PUMS 99:1 L ~ rrVERSlTI MALAYSIA SABlill

.JL;DUL: ~ NU I?rl'~NI+L .Cfl&.

/iJ1IftH~oom TI!:li,

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SESI PENG AJlAN : __ .l_01>_ 6 _____ _

Saya __ Js __ ~~ .. ~~. ~~ ___ H_~ __ N ____________ --_=~~-------------------------------(HURUF BESAR)

D1engaku membenarkan tesis (LPSI Sarjanal Doktor Falsafah) ini di simpan di Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah c:iengan syarat-syarat k egunaan seperti berikut:

I . Tesis adalah hakmilik Universiti Malaysia Sabah. 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dibenarkan membuat saJinan untuk tujllan pengajian sahaja. 3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat sal inan tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara insritusi pengajian tinggi . 4. ** SiJa tandakan (/ )

SUUT

(Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau kepentingan Malaysia seperti _ang termaktub di dalam AKT A RiillSIA RASMI 1971)

(Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telab ditentukakan TERHAD oleh organisasi/badan di mana pen:elidikan dijalankan)

TIDAK TERRAD Disahkan oleh

(T AND AT ANGAN PENULIS) o

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__ bff dlHft-N 3()rl~rrf pU(ug r TMY7{f1/ Y-cf

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Nama PenyelJa

.9~lJtf'l(~ trR

l'arikh: S-!l 0 / ry ----------~/~~7~~---------

Tarikh:_ ~ -+.-o/_11-1-r'J--'-_________ ___

~----------------------------------------------------------------------------------... -, TATAN: * Potong yang tidak berkenaan.

* Jika resis ini SUUT atau TERRAD, sila lampiran surat daripada pihak bdcuasalorgansasi berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali sebab dan tempoh tesis ini perIl..! diklaskan sebagai SUUT

. dTan T d~ADk . d b ' . b . I' h D k F I c: h' I·LO·k '" eSls Ima su kan se agal teslS agl Jaza 0 to r a sala dan SaIJana secara penye i 1 an, atau diserta si bagi pengajian secara kerja kursus dan penyelidikan, atau Laponn Projek Sarjana Muda (LPSM).

NUTRITIONAL AND ANllOXIDATIVE QUAliTY OF MUSHROOM (Pleurotus porrigenSj TEA

LEE YEN HooN

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED AS A PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF FOOD SOENCE WITH HONOURS IN FOOD SOENCE AND NUTRITION

HS04 FOOD SCENCE AND NUTRITION SCHOOL OF FOOD SOENCE AND NUTRITION

UNIVERSm MALAYSIA SABAH 2009

DECLARAnON

I hereby declare that the material in this thesis is my own except for quotations, excerpts, equations, summaries and references, which have been duly acknowledged.

17 APRIL 2009.

ii

LEE YEN HOON HN2005-2644

VERIFlCAnON

ASSOCIATE PROF. DR. CHYE FOOKYEE (Supervisor)

DR. MUHAMMAD IQBAL HASHMI (Examiner 1)

PN. NOR QHAIRUL IZZREEN MOHO NOOR (Examiner 2)

ASSOCIATE PROF. DR. MOHO. ISMAIL ABDULLAH (Dean of School of Food Science and Nutrition)

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank God for the strength that was given me throughout the progress of this thesis and to my family who gave me full support during my research here. I would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jabatan Pertanian Malaysia and Universiti College Sedaya International for providing me the resources and materials that was useful for me in the completion of this thesis. I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Prof. Madya. Dr. Chye Fook Vee for all his advlces, guidance and support in this research work that led to the completion of this thesis. I would also like to thank my friends Wong Kah Hui, Lau Ching Ching, Wong Jin Vi, Chong Kian Shin, Gan Chi Keong, Tee Wee Kiat for their help and support throughout this research. Last but not least, I would like to thank Pn. Noridah, En. Taipin Gaidot, Pn. Zainab, Pn. Mani and En. Osman for their help and assistance throughout the duration of my research. All your support and assistance is greatly appreciated.

