Holt World Geography Today Holt World Geography Today program makes use of a number of pedagogical...

Holt World Geography Today

© 2005

Pedagogical Research Report

Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Research Base for Holt World Geography Today © 2005 1 of 44

Holt World Geography Today Pedagogical Research Report Table of Contents PageIntroduction 2

Organization 3

Strand 1: Reading Informative and Expository Texts 4

Strand 2: Instructional Approach 12

Strand 3: Meeting the Needs of All Students 20

Strand 4: Assessment 26

Strand 5: Teaching Geography 29

Bibliography 33

Introduction


Holt World Geography Today Pedagogical Research Report Introduction On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. This law contains the most comprehensive reforms of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) since it was enacted in 1965. One fundamental principle of the new law is that schools and teachers should implement teaching methods that have been proven to work—effective teaching methods that have been identified through sound research. The purpose of this document is to demonstrate clearly and explicitly the scientific research upon which Holt World Geography Today is based. The document is organized by five major instructional strands that underpin the program: • Teaching students to read informative and expository texts; • Using effective instructional approaches; • Differentiating instruction to meet the needs of all students; • Using effective assessment to guide instruction; • Using effective strategies for teaching geography. These strands describe the key components of geography instruction as identified by research specifically focused on the social studies and by research on teaching and learning across the content areas. The Holt World Geography Today program makes use of a number of pedagogical approaches that are based on research findings unique to social studies education as well as those that have been proven effective across the content areas. Therefore, these strands encompass topics both specific to geography and social studies and relevant across content areas.

Organization


Holt World Geography Today Pedagogical Research Report Organization

This booklet is organized by the five strands that were introduced on the previous page. • Strand 1: Reading Informative and Expository Texts • Strand 2: Instructional Approach • Strand 3: Meeting the Needs of All Students • Strand 4: Assessment • Strand 5: Teaching Geography To show how the strands are connected to research and the contents of Holt World Geography Today, this booklet is organized by the following sections within each strand:

o Defining the Strand. This section summarizes the terminology and findings of the research.

o Excerpts from the Research That Guided the Development of Holt World

Geography Today. This section identifies subtopics within each strand and provides excerpts from relevant research on each subtopic within the strand.

o From Research to Practice. This section explains how the research data is

exemplified in Holt World Geography Today. For each subtopic, you will find a chart identifying the page numbers of illustrative examples of the research-based instructional methodology.

At the end of the booklet, you will find a list of all works cited.

Strand 1 – Reading Informative and Expository Texts


Strand 1 What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Reading Informative and Expository Texts Defining the Strand One of the primary goals of all social studies instruction is to prepare students to be effective and engaged citizens. Our modern age places tremendous literacy demands upon students and citizens:

The ability to read and understand exposition, or text that explains or sets forth facts, is becoming increasingly critical in today’s society…. by sixth grade more than 75% of students’ school reading is expository…. if students are to survive in the Information Age, they must understand the language of information. (Moss 7)

Our students, however, may not be up to this challenge:

Every school day in the United States for the past decade, more than 3,000 students drop out of high school (Joftus, 2002). Most are unable to keep pace with the rigors of the curriculum. They simply do not have the literacy skills to make sense of their textbooks (Allington, 1994; Kamil, 2003)… One in four adolescents cannot read well enough to identify the main idea in a passage or to understand informational text (Kamil, 2003). (International Reading Association 1)

Part of the difficulty for educators of content areas at the secondary level is that even students who are successful readers in the early grades may encounter difficulties later on when they are faced with more complex, content-area reading:

But children who are reading up to grade level in the primary grades do not automatically become proficient readers in later grades (Biancarosa & Snow, 2004). Many have difficulty transitioning from the children’s stories they read in the early grades to more complex content area textbooks in middle and high school (Sturtevant, 2003). (International Reading Association 1)

We know that text comprehension can be improved by instruction that:

• provides students with considerate texts; • helps readers acquire vocabulary; • supports the acquisition and use of specific comprehension strategies; and • uses graphic organizers to support comprehension.

Research shows that these strategies are effective for all students, including those who read with understanding, those who struggle with comprehension, and those for whom English is not a first language. Instruction in the skills and strategies related to reading comprehension is essential. In future work and school situations, students will be called upon repeatedly to read and understand informational texts. Our society will put high demands on students to be able to comprehend these kinds of texts. Effective instruction and support in the areas described below can ensure that students meet these challenges.



Considerate Text Considerate texts are written at a level that is appropriate for their audience and have a coherent, easy-to-follow organization and structure. Such texts use visual design and verbal explanations to enhance, clarify, and prioritize the concepts and skills to be mastered. Vocabulary Development One important part of comprehension, or meaning making, while reading informational texts is vocabulary knowledge and development. Understanding vocabulary is essential to comprehending while reading. Research shows that students can improve their vocabularies through instruction in words and word study. Comprehension Strategy Instruction Effective social studies programs use instructional approaches that have been proven effective by research across the content areas. One such instructional approach is the explicit instruction in comprehension strategies. Students must learn that reading is an active process of making meaning of text and that there are various skills and strategies involved in the process. They must learn and have practice in using those skills and strategies. Graphic Organizers Another effective instructional approach for teaching students how to read informational texts is the use of graphic organizers and visuals as a teaching aid. Information has always been presented visually in the social studies, through the study of maps, charts, and timelines. These, and other graphic organizers, assist students in understanding content by combining words and images to show the relationships between and among ideas. Research suggests that graphic organizers that are used in textbooks or are teacher-created are effective in helping students understand and make connections between ideas. In addition, student-constructed graphic organizers allow students to make connections between and reflect upon ideas during or following reading.



Excerpts from the Research that Guided the Development Considerate Text “Considerate text is characterized by features such as coherence and audience appropriateness, which were suggested by cognitive theory and research to facilitate learning from reading…. The concept of considerate text can be helpful in evaluating, revising, and writing informational text.” (Armbruster 97) “The more coherent the text is, the more the reader will be able to make internal connections and construct a coherent cognitive model of the information in the text. … Research has shown that the better organized the text, the greater the learning. Therefore, a considerate text has a clear, easily identifiable organization. Clear text organization can be accomplished in several ways, for example, through the use of headings and subheadings, introductions and summaries, topic sentences, and signal words and phrases that announce the text structure… In addition to making internal connections, readers must also make external connections between the information in the text and their background knowledge and experience. Considerate text is appropriate to the needs of the reading audience in that it provides adequate explanation and elaboration of information and engages the reader.” (Armbruster 97-98) “By coherent text we mean text in which the sequence of ideas makes sense and the nature of the ideas and their relationships is made apparent … One proven ingredient is more coherent texts. Texts that exhibit more coherence have repeatedly been shown to bring about enhanced understanding of the causal sequence of events and ideas presented in textbooks...” (Beck and McKeown 237, 254) “Recent studies have demonstrated that revisions that increased the structural and explanatory coherence of texts resulted in substantial increases in recall among fifth-grade students… and college students… (McNamara, Kintsch, Songer, and Kintsch 2) “We found that readers who know little about the domain of the text benefit from a coherent text…” (McNamara, Kintsch, Songer, and Kintsch 1) “We conclude… that revising instructional texts to be more coherent and explicit can indeed foster better text memory and learning.” (McNamara and Kintsch 282) “This experiment examined the effects of headings and adjunct questions embedded in expository text on the delayed multiple-choice text performance of college students. Subjects in the headings-present group performed significantly better on the retention text than did the subjects in the headings-absent group. … The results support the view that headings may promote the organization of passage information so as to increase its general availability…” (Wilhite 23) “The studies reviewed for this synthesis provided evidence that the organization of text, students’ awareness of that organization, and students’ strategic use of text organization affect their comprehension. The organization of text includes the visual, physical organization (e.g., headings, subheadings, location of main idea, spacing) as well as less visible, more abstract text structures (e.g., narrative, sequence, or descriptive text structures)…” (Dickson, Simmons, and Kameenui 7)



