXmWm©_‹ o n´VrV hmoUmar AmoT>

Vwbm‰`mg ≠ VwbZmÀ_H$ A‰`mg, À`mMn´_mUo

^mfH$ ≠ ^mfmdkmZmMm A‰`mgH$ ^mfmdkmZH$

oXH$ ≠ Img qH$dm Zo_H$m \$aH$ XmIdUmao

_œ` ≠ nwamUH$mimVrb XodVm AmU dra nwÍ$f `mß¿`m H$WmßMonmUVÀd.

dmda ≠ eoV, joÃ, AW©dÒVmamZo kmZmMo, A‰`mgmMo ,ZaIUmßMo

dÌdb ≠ dÌd^a AmT>iUmao

kmV ≠ EH$m⁄m df`mgß~Yr Cnb„Y qH$dm Jmoim Ho$bobr_mhVr. ZaIUo kmZmV Aß›V y©V hmoVmV.

n[aeÔ≠>3


_amR>r mfoV qbJdMZgyÃmV MnIb ~gbobo BßJOr e„X

BßJÓr e„X _yi _amR>r e„X

Q¥>H$ (nwqÑJr) JmS>m (nwqÑJr)

noZ (ZnwßgH$qbJr) nrg(_moamMo) (ZnwßgH$qbJr)

~ob (ÛrqbJr) KßQ>r , KßQ>m (ÛmrqbJr)

Qo>br\$moZ (nwqÑJr) Xya‹dZr (nwqÑJr)

\$mB©b (ÛrqbJr) ZÒVr (ÛrqbJr) hm emgH$sè„X Í$T> Pmbm Zmhr.

ÂmmD$g (nwqÑJr) _yfH$, CßXra (nwqÑJr)

bm∞H$/b∞M (ZnwßgH$qÑJr) Hw$byn (ZnwßgH$qÑJr)

H$s (ÛrqÑJr) Mmdr(ÛrqÑJr)

~∞J nedr (ÛrqÑJr)

n[aeÔ≠>4

^mfmÏ`dhmamV Í$T> Pmbobo MwH$sMo e„XÖ

1. ÀgwZm_rbmQ>m ≠ gwÍ$dmVrbm gwZm_r Agm dmnabm Jobm._yi OnmZr e„X. yHß$nm_yio g_wX´mV Z_m©U PmboÎ`mnb ßH$mar bmQ>, ÀgwZm_r m eÏXmVM bmQ> hm e„X Amho.

2. MwH$sMm J°ag_O ≠ MwH$sMm g_O (qH$dm ZwgVmMJ°ag_O)

3. X°Xfl`_mZ ≠ Xo (AmH$me) + Xfl`_mZ (XndyZQ>mH$Umam) XoX `_mZ.

4. gwÒdmJV≤_ ≠ gw≠ MmßJbm bo,br CXm. gwdMma (MmßJbmdMma) ÒdmJV≤_ ≠ `m e„XmVM gd© H$mhr Ambo.

5. JS>mßVa ≠ JßS>mVa

6. gß wpäVH$ ≠ g wpäVH$

7. bÓH$am¿`m CŒmar H$_mZrMo n´_wI ≠ bÓH$am¿`m CŒmaVwH$S>rMo n´_wI

8. n[aÀ`äÀ`m ≠ n[aÀ`äVm

9. gwb^ em°Mmb` ≠ gmd©OZH$ Òd¿N>Vm J•h, gmd©OZH$

godmgwdYm H|$X´

10. ^mfH$ ≠ ^mfH$ , ^mf≤ ≠ ~mobUo ÂhUyZ ^mfm ~mobUmamVmo mfH$

n[aeÔ≠>5

gßJUH$mda _amR>r mfoV H$m_ H$aVmßZm Z_m©U PmboÎ`mAS>MUr.

Omoer-~oS> oH$a Âmhmd⁄mb`m¿`m "`wdmeÎn' `mdmf©H$mßH$m¿`m gßnmXZm¿`mdoir gßJUH$mda H$m_ H$aVmZm AZßVAS>MUr oV hmoÀ`m. deofVÖ dam_qM›hmda H$m_ H$aVmZmCXm. AdVaU M›ho ≠ EHo$ar d Xwhoar, AZwÒdma AmU C“maM›hmß¿`m ~m~VrV nwT>rb JmoÔ>r AmT>iyZ AmÎ`m

1) S>mÏ`m ~mOyMo AdVaU M›h≠EHo$ar AWdm Xwhoar (’’)AdVaUm¿`m doir \$äV Zoh_r¿`m EH$ qH$dm XmoZ ÒdÎndam_mß¿`m dmna H$aUo ghO gwb^ hmoVo. À`m_wio BWßAS>MU ZÏhVr.

2) _mÃ COÏ`m ~mOwZo AdVaU M›h V`ma H$aVmZm (’’)_mÃ AZßV AS>MUr òVmVµ À`mgmR>r Zoh_rMm ÒdÎn

dam_, " Aem n’VrZo 180 Aße H$moZmVyZ

\$admdo bmJV hmoVo.