iv

ABSTRACT

The aims of this study were to investigate the nutritional and anti oxidative quality of mushroom tea. Pleurotu5 porrigens, a wild edible mushroom from Sabah was made into tea powder by fermentation in order to obtain desirable aroma of tea. Mushroom tea infusions were prepared from different temperature of water (60°C, 80°C, 100°C) and infusing time (30s-20 min) to access their nutritional values and antioxidant properties. Antioxidant activities of tea powder and infusions were determined by using 2, 2-Diphenyl-l-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), Beta carotene Bleaching (BCB), Ferric­reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP), 2, 2'.,Azinobis-3-ethylbenzotiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assay. Their antioxidant groups were determined by using total phenolics (lP), total flavonoids (TF) and total carotenoids (TC). Antioxidant activities of tea infusions increased significantly (p<O.OS) as the temperature of water and infusing time increased. Interestingly, higher temperature of water does not seem to reduce the. micronutrients content of the tea infusions. Nevertheless, mushroom tea infusion prepared at 100°C and 2 min of infusing time contained the highest minerals (K, Mg, & Fe), a-tocopherol and antioxidant activities, except inhibition against linoleic acid oxidation. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that TP was the primary factor contributing to the inhibition of DPPH and ABTS for this tea infusion. Infusion prepared at 80°C for 5 min had highest flavonoids content and flavonoids are well correlated with BCB (0.864) in principal component loadings. Addition of milk solids into mushroom tea infusion had decreased the antioxidant activities. Addition of sucrose in infusion had no influence on the antioxidant properties. Overall, mushroom tea can be an excellent source of micronutrients and phenolic antioxidants.

v

ABSTRAK

PENAKANAN DAN KUAUTI ANTIOKSIDAN DALAN TEN CENDAWAN

Kajian ini dilakukan bertujuan untuk mengetahui pemakanan dan kualiti antioksidan bagi teh cendawan. Pleurotus porrigens, sejenis cendawan liar berasal dari negerl Sabah, dijadikan serbuk teh melalui felT71entasi untuk menghasilkan aroma teh yang terbaik. Teh cendawan disedlakan pada suhu air (60°e, 80°C, 100°C)dan mil$il pencelupan (305-20 min) yang bertainan untuk menilai pemakanan dan ciri-ciri antioksidannya. Aktiviti-aktiviti antioksidan bagi serbuk teh dan teh cendawan cliketahui dengan menggunakan 2, 2-Diphenyl-l-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), Beta carotene Bleaching (BeB), Femc-reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP), 2, 2'-Azinobis-3-ethylbenzotiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assay. Kumpulan antioksidan mereka pula dikesan melalui total phenolics (TP), total flavonojds (TF) dan total carotenoids (TC). Aktiviti teh cendawan meningkat dengan signifikasi (p<0.05) apabila suhu air dan masa pencelupan meningkat Apa yang menakjubkan adalah suhu air yang tinggi tidak mengurangkan kandungan mikronutrien teh cendawan. Namun begitu, teh cendawan yang disediakan pada 1000e dan masa pencelupan selama 2 min mempunyai kandungan bahan galian (K, Mgt Fe), a-tocopherol dan aktiviti~ktiviti antioksidan yang tinggi, kecuali pembantutan da/am oksidasi asid linolelk. Principal component analysis (PCA) menunjukkan TP merupakan penyumbang utama dalam pembantutan bagi DPPH dan ABTS untuk teh cendawan tersebut Teh yang disediakan pada suhu 80°C dan masa pencelupan selama 5 min mengandungi kandungan flavonoids yang tertinggi dan Ravonoids tersebut berkait rapat dengan BCB (0.864) dalam principal component loadings. Penambahan susu dalam teh cendawan telah mengurangkan aktivlti antioksidannya. Hanakata, penambahan sukrosa dalam teh tersebut tidak mempengaruhi ciri-ciri antioksidannya. Keseluruhannya, teh cendawan merupakan sumber yang kaya dengan mikronutrien dan fenolik antioksidan.

vi

CONTENTS

TITLE

DECLARAnON

VERIFlCAnON

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

CONTENT

UST OF FIGURES

UST OF TABLES

UST OF SYMBOLS

UST OF ABBREVIAnONS

UST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER llNTRODUcnON

CHAPTER 2 UTERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Mushroom biology