Vocabulary Development “In social studies, challenges for readers include how to navigate a wealth of factual information replete with unfamiliar names, events, and concepts. This is similar to trying to make sense of a paragraph in which all the familiar place names have been substituted with made-up or unfamiliar terms. Everyone who reads it could struggle. Many students face this trial in classrooms daily. In their attempts to absorb facts and concepts in a text, students may miss why it is to their advantage to gain insight about a time period in history or how a government functions. Vocabulary demands in social studies texts often require readers to construct meaning for concepts that are abstract. Concepts such as imperialism, migration, culture, monarchy, socialization, opportunity cost, and separation of power, for example, are open to multiple interpretations and require students to learn through a number of contexts as they refine and elaborate on their initial understandings.” (International Reading Association 31) “One of the strongest findings about vocabulary instruction, whether direct instruction or learning words from context, is that multiple encounters are required before a word is really known…” (Beck, McKeown, and Kucan 73) “The findings on vocabulary yielded several specific implications for teaching reading. First, vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly. Repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary items are important. Learning in rich contexts, incidental learning, and use of computer technology all enhance the acquisition of vocabulary. Direct instruction should include task restructuring as necessary and should actively engage the student.” (Report of the National Reading Panel 14) “Based on these trends in the data, the Panel offers the following implications for practice: 1. Vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly. 2. Repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary items are important. 3. Learning in rich contexts is valuable for vocabulary learning. 4. Vocabulary tasks should be restructured when necessary. 5. Vocabulary learning should entail active engagement in learning tasks. 6. Computer technology can be used to help teach vocabulary. 7. Vocabulary can be acquired through incidental learning. 8. How vocabulary is assessed and evaluated can have differential effects on instruction. 9. Dependence on a single vocabulary instruction method will not result in optimal learning.”

(Report of the National Reading Panel 4-27) “Effective instruction with word meanings 1) relates what students know to the word receiving attention; 2) shows the relationship of the word targeted for instruction to other words; 3) provides opportunities for students to use the word they are learning in thoughtful ways.” (Durkin 268) “The implication of these results is that preteaching unfamiliar vocabulary can have a direct effect on students’ understanding of specific ideas within a text.” (Wixson 327)



Comprehension Strategy Instruction “Experts in reading and studying in the content areas … claim that since content is expressed in language, instruction in reading comprehension and studying is, or should be, part of the content area curriculum.” (Armbruster and Gubrandsen 37) “The past two decades of research appear to support the enthusiastic advocacy of instruction of reading strategies….The Panel’s review of the literature indicates that there has been an extensive effort to identify reading comprehension strategies that can be taught to students to increase their comprehension and memory for text. The instruction of cognitive strategies improves reading comprehension in readers with a range of abilities….” (Report of the National Reading Panel 4-46–47) “Effective comprehension strategy instruction is explicit, or direct. Research shows that explicit teaching techniques are particularly effective for comprehension strategy instruction. In explicit instruction, teachers tell readers why and when they should use strategies, what strategies to use, and how to apply them. The steps of explicit instruction typically include direct explanation, teacher modeling (‘thinking aloud’), guided practice, and application. • Direct explanation. The teacher explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension

and when to apply the strategy. • Modeling. The teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply the strategy, usually by

‘thinking aloud’ while reading the text that the students are using. • Guided practice. The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to

apply the strategy. • Application. The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it

independently.” (Center for the Improvement of Early Reading 53) “Results so far indicate that the group that gained significantly more than others in use of target strategies also gained significantly more than the others in reading comprehension.” (Bereiter and Bird 149) “Overall, teaching students the cognitive strategy of generating questions about the material they had read resulted in gains in comprehension, as measured by tests given at the end of the intervention.” (Rosenshine, Meister, and Chapman 181)



Graphic Organizers “…Graphic organizers help students read to learn from information text in the content areas, such as science and social studies textbooks….” (Center for the Improvement of Early Reading 51) “Graphic organizers can: • help students focus on text structure as they read; • provide students with tools they can use to examine and visually represent relationships in a

text; and • help students write well-organized summaries of a text.” (Center for the Improvement of

Early Reading 51) “…teachers in the subject areas have begun to discover that visual organizers such as time lines, Venn diagrams, inductive towers, concept maps, causal chains, force fields, and flow charts help students recognize and take control of the intellectual processes which bring meaning to the study of academic content. Visual organizers reflect patterns of thinking about content knowledge; they allow teachers to focus student attention on higher order thinking skills without shifting attention from subject area instruction. Content area teachers can use visual organizers in the classroom to clarify the purposes and the thinking processes that make learning meaningful…” (Clarke 526) “In spite of the traditional bias toward verbal over visual forms of instruction, a growing research base suggests that text illustrations can have important effects on student learning.” (Mayer and Gallini 715) “Judging by the experimental studies…we know that engaging students in identifying the big ideas in a text and in graphically depicting the relationships among these ideas improves their recall and comprehension of text.” (Snow 33) “The main effect of graphic organizers appears to be on the improvement of the reader’s memory for the content that has been read. …Teaching students to organize the ideas that they are reading about in a systematic, visual graph benefits the ability of the students to remember what they read and may transfer, in general, to better comprehension and achievement in Social Studies and Science content areas.” (Report of the National Reading Panel 4-45) “Pearson and Fielding (1991) reported that 13 series of studies teaching students to study or create visual representations of key ideas in text (e.g., networking, flowcharting, Con Struct, mapping, conceptual frames, graphic organizers, conceptual mapping) benefited reading comprehension.” (Dickson, Simmons, and Kameenui 21)