3) AdVaU M›h 180 Aße H$moZmVyZ \$adVmZm Vo_OHw$am¿`m ~mhoa g_mgmVrb OmJoV \$admdo bmJVo dZßVa Vo Bp¿N>V R>H$mUr ZoD$Z Ro>dmdo bmJVo.

4) AZoH$ doim AdVaU M›h ~gdÎ`mda AmU AmoirVEImXm e„X dmT>bm AWdm H$_r Ho$bm Va AdVaU M›hAmnbr OmJm gmoS>Vo AmU Vo nw›hm AmdÌ`H$ À`m R>H$mUrRo>d `mgmR>r nw›hm EH$Xm ZÏ`mZo gwÍ$dmV H$amdr bmJVo.

5) hmM n´H$ma AZwÒdmam¿`m ~m~VrVhr KS>Vmo. AZoH$ doimdobmßQ>rbm OmoSy>Z AZwÒdma XoVmZm Iyn n´ mg Ho$Î`mZßVaAZwÒdma M›h XoVm oVo. H$À oH$ doim n´_mUm¿`m ~mhoaAmYr¿`m AjamZßVa Space XÎ`mZßVa AZwÒdma pÒWahmoVmo.

6) CX≤Jma M›h AWdm dam_M›hmß¿`m ~m~VrV AmoirVEImXm e„X AWdm Aja ZrQ> ~gdm`Mo AgÎ`mgC“maM›h, n´ÌZM›ho AWdm dam_M›h Amoi


Format AakRtIbaMQa Shadow CayaaMkna¸ kRYNaaMknaKeyboard kaya-flak Font Style AxarSaOlaI

Layout AaroKna ³AaraKDa´ Programming kayaa-valaIÀkaya-pwtI

Aavaoga kayaa-valaIÀp`kYa- kyaa-valaI

View inarKna¸dRSaaMkna Save saMcaya ÀsaazvaPUava-inarKna

pUva-ica~aMkna ¸ pUva-dRYaMakna

Command gaNaaAadoSa Option pyaa-yaClipart gaNaica~akRtI Palmtop hstsaMgaNak

Renovated naUtnaIkRt Effects AQaaoroKaMknaCopy p`tÀp`taMkna Pass-book Katopuistka

Xerox copy CayaaMikt Passport parp~Delete vagaLa¸ r_ kra E-mail gaNaTpala À gaNap~Print maudadoSa Title Bar SaIYa-k stMBa

kuMjaIÀkuMijjaka flak

kLflak Hot key jalad kuMijjaka Enter gaNap`vaoSa ¸ ³gaRhp`vaoSa´

Select inavaD Mouse maUYakSaaoQaNaIÆ SaaoQakÆ

³gaNaSaaoQak´ laGau saMdoSa saovaalaGau saMdoSana

Font Size Axar$p¸ Axarakar gaNaaxar¸gaNaa\xarakar

Bold BarIva roYaaMkna¸ zLk roYaaMkna pkYaa-MMkna

Menu gaNasaUcaI gaNatailaka File Menu saMcayasaUcaI¸ saMcayatailakaView Menu saMcaya inarKna Black & White

slideskRYNaQavalap_Ika

Colour Scheme rMga yaaojanaa ÀrMgasaUcaI Power Point Programme

Preview File saMcayanaI

Menubar gaNasaUcaI sMtBa Keyboard

saMklak ÀsaMklana

S.M.S. M.M.S. ica~ saMdoSana

Curser Edit

n[aeÔ≠>6

gßJUH$s` n[a^mfoV oUmË`m BßJ´Or e„XmßgmR>r ZÀ` dmnamVrb e„XmßgmR>r n`m© r e„X Xo `mMm AÎnn´ ÀZ

( gßJUH$s` nm[a^mfH$ e„X )


Slide dRk pi+ka Aligement Davao ]javao maQya samaasa ³jauLvaNaI´

Font gaNaaxar Font Size gaNaaxarakar Window gaNaaxa ¸ gavaaxa Laptop ga-Nak

Computerization saMgaNakIkrNa Computerised saMgaNaIkIkRt Computer Virus GaNaivaYaaNaU gaNap`daoYa Scroll QaavatIica~pi+ka

Mission statement

Qyaoyavaa@ya Logo baaoQaicanh

svayaMspYT ³SaasakIyap~vyavaharat $Z ´

Transfer gaNaatMrNa ¸ gaNaaMtrIt

Documents p`laoK ³ga`qaalayaSaas~at $Z ´ Self-explainatory

gßnÎ`mZßVa XygË`m Amoir¿`m gwÍ$dmVrbm oVo. À`m_wionmZmMr d AmoirMr n´_mU~‹XVm ~KS>Vo.