2.2 Ufe cycle of mushroom

2.3 World mushroom productions and production patterns

2.4 Nutritional value of wild edible fungi

2.4.1 Protein content in wild edible fungi

2.4.2 Fat content in wild edible fungi

2.4,3 Carbohydrates content in wild edible fungi

2.4.4 Fiber content in wild edible fungi

2.4.S Minerals content in wild edible fungi

2.4.6 Vitamins content in wild edible fungi

vii

Page

ii

iii

iv

v

vi

vii

xiii

xv

xvii

xviii

xix

1

4

4

7

8

14

14

17

21

21

23

26

2.4.7 Consumption of mushroom as food

2.5 Medicinal properties of mushroom

2.6 Pharmacological properties of edible fungi

2.7 Antioxidants of wild edible fungi

2.7.1 Oxidative damage and Antioxidants

2.7.2 Antioxidative group of wild edible fungi

a) Phenolics

b) Alkaloids

c) Carotenoids

2.7.3 Mechanism of Antioxidation

2.7.4 Extraction methods in antioxidant activity

2.7.5 Assays methods for antioxidant activity

a) OPPH (2,2-0iphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity

b) B-carotene bleaching inhibition

c) Reducing power

d) Upid peroxidation

e) ABTS Radical Cation Decolorization assay

2.8 Toxicity of mushroom

2.9 Tea

2.9.1 Tea processing

2.9.2 Quality grades of tea used by industry

2.9.3 Physiological effects on consumption of tea

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Wild edible mushroom, Pleurotus porrigens

3.2 Experimental Design

viii

27

29

30

33

33

35

38

39

40

40

42

43

43

44

44

45

45

46

47

49

51

52

54

54

55

3.3 Screening on best extraction solvent for dried Pleurotus porrigens 56

3.3.1 Antioxidant assays 57

a) 2, 2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay 57

b) B-carotene-linoleic acid assay 58

c) Ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay 58

d) 2,2'-Azinobis-3-ethylbenzotiazoline-6-sulfonic acid CABTS) assay 59

3.3.2 Antioxidants content 60

a) Total phenolic content 60

b) Total f1avonoids 60

c) Total carotenoids 61

3.4 Pleurotus pOrrigenstea making process 61

3.4.1 Determination of moisture content 62

3.4.2 Sensory test on aroma attributes of Pleurotus ponigens tea 63

3.4.3 Antioxidant activity of water extracts of Pleurotus porrigenstea 63

3.4.4 Antioxidant contents of water extracts of Pleurotus porrigenstea 64

3.5 Preparation of Pleurotus ponigenstea infusion with temperature of water and infusing period 64

3.5.1 Antioxidant activity of Pleurotus porrigenstea infusions with different temperature of water and infusing period 64