From Research to Practice World Geography Today is a comprehensive geography program. The student edition contains a wide variety of informational and expository text along with guidance in organizing the reading material. The Teacher’s Edition provides teachers with teaching approaches and strategies related to the reading and subject matter. Moreover, specific ancillaries such as Reading Strategies for the Social Studies Classroom, Critical Thinking Activities, Guided Reading Strategies, Main Idea Activities, and Graphic Organizer Activities provide alternative or additional teaching strategies and practice for students of all abilities. Considerate Text. Considerate texts are written at a level that is appropriate for their audience and have a coherent, easy-to-follow organization and structure. Such texts use visual design and verbal explanations to enhance, clarify, and prioritize the concepts and skills to be mastered. Both the visual design and the instructional design of World Geography Today were created with consideration for the needs of all students. For examples of considerate text, see the following pages. SE: pp. 3, 9, 10, 150, 250, 300 TE: pp. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 50, 100, 150, 200 Vocabulary Development. Students’ ability to communicate—to read and write—is dependent on having adequate vocabulary; and because students in the classroom may vary greatly in their reading skills, no single method of teaching vocabulary will be effective. World Geography Today provides students with numerous and varied opportunities to develop vocabulary. The Student Edition introduces vocabulary at the beginning of a section, reinforces the vocabulary during the reading of the section, and provides practice at the end of the section. The Teacher’s Edition provides additional instructional strategies and suggestions, and ancillaries provide opportunities for word study and practice activities. For examples of vocabulary instruction, see the following pages. SE: pp. 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 50, 100, 200 TE: pp. 9, 25, 29, 41, 63, 180, 239, 315, 393, 454, 568, 659 Main Idea Activities Ancillary: pp. 5, 15, 29, 49, 113, 147, 185



Comprehension Strategy Instruction. In addition to linguistic knowledge, students’ reading comprehension is dependent on background knowledge, the ability to make inferences, and the ability to choose and use appropriate strategies for decoding and comprehending. World Geography Today applies strategy instruction to different topics, preteaches strategies, and provides guided practice with strategies. Following a gradual release model, students move from watching models that teachers provide to practicing with the support of the teacher to practicing on their own. For examples showing how World Geography Today helps students draw on their own background knowledge, determine relationships between ideas, draw conclusions, identify relationships, and apply strategies such as self-questioning, predicting meaning, and reflecting on understanding, see the following pages. SE: pp. S9–S16, 28, 209, 223, 333, 423, 631, 698–699, 701 TE: pp. M2 Reading Strategies for the Social Studies Classroom: pp. 1–101 Guided Reading Strategies Ancillary: pp. 1–96 Critical Thinking Activities: pp. 1–64 Graphic Organizers. Graphic Organizers are useful teaching aids for most students, and they are particularly helpful for visual and English-language learners. World Geography Today frequently uses graphic organizers to provide ways to organize information, and to provide graphic, concrete practice of skills. For examples of the use of graphic organizers to reach all students, see the following pages. SE: pp. 8, 98, 153, 223, 271 368, 411, 535, 626, TE: pp. 42, 47, 51, 76, 90, 231, 356, 450, 564, 651 Graphic Organizer Activities Ancillary: pp. 1–64

Strand 2 – Effective Instructional Approaches


Strand 2 What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Effective Instructional Approaches Defining the Strand Effective social studies programs use instructional approaches that have been proven effective by research across the content areas. Brain research and research on teaching and learning suggests a number of effective approaches in teaching new skills, processes, and knowledge. An effective social studies program that meets the needs of all students will include the following instructional approaches: direct and explicit instruction, scaffolding, modeling, monitoring for understanding, interdisciplinary or cross-curricular instruction, and group and peer collaboration. Direct/Explicit Instruction Asking students to read a social studies text or discussing content may help students learn, but it will not teach students how to read and comprehend on their own. To meet the needs of their students, educators must show students, directly and explicitly on how to comprehend a text. Educators must make visible the invisible processes of comprehension and self-monitoring so that students can learn how to read and understand texts that are difficult for them. Scaffolding The phrase scaffolding refers to any process that supports a learner in solving a challenging problem or carrying out a difficult task. A scaffold might be a tool, such as a graphic organizer, or an instructional technique, such as a pre-reading discussion. An instructional model that provides scaffolding to students includes the following features: a logical structure, the selection and sequencing of models and examples to reveal essential characteristics, peer-mediated instruction, and materials that guide students, such as key words, worksheets, illustrations or visual depictions, and graphic organizers. The final feature of scaffolding is independence—scaffolding is removed and students apply what they have learned in a new situation. In social studies, where the course goals are not only to teach content but also to teach ways of thinking, understanding, and problem solving, this kind of scaffolding is essential. Modeling When we learn any new skill, the first step is often to watch the performance of an expert. The next step is to take this seamless, expert performance and break it down into a set of more easily learned steps or behaviors. Modeling refers to this kind of expert demonstration. In content area reading, effective modeling can take the form of the teacher’s verbalizations of his or her thoughts and strategy-use while reading and thinking about an informational text. Like all learners, students in the social studies benefit from seeing and studying models of the product or process they are trying to emulate. Effective teachers model and explain effective reading and writing strategies in addition to providing models of desired products. Monitoring for Understanding The idea of monitoring for understanding is closely related to the concept of metacognition. Metacognition is the knowledge of one’s own thinking processes and the ability to self-evaluate understanding and modify strategies accordingly. A reader who is metacognitively aware, for example, knows the purpose for reading and seeks information that supports that purpose. This reader makes connections to prior knowledge and monitors comprehension, applying and



adjusting comprehension strategies as needed to ensure understanding. Research has shown that educators can teach metacognitive skills through modeling or scaffolding the processes involved in effectively monitoring for understanding and making adjustments that ensure comprehension. Interdisciplinary/Cross-curricular Instruction Programs that are interdisciplinary are those that draw on more than one discipline and integrate the content of two or more traditional disciplines. By its nature, social studies is interdisciplinary. A student cannot understand the history of a place without recognizing the impact of its geography. Similarly, a study of geography cannot be undertaken without a recognition of the impact of the environment on the history of a people. Furthermore, the social studies lend themselves well to connections across different disciplines. The social studies present opportunities for data that can be measured and presented in graphical form in a mathematics classroom. Studies of landforms, the environment and various ecosystems in earth science and life science classes connect directly to history and geography studies. Primary source documents and historical fiction read in an English language arts classroom can connect directly to studies in history and geography. Research in cognition and the human brain supports the value of interdisciplinary studies; students learn best when they can make connections between ideas and when ideas and concepts are reinforced repeatedly and in different ways. Group and Peer Collaboration Effective instruction involves a combination of whole-group, small group and independent activities. Research attests to the benefits of having students learn together in collaborative and cooperative groups. Students who participate in flexible groups in which they depend on their group members and feel accountable to the group’s performance appear to learn more effectively. In addition, this kind of group and peer collaboration may help develop students’ social abilities and their understanding and tolerance of all students.