7) a\$ma AmU AZwÒdma EH$Ã AmÎ`mg nw›hm hrM AS>MUZ_m©U hmoVo. CXm. ZmJXodmMm`m©¿`m/nmMm`m©/d⁄mœ`m©Mmhr AS>MU IioOwidUrV \$maer oV Zmhr. H$maU a\$mad AZwÒdma EH$Ã Agbobm IimM AgVmo.

8) doJdoJi`m Font Mm EH$mM nmZmda dmna H$aVmZmCXm.erf©H$, AdVaUmVrb dmä o, Mm°H$Q>rVbm _OHy$aqH$dm Intro gmR>r doJdoJio Font,À`mßMo doJionUXmId `mgmR>r dmna `mMr AmdÌ`H$Vm mgVo. À`mdoirIntro Mm Font ~Xbbm H$s nmZmdarb _wª` boImMm,_OHw$amMm Vnerb dÒH$irV hmoVmo. BVHo$M ZÏho VadmMVm oUma Zmhr Aem n´H$ma¿`m Font _‹ o Í$nmßVarVhmoVmo.

9) _amR>r ^mfm d ^maVr` gßÒH•$Vr gßX^m©Vrb Cliparts hoAVe` _`m©XV AmhoV. À`mVrb ~h˛Vmße ho nm¸mmÀ`gßÒH•$Vr¿`m gßX^m©Vrb AmhoV. À`m_wio AmnÎ`mbmAmdÌ`H$ Vo Cliparts dZmgm`mg _iVM ZmhrV.

10) BßJ´OrV Ogm Spell check Cnb„Y Amho Vgm _amR>rVCnb„Y ZmhrV À`m_wio ew‹X, Aew‹X e„XmßMr À`mhrnojm

ËhÒdXrK©Àdmda H$m_ H$aVmZm doioMm Iyn AnÏ`` hmoVmo.

11) OmoS> e„Xmß¿`m ~m~VrV AemM AS>MUtZm gm_moao OmdobmJVo.

12) dmä o ~moÎS> H$aVmZm hr nw›hm EH$Xm Amoi nwTo> _mJo gaH$Vo.VgoM Font Mmhr Jm|Yi CS>Vmo.

13) EH$m gßJUH$mdÍ$Z XwgË`m gßJUH$mda _OHy$a AmU^m°_VH$ AmH•$À`m hÒVmßVarV H$aVmßZm (JUmßVarV) gßnyU©_OHy$a Jm`~ hmoVmo. deofVÖ dVy©i, Mm°H$moZ, ÃH$moUAem AmH•$À`m H$mT>Uo AVe` H$R>rU Amho.

14) EH$m JUmH$mamVyZ XwgË`m JUmH$mamV (\$m∞›Q> ) _OHy$aJUmßVarV H$arV AgVmßZm (n[adV©VV) gßnwU© _OHy$aZÏ`m JUmjamV JUmßVarV hmoV Zmhr.

n[aeÔ≠>7

gßX ©gyMr Ö

1. ‡mMrZ dmL≤>_`mMm BVhmg - h.lr. eoUmobrH$a

2. H$moard _amR>r boI - eß.Jmo. Vwinwio

3. brimM[aÃ EH$mH$ ≠ gßnmXH$ S>m∞.eß.Jmo.Vwinwio

4. ^mfmew’r ≠ Òdm&dra gmdaH$amßMo ZdS>H$ boI


(_.am.gm.gß. _ßS>i, Xwgar Amd•Œmr)

5. gmhÀ`Ymam ≠ lrnmX _hmXod _mQo>

6. ^mfm AmU gßÒH•$Vr≠ Zm.Jmo.H$mbobH$a

7. _amR>r ^mfoMo _yi ≠ dÌdZmW I°ao

8. wäVrdmXmMr CnH$aUo ≠ X. `. XoenmßSo>

9. _amR>r boIZ H$moe ≠ lr.AÍ$U \$S>Ho$

10. _amR>rMo A‹`mnZ ≠ S>m∞. _mYd nmoVXma

11. e°br_r_mßgm ≠ S>m∞. Xbrn Ym|S>Jo

12. ~oew’boIZmMm ~So>Omd ≠ _Zmoha ~moS>H$a

(bbV, OmZodmar 2006 Mm AßH$)

13. Z_Œm (~oew’boIZmMm ~So>Omd) ≠ _Zmoha ~moS>H$a(Amnbß _hmZJa≠ 20 OmZodmar 2006)

14. n´XyfV _amR>r≠ H$maUo d _r_mßgm ≠ n´gfiHw$_maAH$byOH$a `mßZr gÀderbm gm_ßV `mßMr KoVbobr_wbmIV. addma bmoH$gŒmm 22 OmZodmar 2006

15. ^maVr` n´emgH$s` godm narjm≠ÒdÍ$n _mJ©Xe©Z ≠AZb ^m~S>

16. B`Œmm AmR>drMr embo gßJUH$mMr H$m ©n wpÒVH$m

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