3.5.2 Determination of antioxidant contents of Pleurotus porrigenstea infusions 65

3.6 Nutritional value of dried powder, fermented tea and infusion of PJeurotus porrigens 65

3.6.1 Proximate analysis 65

a) Ash analysis 65

b) Determination of protein content 66

c) Fat content's determination 67

d) Determination of fiber content 67

ix

e) Determination of total carbohydrates 69

3.6.2 Analysis of minerals content (Ca, K, Mg, Fe and Zn) 69

3.6.3 Analysis of vitamins content (Bb 82, C, and Q-tocopherol) 70

a) Determination of thiamine and riboflavin 70

b) Determination of ascorbic add 71

c) Determination of a-tocopherol 72

3.7 Addition of PJeurotus porrigens tea infusion with milk solids and sucrose 72

3.7.1 Antioxidant activity of Pleurotus pOrrigenstea infusion with addition of soluble solids 73

3.7.2 Antioxidant contents of Pleurotus porrlgenstea with addition of soluble solids 73

3.8 Preparation of Pleurotus porrlgenstea infusion, SOH black tea infusion and Sabah black tea infusion 73

3.8.1 Antioxidant activity of infusions of Pleurotus porrigenstea, BOH black tea and Sabah black tea 73

3.8.2 Antioxidant contents of infusions of Pleurotus porrigens tea, SOH black tea and Sabah black tea 74

3.8.3 Sensory evaluation on Pleurotus porrigens tea infusion, Sabah black tea infusion and SOH black tea infusion 74

3.9 Statistical analysis 74

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 76

4.1 Dried powder of Pleurotus porrfgens 76

4.1.1 Extraction yield of Pleurotus pomgensextracts 76

4.1.2 Antioxidant activity of different solvent extracts of Pleurotus porrigens 77

4.1.3 ECso values of different solvent extracts of dried Pleurotu5 parr/gens 82

4.1.4 Antioxidant contents in different solvent extracts of dried Pleurotus porr/gens 83

4.1.5 Interrelationship of antioxidant contents and antioxidant activities of dried Pleurotus pomgens 85

x

4.2 Pleurotus porrigenstea 88

4.2.1 Aroma quality of Pleurotus porrlgenstea with different time of fermentation 88

4.2.2 Extraction yield of water extracts of Pleurotus porrigenstea with different time of fermentation 89

4.2.3 Antioxidant activity of water extracts of Pleurotus ponigenstea with different time of fermentation 89

4.2.4 ECso values of water extracts of Pleurotus porrigenstea with different time of fermentation 93

4.2.5 Phenolic contents in water extracts of mushroom tea with different time of fermentation 94

4.2.6 Interrelationship of phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of water extracts of mushroom tea with different time of fermentation 95

4~3 Pleurotus porrigenstea infusions with different temperatures of hot water and infusing time 96

4.3.1 Antioxidant activity of Pleurotus pomgens tea infusions with different temperatures of hot water and infusing time 97

4.3.2 ECso values of Pleurotus porngenstea infusions with different infusing time and temperatures of hot water 106

4.3.3 Phenolic contents of mushroom tea infusions with best infusing time for different temperatures of hot water 108

4.3.4 Interrelationship of phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of mushroom tea infusions with best infusing time for each temperature of hot water 110

4.4 Nutritional value of dried powder, fermented tea and tea infusions of Pleurotus porrigens 111

4.5 Pleurotus porrigensrea infusion with addition of milk and sucrose 119

4.5.1 Antioxidant activity of Pleurotus ponigenstea infusions with addition of milk and sucrose 119

4.5.2 ECso values of Pleurotus porrfgenstea infusions with addition of soluble solids 122

4.5.3 Phenolic contents of Infusions of Pleurotus porrfgenstea with addition of soluble solids 123

xi

4.5.4 Interrelationship of phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of infusions of Pleurotus polTigenstea with addition of soluble solids 124

4.6 Infusions of Pleurotus porrigens tea, BOH black tea and Sabah black ~a 1~

4.6.1 Antioxidant activity of infusions of Pleurotus pOrrigenstea, SOH black tea and Sabah black tea 125

4.6.2 ECso values of Pleurotus porrigens tea infusion, BOH black tea infusion and Sabah black ~a infusion 129

4.6.3 Phenolic contents of infusions of Pleurotus porrigens tea, BOH black tea and Sabah black ~a 130

4.6.4 Interrelationship of phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of infusions of Pleurotus polTigens tea, BOH black tea and Sabah black tea 130

4.6.5 Sensory quality of infusions of Pleurotus porrigenstea, Sabah black tea and BOH black tea 131

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESnONS 133

REFERENCES 135

APPENDICES 163

xii

AGURE 2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

3.1

3.2

3.3

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

UST OF FIGURES

TITlE Scientific and popular names for the parts of a mushroom

Modified triangular model for the ecological classification of mushrooms

Ufe cycle of a mushroom

Top world producers and exporters of mushrooms

China's contribution to World mushroom production from 1978-2007

Malaysian import of mushroom in year 2007

Malaysian export of mushroom in year 2007

Malaysian import and export of mushroom in year 2001-2007

Malaysian production of mushroom by state

Study on nutritional value and antioxidant activity on dried powder, fennented tea and tea infusions of Pleurotus pom'gens

Pleurotus porrigens tea making process

Preparation of Pleurotus pofflgens tea infusions with different temperature of water and infusing time

Inhibition (%) of a) DPPH and b) beta carotene bleaching of different solvent extracts of dried powder of Pleurotus porrigens

Reducing power of FRAP and inhibition of ABTS of different solvent extracts of dried powder of Pleurotus porrigens

Inhibition (%) of a) DPPH and b) beta carotene bleaching of water extracts of Pleurotus porrigens tea with different time of fennentation (hour)

Reducing power of FRAP and inhibition of ABTS of water extracts of Pleurotus porrigens tea with different time of fennentation (hour)

xiii

PAGE 5

6

8

9

10

12

12

13

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56

62

64

78

81

91

92

Continue

FIGURE TITlE PAGE

4.5 Inhibition (%) of a) DPPH and b) beta carotene bleaching of 98 Pleurotus porrigens tea infusions at 60°C with different infusing time (min)

4.6 Reducing power of FRAP and inhibition of ABTS of Pleurotus 100 porrlgens tea infusions with different time of infusing (min) at 60°C