Excerpts from the Research that Guided the Development Direct/Explicit Instruction “The term direct instruction has been used by researchers to refer to a pattern of teaching that consists of the teacher’s explaining a new concept or skill to a large group of students, having them test their understanding by practicing under teacher direction (that is, controlled practice), and encouraging them to continue to practice under teacher guidance (guided practice).” (Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun 339) “Brown and Palincsar (1982) have shown that direct instruction involving three strategies is particularly effective: instruction in comprehension-fostering strategies, instruction on the importance and usefulness of the strategies, and metacognitive monitoring strategies to check the appropriateness of strategy use. This type of direct instruction on strategies has been applied successfully in a number of studies on a variety of comprehension skills…” (Stevens, Slavin, and Farnish 8) “Students in the two instructional treatments which incorporated direct instruction on main idea strategies performed significantly better than control students in identifying main ideas of passages.” (Stevens, Slavin, and Farnish 8) “The results of this study show the significant impact of direct instruction and cooperative learning teaching students specific reading-comprehension strategies. Clearly, direct instruction on comprehension strategies, a component of both experimental treatments, is an important aspect of effective teaching. Direct instruction involves teachers presenting comprehension and metacomprehension strategies, and students practicing the strategies with teachers guiding them and giving them corrective feedback. In this study, the two experimental treatments that incorporated direct instruction yielded significant and substantial effects on students’ achievement. This evidence replicates the findings in a number of previous studies…” (Stevens, Slavin, and Farnish 14) “The findings substantiate[d] that strategies can be directly taught and that direct teaching of strategies benefits struggling readers.” (Duffy 33) “Content area teachers can make a difference in the school lives of adolescents when they incorporate reading strategy minilessons into their instructional repertoire. Explicit instruction in the development and use of reading strategies requires explanation, modeling, practice, and application…” (Vacca 194)



Scaffolding “…scaffolding has repeatedly been identified as one of the most effective instructional techniques available... “ (Graves and Avery 138) “The students’ engagement in complex processes is made possible by providing them with a variety of supports [e.g., well-structured assignments; models and examples, strategic sequencing of activities, peer-response groups] and gradually withdrawing the supports as students appear to become more fluent in their use.” (Hillocks 255) “Although scaffolds can be applied to the teaching of all skills, they are particularly useful, and often indispensable, for teaching higher-level cognitive strategies where many of the steps or procedures necessary to carry out these strategies cannot be specified.” (Rosenshine and Meister 26) “The study of history provides an ideal opportunity to develop and practice the kind of complex thinking skills needed for a rapidly changing world. Historical readings, however, can be difficult for young people…At the secondary level in particular, teachers are frequently unfamiliar with reading strategies that could help bridge the gap between the text and student understanding. A few relatively simple techniques, however, can make the difference between a frustrating reading experience and one that is meaningful to students. The Scaffolded Reading Experience offers an array of strategies for structuring and enhancing the reading of historical documents and texts…” (Graves and Avery 138) “Scaffolding means supporting students in their initial learning. History instruction should provide students with temporary support until their learning becomes self-regulated. Scaffolding in history can be accomplished in many different ways. One form of scaffolding is interspersed questioning… Another form of scaffolding is to support students by using illustrations in an attempt to portray visually the concepts being discussed in the textbook.” (Carnine, Caros, Crawford, Hollenbeck, and Harniss 215-216) Modeling “[Comprehension] strategies can be taught directly and explicitly following a process in which the teacher models and explains the strategy, then students apply the strategy by practicing it with a range of texts under the coaching of the teacher or more skilled reader (scaffolded practice). The teacher’s role is to monitor the use of the strategy offer less coaching as less is called for (removing the scaffold), ask students what strategy they are using and why (therefore bringing the use of the strategy to the student’s awareness), give students continued opportunity to observe more modeling provide multiple and ongoing opportunities for students to transact with other students with a range of texts.” (Beers 37) “The research on comprehension strategy teaching provides powerful evidence that most struggling readers (and many not so struggling readers) benefit enormously when we can construct lessons that help make the comprehension processes visible … students need demonstrations of effective strategy use and lots of opportunities to apply the demonstrated strategy over time.” (Allington, 2001, 98) “Teachers should also demonstrate how to apply each strategy successfully – what it is, how it is carried out, and when and why it should be used … Instead of just talking about a strategy, teachers need to illustrate the processes they use by thinking aloud, or modeling mental processes, while they read.” (Fielding and Pearson 65)



Monitoring for Understanding “Comprehension is usually the biggest problem teachers face with struggling readers from the third grade and higher … These students are not monitoring their own comprehension to see if what they are reading is making sense … “ (Au 400) “Studies of good reader-poor reader differences in text processing … suggest that poor readers fail to (1) conceptualize reading as a search for meaning, (2) monitor their comprehension to ensure that they are deriving meaning, (3) engage in strategic behavior to bring meaning to text and restore meaning when there has been a breakdown in comprehension, and (4) modify their choice of strategies to meet the varying demands of reading. This profile suggests the need for instruction which will … promote comprehension monitoring.” (Palincsar and Brown 69) “Monitoring is a critical step in self-regulation of comprehension processes. That is, it is not enough for students to be taught comprehension processing; students must also come to understand where and when to use the processes and be motivated to do so.” (Block and Pressley 387) “Fitzgerald’s (1995b) review of research identifies areas in which focused, intensive instruction appears beneficial for English language learners. These include vocabulary, expository text structure, and metacognition.” (Au 402) “These results suggest that direct instruction encourages students to use metacognitive strategies when reading, a practice that promotes improved comprehension and a greater awareness of the type of thinking good readers practice.” (Joseph 160) “[I]nstruction in metacognitive reading strategies and techniques can be conducted utilizing group instruction in a regular classroom by a classroom teacher. In addition, children can be convinced to use such strategies on their own and, therefore, assume control of their own learning.” (Payne and Manning 37) Interdisciplinary/Cross-curricular Instruction “Social studies teaching and learning are powerful when they are integrative. • Social studies is integrative in its treatment of topics. • It is integrative across time and space. • Social studies teaching integrates knowledge, skills, beliefs, values, and attitudes to action. • Social studies teaching and learning integrate effective use of technology. • Social studies teaching and learning integrate across the curriculum.” (Curriculum Standards

for Social Studies 11) “There are several reasons why interdisciplinary teaching is important:

1. The brain searches for common patterns and connections. Thus history, properly enlivened by relevant literature, becomes a way of making meaning out of other content.