4.7 Inhibition (%) of a) DPPH and b) beta carotene bleaching of 101 P/eurotus porrigens tea infusions at 80De with different time of infusing (min)

4.8 Reducing power of FRAP and inhibition of ASTS of Pleurotus 102 porrigens tea infusions at 80°C with different time of infusing (min)

4.9 Inhibition (%) of a) DPPH and b) beta carotene bleaching of 105 Pleurotus porrigens tea infusions at lOOoC with different time of infusing (min)

4.10 Redudng power of FAAP and inhibition of ABTS of Pleurotus 106 porrigens tea infusions at lOOoe with different time of infusing (min)

4.11 Inhibition (%) of a) DPPH and b) beta carotene bleaching of 120 Pleurotus porrigenstea infusions with addition of soluble solids

4.12 Redudng power of FRAP and inhibition of ASTS of Pleurotus 121 porrigens tea infusions with addition of soluble solids

4.13 Inhibition (%) of a) DPPH and b) beta carotene bleaching of 126 infusions of mushroom tea, Sabah black tea and BOH black tea

4.14 Redudng power of FRAP and inhibition of ABTS of infusions of 128 mushroom tea, Sabah black tea and BOH black tea

xiv

UST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE 2.1 Species and production volume of cultivated mushroom in western 11

and eastern countries

2.2 Protein content on wild edible species globally 15

2.3 Amino acids compositions found on wild edible species globally 17

2.4 Fat content in wild edible mushroom 18

2.5 Fatty acids composition in wild edible mushrooms 20

2.6 Carbohydrates content in wild edible fungi 22

2.7 Rber content on wild edible species globally 24

2.8 Minerals content on wild edible mushrooms 25

2.9 Vitamins content in wild edible mushroom 28

2.10 Usage of wild edible fungi globally as food 28

2.11 Medicinal properties of fungi 31

2.12 Pharmacological properties of edible fungi 32

2.13 Mechanism of actions of some antioxidants in different disease 36

2.14 Types of tea commercially available in Malaysia 48

2.15 Processes for the preparation of fermented tea, non-fermented tea 50 and semi-fermented tea

2.16 Names of common grades of leaf in descending order of particle size 52

3.1 Pleurotus ponigens tea with different time of fermentation in tea 55 making process

3.2 Concentration (ppm) for each element measured by AAS 69

4.1 Extraction yield (%), ECso values and antioxidant contents of 83 different solvent extracts of dried powder of Pleurotus porrigens

4.2 Principal component loadings of the variables for different solvent 87 extracts of dried powder of Pleurotus ponigens

xv

Continue TABLE TITLE PAGE

4.3 ECso values and phenolics contents of water extracts of mushroom 93 tea with different time of fermentation

4.4 Principal component loadings of the variables for water extracts of 95 mushroom tea with different time of fermentation

4.5 Yield of Pleurotus pomgens tea Infusions with different infusing time 97 and temperature of water

4.6 ECso values and phenolics contents of mushroom tea infusions with 109 different infusing time and temperature of hot water

4.7 Principal component loadings of the variables for mushroom tea 111 infusions with best infusing time for each temperature of water

4.8 Proximate chemical composition (g/1OO g) of dried powder, 113 fermented tea and tea infusions of Pleurotus ponigens

4.9 Mineral content (mg/kg of dry weight) of dried powder, fermented 116 tea and tea infusions of Pleurotus ponigens

4.10 Vitamins content (JJg/100 g of dry weight) of dried powder, 117 fermented tea and tea infusions of Pleurotus ponigens

4.11 Yield, ECso values and phenolics contents of Pleurotus ponigens tea 123 infusions with addition of soluble solids

4.12 Principal component loadings of the variables for mushroom tea 124 infusions with addition of solubJe solids

4.13 ECso values and phenolics contents of infusions of Pleurotus 129 ponigens tea, SOH black tea and Sabah black tea

4.14 Principal component loadings of the variables for infusions of 131 mushroom tea, BOH black tea and Sabah black tea

4.15 Sensory quality of infuSions of Pleurotus ponigens tea, Sabah black 132 tea and SOH black tea

xvi

UST OF SYMBOLS

Symbol a Alpha

% Percentage

°C Celcius

g Gram

L Uter

mg Milligram

min Minutes

ml Milliliter

mM milimolar

N Normality

n Number

nm nanometer

ppm Parts per million

s second

wt weight

xvii

UST OF ABBREVIAnONS

Abbreviation BHT Butylated Hdroxytoluene

B1 Thiamine

B1 Riboflavin

C Ascorbic acid

Ca Caldum

EtOAc Ethyl acetate

EtCH Ethanol

Fe Iron

Ha Hydrochloric add

H2O Water

K Potassium

MeOH Methanol

Mg Magnesium

NaOH Sodium hydroxide

PE Petroleum ether

Zn Zinc

xviii

UST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE A Photos of fresh and dried mushroom, mushroom tea powder, 163