2. Every experience actually contains with it the seeds of many, and possibly all, disciplines. Thus recent developments in Eastern Europe involve history, geography, politics, comparative religion, economics, and social science…

3. One of the keys to understanding is what is technically called redundancy. In other words, if the same message can be packed in several ways, the receiver has a much better chance of grasping what is actually happening.” (Caine and Caine 119-120)



Group and Peer Collaboration “…the social studies program should be designed to increase the student’s ability to express and advocate reasoned personal convictions within groups, recognize mutual ethical responsibility within groups, participate in negotiating conflicts and differences or maintain an individual position because of its ethical basis, work individually and in groups, and accept and fulfill responsibilities associated with citizenship in a democratic republic.” (Curriculum Standards for Social Studies 8) “Cooperative learning methods are instructional techniques in which students work in small groups to help one another master academic content or carry out group projects….Motivational theories emphasize the idea that in groups working toward a common goal, students support one another’s academic efforts, because each group member’s success helps the group to succeed. Cognitive theories emphasize opportunities for collaborating students to model higher order solutions for one another, and to provide immediate, context-appropriate explanations and feedback to one another.” (Slavin, 2002, 115) “Over 323 studies have been conducted over the past 90 years comparing the relative impact of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning situations on achievement. On the basis of this research, it may be concluded that generally achievement is higher in cooperative situations than in competitive or individualistic ones and that cooperative efforts result in more frequent use of higher-level reasoning strategies, more frequent process gain and collective induction, and higher performance on subsequent tests taken individually…” (Johnson and Johnson, 1990, 33) “Research evidence convincingly argues that ‘good things’ can and do happen when Cooperative Learning Groups are used (Slavin 1987; Vermette 1987). Users of CLGs can expect these outcomes for their own students: • an increase in conceptual achievement • an increase in the use of critical thinking and higher-order thinking skills • an increase in individual self-esteem • an increase in positive attitudes toward those who are culturally or racially different” (Vermette 271) “Having peers instruct or interact over the use of reading strategies leads to an increase in the learning of strategies, promotes intellectual discussion, and increases reading comprehension.” (Report of the National Reading Panel 4-45) “(Effective) Teachers form instructional groups that fit students’ academic and affective needs. Teachers:

a. Use whole group instruction when introducing new concepts and skills. b. Form smaller groups as needed to make sure all students learn thoroughly. … f. Make use of heterogeneous cooperative learning groups, structuring these so that there

are both group rewards and individual accountability. g. Set up peer tutoring and peer evaluation groups to use time effectively and to ensure

that students receive the assistance they need to learn successfully. …” (Cotton 9-10)



From Research to Practice World Geography Today has been designed to meet the needs of all students by including the following instructional approaches: direct and explicit instruction, scaffolding, modeling, monitoring for understanding, interdisciplinary or cross-curricular instruction, and group and peer collaboration. Direct/Explicit Instruction. Asking students to read a text and/or explaining to students what is happening in a text may help students learn from that particular text, but these activities do not teach students how to read and comprehend on their own. To be effective, comprehension instruction must show students, directly and explicitly, how to comprehend a text: Reading instruction is more effective when direct instruction is combined with strategy instruction. World Geography Today provides direct instruction of numerous strategies that students can use independently to understand texts. Such strategies enable both struggling/dependent readers and independent readers to read and understand texts that are difficult for them. For examples of direct/explicit strategy instruction, see the following pages in World Geography Today. SE: pp. S9, S10, S11, S12, S13, S14, S15 Guided Reading Strategies: pp. 1–96 Reading Strategies for the Social Studies Classroom: 1–101 Scaffolding. An instructional model that provides scaffolding to students includes the following features: logical structure, selection and sequencing of models and examples to reveal essential characteristics, progression from easier to more difficult content and from easier to more difficult tasks, additional information/elaboration as needed, peer-mediated instruction, and materials that guide students, such as key words and graphic organizers. The final feature of scaffolding is independence—scaffolding is removed and students apply what they have learned in a new situation. For examples of scaffolding in World Geography Today, see the following pages. SE: pp. 39, 163, 255, 367 Main Idea Activities: pp. 1–213 Modeling. Students benefit from seeing and studying models of the product, behavior, or process they are trying to emulate. Effective teachers model and explain effective strategies, in addition to providing models of desired products. World Geography Today provides teachers with suggestions and scripts for modeling effective processes and gives students countless opportunities to see effective reading and writing strategies as well as to see products demonstrated and modeled. For examples of modeling in World Geography Today, see the following pages. SE: pp. S14, S15, S16 TE: p. 127



Monitoring for Understanding. Good readers automatically monitor their understanding of the text as they read. Struggling readers need to be taught how to monitor their understanding as well as how to use various strategies and processes to improve their understanding. In World Geography Today, all students are given innumerable opportunities to learn and apply strategies for monitoring their understanding and improving their comprehension. For examples of these opportunities, see the following pages. SE: pp. 72, 118, 171, 307, 440, 494, 572 Interdisciplinary/Cross-Curricular Instruction. Geography is, by its very nature , interdisciplinary. Geography has a particular relevance to= history and to the environment. There are also ties to other disciplines such as the physical and life sciences. For examples of links to other disciplines, see the following pages in World Geography Today. SE: pp. 20, 49, 102, 125, 152, 197, 226, 438, 527, 738 Group and Peer Collaboration. Effective geography instruction includes the scaffolding provided by peer interaction on specific activities and projects. Collaborative activities can range from informal study groups to one-on-one peer review and coaching to formal group projects. For examples of group and peer collaboration in World Geography Today, see the following pages. TE: pp. 16, 18, 196, 329, 410, 518, 622

Strand 3 – Meeting the Needs of All Students


Strand 3 What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Meeting the Needs of All Students Defining the Strand

The gap between the reading achievement of students of diverse backgrounds and mainstream students has been a concern for many years. However, it is becoming an even greater cause of concern because of the changing demographics of the United States. In the 1990s, students of diverse backgrounds constituted 35% of the enrollment in public schools in grades 1 through 12 (National Center for Education Statistics, 1997a), and approximately 13% of all students spoke a language other than English at home. In 2025, the population of students of diverse backgrounds will be even larger, and an even greater proportion of children will be growing up in poverty. Poverty appears to be the factor most highly associated with low reading achievement. (Au 393) Complicating matters further, students in sixth grade and beyond come to school with a wider variety both of literacy skills and of literacy deficits than students in the earlier grades (RAND Reading Study Group, 2002). (International Reading Association 40)

Our nation’s demographic data shows the increasing diversity of our society, and by extension, our classrooms. Assessment data and the experiences of our teachers show the diversity of learning styles and abilities present in any classroom. Because of the diverse populations in our classrooms and because of the wide variety of skill levels in our classrooms, it is imperative that instruction meets the needs of students with a wide range of backgrounds, ability levels, and learning styles. Effective instruction addresses the needs of English-language learners, advanced learners, students with modality preferences, standard-English learners, and struggling/developmental learners. The No Child Left Behind Act is inclusive: Schools must reach all learners and meet their learning needs. How do effective teachers meet the academic and social needs of all of their students? We know students learn best when given opportunities to explore new material in ways that support their learning styles and varying abilities. Because learning styles and abilities vary, instruction must be differentiated, or presented in varied ways that meet each learner’s needs. Research attests to the importance of differentiation.



Excerpts from the Research that Guided the Development Differentiated Instruction “Differentiation seems a common-sense approach to addressing the needs of a wide variety of learners, promoting equity and excellence and focusing on best-practice instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. This makes more sense than the timeworn method of aiming for students in the middle and hoping for the best for those on the upper and lower extremes.” (Tomlinson, 2001, 5) “In all classrooms, teachers deal with at least three curricular elements: (1) content – input, what students learn; (2) process – how students go about making sense of ideas and information; and (3) product – output, how students demonstrate what they have learned. … By differentiating these three elements, teachers offer different approaches to what students learn, how they learn it, and how they demonstrate what they’ve learned.” (Tomlinson, 2001, 4-5) “[S]tudents not only have strengths in different types of intelligences, but they also vary in… interest and learning profiles. Therefore, students should not be expected to learn using the same content, processes, and products. Students in a mixed-ability classroom need opportunities to work on different tasks rather than simply performing the same task at different levels. Differentiated instruction includes different learning products to fit individual needs.” (Baumgartner, Lipowski, and Christy 18) “In a differentiated classroom, the teacher assumes that different learners have differing needs. Therefore, the teacher proactively plans a variety of ways to ‘get at’ and express learning.” (Tomlinson, 2001, 2)

“Teacher responsiveness to individual student levels of readiness, interest, and learning profiles mandates the use of a differentiated model of instruction.” (Kapusnick and Hauslein 156)

“Students learn better and more easily when teachers use a variety of delivery methods, providing students with learning experiences that maximize their strengths.” (Kapusnick and Hauslein 156)



Special Populations Students Who Are Struggling Readers “The general principle is to use the same continuum of strategies with the struggling readers (including teacher read-alouds, sustained silent reading, share reading, guided reading, guided discussion…), but to augment these strategies with intensive instruction on the specific skills students need to succeed.” (Au 399) “Each of the three experiments substantiated that GOs (graphic organizers) produced significantly higher performance than self-study for the students with learning disabilities enrolled in social studies, science, and health classes at the secondary level (grades 7 and 10). Further, those findings were documented with remedial and regular education students as well.” (Horton, Lovitt, and Bergerud 20) Students for Whom English Is a Second Language “What can teachers do to help English language learners learn to read and write in English? These students will benefit from all the approaches recommended so far … the continuum of strategies, and intensive instruction to develop reading skills and strategies…” (Au 402) “Fitzgerald’s (1995b) review of research identifies areas in which focused, intensive instruction appears beneficial for English language learners. These include vocabulary, expository text structure, and metacognition.” (Au 402) “On the whole, the studies reviewed in this article support the contention that the cognitive reading processes of ESL learners are substantively the same as those of native English speakers. … Collectively, these forms of evidence, along with other specific findings from the studies, suggested a relatively good fit to the preexisting native-language reading theories, models and views…As for instruction, …United States teachers of ESL students could follow sound principles of reading instruction based on current cognitive research done with native English speakers.” (Fitzgerald, 1995a, 180-181, 184) “There are a number of things we can do to help make the task of reading textbooks more manageable and less frustrating for ESL students. …One way we can help is by reducing the vocabulary load ESL students may have to contend with. Careful analysis of the content area text is important to get a better idea of which words are crucial for understanding, which can be skipped, which can be inferred from context…Teachers can use semantic maps, brainstorming, structured overviews, and other prereading activities to help ESL students activate background knowledge… (Teachers can) Lead students to apply selected reading and study skills or strategies (suggesting a strategy or taking students stepwise through the application)…” (Kang 647-649) Students with Varied Learning Styles “A number of studies conducted during the last decade have found that students’ achievement increases when teaching methods match their learning styles – biological and developmental characteristics that affect how they learn.” (Dunn, Beaudry, and Klavas 50) “Theoretically, the closer a teaching strategy is tailored to the learner’s conceptual level, the more learning will take place (Hunt, 1970b, p. 2).” (Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun 97-98) “[L]earning style is the way each person begins to concentrate on, process, internalize, and retain new and difficult academic information. Because each person learns differently from



every other person, the same instructional environment, methods, and resources will be effective for some learners and ineffective for others.” (Burke and Dunn 104) “(Effective) Teachers provide clear and focused instruction. Teachers: …c. Take note of learning style differences among students, and, when feasible, identify and use learning strategies and materials that are appropriate to different styles. …” (Cotton 12) Students with Varied Cultural Backgrounds “Paying attention to how we teach is an important dimension of teaching in diverse classrooms. Paying attention to what we teach is another. Teachers should enrich students’ learning of social studies topics by including multiple viewpoints or perspectives. Multicultural education is good education because it is more comprehensive. It lays one perspective on an historical event or character alongside others so that students can compare them and try to draw defensible conclusions.” (Parker 36) “Multicultural education has several goals. It endeavors to ground students with multicultural knowledge, to adopt educational equity and cultural pluralism as philosophies, to empower students and promote student social action, and to teach from a multicultural perspective.” (Ford, Howard, and Harris 14) Students Who Are Advanced Learners “Advanced learners, like all learners, need learning experiences designed to fit them. … Advanced learners share other learners’ need for teachers who can help them set high goals, devise plans for reaching those goals, tolerate frustrations and share joys…” (Tomlinson, 2001, 12) “Cooperative learning methods generally work equally well for all types of students…Sometimes a concern is expressed that cooperative learning with hold back high achievers. The research provides absolutely no support for this claim; high achievers gain from cooperative learning (relative to high achievers in traditional classes) just as much as do low and average achievers (Slavin, 1991).” (Slavin, 2002, 118)



From Research to Practice World Geography Today was developed to provide for the needs of all learners. The Student Editions contain a variety of lesson structures, activities, and models that provide opportunities for all students to master key concepts and skills successfully. The Teacher’s Editions contain numerous suggestions and strategies for adapting activities to the needs of specific groups. In addition, supplementary materials such as the Block Scheduling Handbook with Team Teaching Strategies and Main Idea Activities for English-Language Learners and Special-Needs Students provide countless opportunities to reach all learners. Special Populations. Heterogeneous classrooms contain students representing many different populations— advanced students, students having difficulty, unmotivated students, students whose strength or preference is a particular modality or intelligence, English-language learners, and students with a variety of learning disabilities. However, differentiating instruction for such a range of abilities and interests is complex and can be extremely difficult. The following examples illustrate how World Geography Today helps teachers reach special populations through a variety of approaches multiple texts and multiple approaches.