mushroom tea infusions and mushroom tea bags

B Oatas for figures 166

C SPSS 171

o Regression lines of OPPH and beta carotene bleaching assays 174

E Standard curve of trolox, ion Fe2+, galliC add, thiamine, 175 riboflavin, ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol and rutin

F Sensory test 179

xix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUcnON

Traditional food resources have been proven inadequate in providing solution to the

protein requirements of the ever increasing wond population. Meat, which is one of

the major sources of protein, is becoming expensive and a large proportion of the

developing countries are unable to include it in their diet (Chang, 2006b). In most of

the low income homes where protein intake from meat is almost impossible, it is

largely substituted by wild edible mushroom protein (Agrahar-Murugkar and

Subbulakshimi, 200S). According to Chang and BushweU (2008), the protein content

of mushrooms has been reported to be half that of soybeans, same as wheat and

twice that of cabbages and onion. It is not surprising therefore that Bernas et al

(2006), reported that the increased demand for wild edible mushrooms could be

contingent upon the phenomenal rise in the unit costs of the conventional sources of

animal proteins such as beef, pork, chicken and fish. Hence, wild edible mushroom

can act as supplementary food for poorer people and vegetarian since it contains 5-

10% proteins on a dry weight basis (Chong et aI., 2007) besides almost fat free

(Barros et a/., 2oo7c). Due to the low fat content, edible mushrooms are

recommended as good food supplement for patients with cardiac problems (Chang,

2006a). Furthermore, edible mushroom has been reported to be low in calories and

sodium (Undequist et aI., 2005), a good source of fiber (Okwulehie et aI., 2007),

vitamins B complex (Bernas et al, 2006), vitamin D (Sadler, 2003) and essential

minerals such as potassium, selenium, copper and phosphorus (Chang and Miles,

2004).

Apart from this, edible mushrooms have been reported to have various health

benefits such as immune-modulating, antioxidative, cholesterol-reducing, anti­

bacterial and anti-parasitic effect (Manzi et aI., 2004; Cristina et aI., 2005; Barros et

aI., 2007d). Existence of these pharmacological properties are due to presence of

polysaccharides in mushroom such as lentinan in Lentinula edodes, schizophyllan in

Schziphyllum commune, Polysaccharides-K (PSK) and Polysaccharopeptide (PSP) in

Trametes veJSicolor(Smith st al, 2002). Besides, wild edible mushrooms also help to

prevent diseases such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, hypoglycemia, inflammation and

thrombosis (Undequist st a/., 200S; Okwulehie et a/., 2007). According to Jose et al.

(2004) and Ribeiro et a/. (2006b), the presence of dehydrotrametenolic acid,

ergosterol, ergosterol peroxide, lentinacin, lentysine of mushroom contributes the

medicinal properties, such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammation and anti-thrombosis.

Mushrooms accumulate a variety of secondary metabolites, including phenolic

compounds, polyketides, terpenes and steroids (Mahfuz et aI., 2007). Some studies

have been carried out to evaluate the antioxidant activity of some wild edible

mushrooms, which its activity is well correlated with their total phenolic content

(Barros et a/., 2007b). The antioxidative and free radical scavenging properties of the

phenolic content of mushroom methanolic extracts have been reported, suggesting

possible roles of these compounds, due to their ability to capture metals, inhibit

lipoxygenase and scavenge free radicals (Mau et aI., 2004). Wild edible mushrooms

are considered to be a good source of phytochemicals groups, such as p­

hydroxybenzoic acid and quercetin in phenolics citric; malic, quinic, oxalic, succinic,

fumaric & shikimic acid in organic acids; anthocyanins, flavones and isoflavonoids in

flavonoids; and pyridine-piperidine, quinoline & steroidal in alkaloids (Barros et al