Students Who Are Struggling Readers. The struggling readers we worry about are the ones who struggle with almost any text, who lack strategies to use to help them make sense of the text. We sometimes call these readers “dependent readers” because they lack the cognitive ability to read independently, are not motivated by the text or by reading and lack the ability or stamina to stick with reading that is difficult for them. To reach these students, World Geography Today models effective reading strategies, gives students a wealth of opportunities to practice and apply the strategies, and provides teachers with several teaching resources designed with struggling readers in mind. For examples of instruction for struggling readers, see the following pages. TE: pp. 69, 223, 301, 436, 524 Main Idea Activities: pp. 1–213 Students for Whom English Is a Second Language. World Geography Today has provided strategies for teachers who must meet the needs of students for whom English is a second language. The following resources will help this special population. TE: pp. 4, 114, 231, 306, 456, 519 Main Idea Activities: pp. 1–213 Block Scheduling Handbook: pp. 38, 80, 98, 117, 154, 182 Students with Varied Learning Styles. World Geography Today has provided strategies for teachers who must meet the needs of students with different learning style preferences. The following resources will help this address these needs. TE: pp. 88, 181, 246, 297, 409, 485, 527, 628 Block Scheduling Handbook: pp. 1–192



Students with Varied Cultural Backgrounds. World Geography Today has provided strategies for teachers who must meet the needs of students from varied cultural backgrounds. The following resources will help this special population. SE: pp. 98, 103 TE: pp. 95, 96, 97, 98, 110 Students Who Are Advanced Learners. World Geography Today has provided strategies for teachers who must meet the needs of students for advanced learners. The following resources will help this population. TE: pp. 176, 226, 344, 456, 518

Strand 4 – Assessment


Strand 4 What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Assessment Defining the Strand “[The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001] changes the federal government’s role in kindergarten-through-grade-12 education by asking America’s schools to describe their success in terms of what each student accomplishes.” (Introduction, No Child Left Behind Web site, ED.Gov) This is important because it means that American students are being evaluated on the basis of what they know and can do across areas of learning, including in the social studies. Students should not be evaluated against each other, but rather should be evaluated against the goals for learning that have been identified for mastery of the content area and for future success. To effectively evaluate students against a set of stated expectations, research and experience attest to the importance of using multiple assessment measures. Particularly in the social studies, where there are specific expectations for content knowledge as well as for ways of knowing, thinking, solving problems and making arguments, one type of assessment cannot supply a complete picture. Using a variety of assessment types has been shown to be effective for all students, but particularly those who have learning difficulties (Bell, 2002). Research has also demonstrated the importance of providing students with frequent, specific feedback in strengthening achievement. Frequent testing has been shown to increase both short-term achievement and long-term retention. Additionally, intervention based on assessments has been shown to have significant positive effects on learning. These results have been borne out through a variety of disciplines. Finally, without regular assessment, teachers cannot make needed interventions and in-course corrections to ensure learning. An end-of-course assessment allows teachers to make changes that will affect the next year’s class; on-going assessment allows teachers to make changes that can impact students immediately.



Excerpts from the Research that Guided the Development Multiple Approaches to Assessment “Students should be given multiple opportunities on a variety of assessments to show their proficiencies. Such assessments may include portfolios, performance assessments, written reports, research projects, and other demonstrations of students’ knowledge and skills.” (National Council for the Social Studies, 2003, on-line) “Diverse approaches should be used to appraise pupil achievement in the social studies. Each approach should attempt to determine what pupils have learned and what is left to be achieved by the learner.” (Ediger 240) “Assessment should be related directly to learning activities and to the work done; it should be based on a broad range of evidence...[and] in the best of all classrooms, assessment includes observations of students in action, finished work, and students’ own self-assessment.” (Tchudi and Mitchell 360) “Results of this study lend support to the reliability and validity of vocabulary-matching measures as indicators of students’ performance in the social studies content area… as well as good indicators of students’ general social studies knowledge…” (Espin, Busch, Shin, and Kruschwitz 148-149) “(Effective) Teachers Make Use of Alternative Assessments as well as Traditional Tests. Teachers: … d. Plan assessment as they plan instruction – not as an afterthought… f. Teach children the scoring systems that will be used to evaluate their work and allow them to practice using these systems for self- and peer assessment…” (Cotton 19) On-going Assessment “Formative assessment refers to focused and ongoing evaluations like the scores on pop quizzes. Summative tests come at the end of a course of study, when students must be accountable for their achievement. The purpose of formative assessment is to guide instruction; the purpose of summative testing is to evaluate achievement...” (Graves, Juel, and Graves 544) “(Effective) Teachers: a. Monitor learning regularly, both formally and informally… f. Use routine assessment procedures to check student progress. These include conducting recitations, circulating and checking students’ work during seatwork periods, assigning and checking homework, conducting periodic reviews with students, administering tests, and reviewing student performance data...” (Cotton 18)



From Research to Practice A key component of World Geography Today is the integration of ongoing, or formative, and summative assessment. The program provides a broad range of assessment options, including daily activities, and unit tests, and end-of-year tests. Assessment formats include teacher observation, essay and objective questions, holistic and analytic scoring of written papers, and online assessment. Additionally, because students are facing national and state standardized tests, World Geography Today includes test-taking strategies. Multiple Approaches to Assessment. In the social studies, where there are specific expectations for content knowledge as well as for ways of solving problems and making arguments, one type of assessment cannot supply a complete picture. World Geography Today provides a range of assessment tools that are effective for all students. SE: pp. 20, 153, 202–3, 302–3, 496–7 TE: pp. 28, 126, 253, 359, 440, 502 Chapter and Unit Tests: pp. 1–126 Daily Quizzes: pp. 1–96 Guided Reading Strategies: pp. 1–96 Graphic Organizer Activities: pp. 1–63 Critical Thinking Activities: pp. 1–64 Geography for Life Activities: pp. 1–128 Map Activities: pp. 1–64 Main Idea Activities: 1–192 On-going Assessment. World Geography Today provides opportunities for on-going assessment on a daily basis and for longer term cumulative basis. With regular assessment teachers can make any needed intervention and in-course corrections to ensure learning. SE: pp. 22, 179, 254–5, 324–5 TE: pp. 49, 192, 233, 317, 458 Chapter and Unit Tests: pp. 1–126 Daily Quizzes: pp. 1–96 Guided Reading Strategies: pp. 1–96 Graphic Organizer Activities: pp. 1–63 Critical Thinking Activities: pp. 1–64 Geography for Life Activities: pp. 1–128 Map Activities: pp. 1–64 Main Idea Activities: 1–192

Strand 5 – Teaching Geography


Strand 5 What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us about Teaching Geography Defining the Strand What is geography? While some students may think of geography as studying maps or memorizing the names of state or national capitals, geography encompasses the study of these and many, many other issues. Geographers study the Earth, both the physical Earth, such as its climate or topography, and the political Earth, those regions and boundaries people have created on Earth. To understand the topography and regions of the Earth, students must have spatial skills and map-reading skills. To fully understand the Earth’s impact on humans and humans’ impact on the Earth, students must have an understanding of human history. To effectively develop these understandings among students, teachers can use the Geography for Life: National Geography Standards, and align their instruction accordingly. Importance of Map Skills/Geographic Literacy Maps are essential to understanding the world. Street maps help students understand the specific place in which they live. National and world maps show landforms, bodies of water, and neighbors and borders. Teaching children to read maps is not an end in itself. Map reading is a means to further understanding one’s place in the world. Having a sense of one’s place in the world is crucial to understanding local, national, and global events and different cultures. Now more than ever, geographic literacy is essential and should be a focus of learning in school. Importance of Connecting History to Geography Content and Instruction Geography is not simply the study of where things are. Geographers are also concerned with why things are where they are. Understanding why people have settled in one area or another, why boundaries have been created, or why conflicts arise in different parts of the globe requires an understanding of both geography and history. The topography, climate, soil, vegetation, and other natural resources of different areas led to settlement and migrations between areas; human movements between areas and settlements created the regional boundaries that we study in geography. One cannot understand history without understanding geography. Instruction Driven by the National Geography Standards Standards are important in that they clearly define a common set of goals and expectations that focus the work of educators and students. The Geography for Life: National Geography Standards identify six elements as essential to the study and understanding of geography:

1. The World in Spatial Terms 2. Places and Regions 3. Physical Systems 4. Human Systems 5. Environment and Society 6. The Uses of Geography

Developing students’ understanding of these six elements ensures that students have the geographical knowledge, understandings, and skills to prepare them for future study in the social studies and other fields and for effective citizenship in a democracy.



Excerpts from the Research that Guided the Development Importance of Map Skills/Geographic Literacy “The world facing students … will be more crowded, the physical environment more threatened, and the global economy more competitive and interconnected. Understanding that world, that environment, and that economy will require high levels of competency in geography, because geography means a sensitivity to location, to scale, to movement, to patterns, to resources and conflicts, to maps and geo-graphics.” (Geography for Life: National Geography Standards 18) “The tools of geography help us understand places. The tool most identified with geographers is the map, but they also use different kinds of statistical information, photographs and images of many kinds… Knowing something about where places are and what they are like is important. As the last ‘superpower’ and a major player in international affairs, the United States needs citizens who have basic knowledge of other parts of the world as well as our own country. We also need to understand regional relationships and the role the United States plays in them. … We can use geographical knowledge to make informed decisions regarding the best use of the nation’s resources… (and) ask important questions about policies that lead to changes in landscape and land use.” (The Importance of Geography in the School Curriculum) “Students must use…general cognitive skills to understand geographic concepts. For example, to appreciate the difference between relative and absolute location, or the meaning of a cartogram, students must use an integrated set of spatial and logical concepts such as understanding the properties of metric spaces, the role of coordinate systems and frames of reference, the set of permissible spatial transformations, the conservation of shape and area under transformation, and the maintenance of part-whole relations.” (Downs and Liben 305) “Map projections are important to geography, not only as a map convention to be learned, but also as a conceptual tool for reasoning in the discipline. A solid understanding of map projections allows the map reader to overcome the distortion in the map and to use the map as a representational system for reasoning about the earth’s surface.” (Anderson and Leinhardt 317) “The results NAEP reported in February 1990 not only demonstrated the weakness of geography education in our high schools, but they also set the stage for useful articulation of the sorts of geographic knowledge that professional educators and geographers consider essential for intelligent and productive citizenship in the world.

The array of knowledge tested in the NAEP survey included knowing locations, using the skills and tools of geography (latitude, longitude, map and globe symbols, and map interpretation), and cultural and physical geography. The significance of these themes is that all serious students of geographic learning realize that the image of geography is too often limited to map identifications (state capitals and country names, for example) and must be changed if educators are to enlist the help of the public in eliminating geographic ignorance.

Any effective solution to geographic ignorance entails knowing--and appreciating--the nature, location, and significance of the dynamic forces at work in the world. If students cannot differentiate between Panama and Poland, between Hong Kong and Honduras, between Armenia and Alabama, then there is no foundation upon which to build an essential understanding of cultural and political systems. These systems will play an ever-expanding role in the very economic and social universe in which these students must live their lives.” (Salter 59)



Importance of Connecting History to Geography Content and Instruction “Geography provides important clues to the past. Landforms and climate are related to migration patterns, land use, and the rise and fall of civilizations. How people use the land also has a strong bearing on the economic progress of countries and regions. Thus, knowing what the landscape was like in the past is important for understanding historical processes; as is knowing who lived in a place, how they lived, and how they used the land.” (The Importance of Geography in the School Curriculum) “The fact is, geography has played a crucial role in almost all significant historical events, and geography shapes the characteristics of the places where people, events, and ideas have made history.” (Boehm, Saxe, and Rutherford 1) Instruction Driven by the National Geography Standards “Geography education is the key to geographic competency. To achieve geographic understanding on a national scale requires a concerted effort by the educational system to ensure that all students receive a basic education in geography.

Geography standards are the key to geography education. The National Geography Standards represent a consensus on what constitutes a world-class education in geography for all American students.” (Geography for Life: National Geography Standards 26) “Physical and human phenomena are spatially distributed over Earth’s surface. The outcome of Geography for Life (The National Geography Standards) is a geographically informed person (1) who sees meaning in the arrangement of things in space; (2) who sees relations between people, places, and environments; (3) who uses geographic skills; and (4) who applies spatial and ecological perspectives to life situations.” (Geography for Life: National Geography Standards 34) “To that end, Geography for Life: National Geography Standards 1994 continues to serve us well (GESP 1994). The standards and language have stood the test of time (at least for ten years), although certainly more contemporary examples can be presented to ensure relevancy for students and teachers. We do believe strongly that efforts to improve and update the standards should focus on maintaining ‘dynamic and flexible standards’ (GESP 1994, appendix A) and should continue to emphasize connections to real-world events and problems. Above all, this basic document has served as a solid and widely accepted promotional tool for presenting the functional domain of geography and outlining the value of geography as a vital component…” (Howarth and Mountain 265)



From Research to Practice World Geography Today is designed to introduce students to the rich variety of physical and human geographic study. The first unit covers physical geographic topics, and the rest of the text is organized into geographic regions. Each regional chapter covers physical geography and political, historical, and cultural topics. Importance of Map Skills/Geographic Literacy. Students are taught about different kinds of maps and their appropriate uses. They are also given numerous opportunities to read and interpret maps and to draw their own sketch maps. SE: pp. 9–21, 32–33, 38, 150, 227, 316, 453, 578, 654 TE: pp. 11, 12. 14, 17, 18, 136, 281–285, 554–559 Map Activities: pp. 1–64 Importance of Connecting History to Geography Content and Instruction. World Geography Today has a strong geography and history strand. The various feature strands have topics focusing on history and the regional chapters also address historical issues that have influenced the regions. SE: pp. 20, 169, 266, 344, 356, 462, 505, 569, 665, 686, 715 Instruction Driven by the National Geography Standards. World Geography Today was developed around the Six Essential Elements developed by the American Geographical Society, the Association of American Geographers, the National Council for Geographic Education, and the National Geographic Society. The relationship between the Six Essential Elements and the earlier Five Themes of Geography is also covered. Developing students’ understanding of these six elements ensures that students have geographical knowledge and skills they need to prepare them for future study and for effective citizenship. SE: pp. 132, 262, 272, 332 529, 536, 546, TE: pp. 19, 125, 232, 357, 443, 519, 617 Geography for Life Activities: pp. 1–128

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