2008; Ribeiro et a/., 2008). RecentJy, antioxidant properties of wild edible

mushrooms on Amanita rubescens, C8ntharellus cibarius, Hypholoma fasciculare,

Lepisti1 nuda, Lycoperdon molle, Lycoperdon periatum, Ramaria botrytis, Russula

cyanoxantha, Suillus granulates and Tlicholoma acerbum from Portugal, Boletus

edulis, J.i1d:iJrius detenimus, Suillus collitinus, Xerocomus d7rysenteron from Turkey

on determination of total phenolics, total flavonoids, Iycopene, alkalOids, ascorbic

acids, 6-carotene and evaluation of its antioxidant activity by using 6-carotene or

linoleic acid, DPPH free scavenging, lipid peroxidation inhibition, metal chelating

activities and reducing power have been done (Barros et aI., 2008; Cengiz st aJ.,

2008; Ribeiro et aI., 2008).

Mushrooms have been used as food and food-flavoring material in soups and

sauces traditionally, due to their unique and subtle flavor (Manzi et a/., 2004). Due to

its potential benefits of health to human body, mushrooms products such chicken

2

essence from Cordyceps sinensis, Lentinula edodes in instant mushroom soups mix

and Ganoderma lucidum coffee are available in the market. Application of mushroom

into neutraceuticals food such as mushrooms extracts and mushroom tablets also

becomes consumer's attraction according to Chang and Bushwell (2008). Researches

on fermented wild edible mushroom, Flammulina velutlpes from Japan in beer

brewing (Okamura et aI., 2001), and study of nutritional properties of some edible

wild mushrooms in Sabah have been done (Chong et al, 2007). But, there were still

lack of research on antioxidant activity of wild edible mushroom (Pleurotus ponigens)

in Sabah, besides processed of mushroom into tea product can prolong shelf-life of

mushroom, and retained the desirable nutritional and antioxidative quality in

mushroom. In addition, there was still lack of mushroom products in the market and

mushroom. This leads to reasons to conduct study in the nutritional value and

antioxidative quality of Pleurotus porrigens tea.

Specific objectives of the study were:

1) To determine the solvent extract that gave best antioxidant properties of

dried powder of Pleurotus porrigens.

2) To determine the effect of time on fermentation to aroma and antioxidant

properties of Pleurotus ponigens tea. 3) To investigate the effect of temperature of water and duration of infusing

time to the nutritional value and antioxidant properties of Pleurotus porrigens

tea infuSions.

4) To determine the influence of milk and sucrose to the antioxidant properties

of Pleurotus porrigens .

5) To access the acceptability and antioxidant properties of Pleurotus porrigens

tea infuSion as compared to market tea infusion.

3

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Mushroom Biology

Fungi play an important role in many aspects of our daily lives. The best-known

antibiotic 'Penicillin' is from the fungal mould, Penicillium. It was first extracted in

1928 and is now universally used as an agent against bacterial infections (Om aye,

2004). Other antibiotics produced from Fungi indude 'Calvac/n', 'Cephalosporin', and

'Griseofulvin' (Pegler, 1997). Many wild mushrooms are edible but some are

poisonous (Sadler, 2003). According to Chang & Bushwell (2008), almost all edible

fungi are saprophytes.

Fungi are composed of thin filaments, which called hyphae are tubular and

microscopial, generally about 3-10 thousands of one milimetre (mm) wide, with the

walls made of chitin (Reygadas et aI., 1995). The body or thallus of a fungus consists

of a network of hyphae (one-cell-wide fungal filaments) or rhizomorphs (bundles of

hyphae) extending into the substrate that it colonizes (Kalae, 2009). Collectively, a

network of hyphae is called a mycelium and a fungus individual may be referred to

as a myeetia colony. Spindle pole bodies, not centrioles, usually are associated with

the nuclear envelope during cell division (Undequist et al, 2005). The characteristic

wall components are chitin (beta-1, + linked homopolymers of N-aeetylgluc;osamine

in microcrystalline state) and glucans primarily alpha-glucans (alpha-1, 3- and alpha-

1,6- linkages) (Chae et aI., 2006).

Mushrooms can be grouped into four categories, those which are edible

mushroom category, for example Agaricus bisporus (Button mushroom), medidnal

mushrooms, such as Ganodennalucidum (Reishi or Ling-Zhi), poisonous mushrooms,

for example, Amanita phal/oides (Death cap), and a miscellaneous category which

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