Colegio Dominico Americano

Guarina Molina Vargas

10B

World History

Quarter Project Research Paper

The Expansion of the Muslim World: 1300 – 1700

Mr. Octavio Landolfi

Friday, December 11, 2009

1

Table of Contents

Introduction 3

1) Ottoman Empire 4

i) Origins 4

ii) Expansion 5

iii) Suleyman “the Lawgiver” 6

iv) Ottoman State 7

v) Ottoman Empire as a Muslim State 8

vi) Fall of the Ottoman Empire 9

2) Safavid Empire 11

i) Origins and beginnings of the Empire 11

ii) Abbas the Great: greatest of the Safavid monarchs 12

iii) Nadir Shah Afshar’s Rule 13

iv) Fall of the Safavid and division of spiritual and political authorities 13

3) Mughal Empire 15

i) Origins of the Empire and first emperors

15

ii) Akbar the Great’s reign 16

a. Akbar’s cultural affliction 16

b. Akbar’s military conquests 16

iii) Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb Alamgir

17

iv) Decline of the Empire 17

v) Influence of the Mughal Empire on the Indian Subcontinent 18

Conclusion 19

2

Bibliography 21

Annex 24

Introduction

Islam is one of the main religions of the world, with approximately 1.5 billion followers

worldwide. Muslim history involves several periods of time that go from its foundation by the

prophet Muhammad in the 7th century, to present-day conflicts with other religions. Like most of

the world’s religions, the development of Islam has had cultural, political and economic impact

on the areas imposed. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the three major Muslim empires

aroused: the Ottomans, who conquered the Middle East, northern Africa and the Balkans; the

Safavid Empire in Iran; and the Mughal in South Asia. These three imperial powers developed

under the control of magnificent rulers, but by the 19th century all three had declined.

3

The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire is today known as the Turkish Empire, or simply Turkey. The

empire was formed in 1299 and officially ended in 1923, when Turkey was claimed a republic.

This empire was located at the center of interactions between the Western and Eastern worlds for

about six centuries. With Constantinople as its capital city and control of the lands of the east

Mediterranean, the Ottoman Empire became the Islamic second of the Byzantine Empire. The

growth period in Ottoman history is divided into two clear-cut eras: the era preceding 1566,

which was of territorial, economic and cultural growth and the following era, which was of

political and military deterioration1.

Origins

By the 1300s, the Byzantine Empire was in decline and the Mongols had destroyed the

Turkish kingdom of Rum, a small Turkish state that occupied land between the Byzantine

Empire and the Muslims. When Rum was destroyed, Turkish Anatolia was divided into

independent states called Ghazi Emirates, and Anatolian Turks saw themselves as Ghazis, which

meant “Warriors of Islam”.

One of these Ghazi Emirates was lead by Osman, who was one of the most successful

ghazi. Western people called him Othman and his followers were called Ottomans, which is

where the “Ottoman” name of the empire comes from. Osman was considered a very adequate

and important leader; during his period, a formal Ottoman government was created, and its

institutions would change over the span of the empire. After Osman’s death, Ottoman control

spread to parts of the East Mediterranean and the Balkan Peninsula. In 1387, the Venetians

captured the city of Thessaloniki in Greece, and two years later the Turkish success at the Battle

of Kosovo marked the end of Serbian power in the region. Both events opened doors for

Ottoman expansion in Europe. Having control of the Balkans, the conquest of Constantinople

was a crucial objective.

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire

4

Expansion

The second Ottoman leader, Osman’s son Orhan I, was the first to declare himself

“sultan”, which meant “the overlord”. In 1361, the Ottomans captured the second most important

city of the Byzantine Empire, Adrianople. In 1402, the Ottomans moved their capital to the city

of Edirne in Europe, where they attempted the last great invasion of Constantinople, the

Byzantine Empire's capital. At the time, Constantinople was very strong, defeating all kinds of

invasions, but the Ottomans were decided to break this cycle. Finally in 1453, Mehmed II, also

called “the Conqueror” accomplished the most drastic conquest of Ottoman history capturing

Constantinople at the age of 21. He renamed the city Istanbul and from that point on this would

be the capital of the Empire, whose patronage made it one of the most cultured and wealthy cities

of the modern world. Mehmed II also claimed the tile of Kayser-i-Rum, which meant Roman

Emperor.

The conquest of Constantinople gave the empire the status of the chief power in

southeastern Europe and eastern Mediterranean and had a huge effect on Christian Europe. One

of the surprising effects was the migration of scholars from the new empire to Italy, where they

had a big influence in driving the Renaissance and which caused an increasing trade in the east.

Even though the Pope demanded a crusade to recapture the city from the Muslims, the Christian

nations didn’t form an army for him and no attempt of recapturing the city was made. The

Muslim control on Constantinople and its trading center pressured the Western nations to find

new ways to the East, which led to the Columbus’, Magellan’s and Drake’s expeditions.

It was during this time that the empire entered the period of conquest and expansion

mentioned above, expanding its borders into Europe and North Africa as well. Conquests on land

were driven by the disciplined and innovatory Ottoman military, whose success was based on the

use of gunpowder. On sea, expansion was significantly aided by the Ottoman navy, which also

protected sea going trading routes.

Part of the Empire's growth was also due to its military alliances with other nations. By

the mid 1500s, the Ottoman Empire entered into military alliance with France, the Dutch

Republic and the Kingdom of England against Italy, Habsburg Spain and Habsburg Austria.

5

Moreover, the empire was able to prosper due to its line of committed and effective sultans. One

of these was Selim I, also called Selim the Grim, Mehmed's grandson who came to power in

1512. He expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers and established Ottoman rule in

Egypt. Selim also took responsibility of Mecca and Medina before taking Cairo, which was the

intellectual center of the Muslim world. However, the most prominent figure of the Ottoman

history was Sultan Suleyman, who built from the conquests of his father a great city, military

machine, empire, and culture2.

During Suleyman’s reign, the empire reached its maximum size and augustness. He was known

by his people as Suleyman the Lawgiver, although people in the west call him Suleyman the

Magnificent.

 

Suleyman “the Lawgiver”

As a matchless military leader, Suleyman conquered many areas, including the important

city of Belgrade in 1521. Afterward, he conquered southern and central parts of the Kingdom of

Hungary and established Ottoman rule into present day Hungary and Austria, which threw

central Europe into panic. During his reign, the cities of Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia

became principalities of the empire. The Ottomans also took the eastern territory of Baghdad,

which they gained from the Persians in 1535. This gave them control over Mesopotamia and

naval access to the Persian Gulf. Under the reign of Selim and Suleyman, the empire reached a

population of about 15,000,000 people, and became a dominant naval force, since it controlled

most of the Mediterranean.

In Islamic history, Suleyman is seen as the perfect ruler, having all the characteristics

necessary to be a successful leader. Named after Solomon, he is seen as a second Solomon as

well. Suleyman had many titles; in inscriptions, he called himself3:

Slave of God, powerful with the power of God, deputy of God on earth, obeying the commands of the Qur'an and enforcing them throughout the world, master of all lands, the shadow of God over all nations, Sultan of Sultans in all the lands of Persians and Arabs, the propagator of Sultanic law, the tenth Sultan of the Ottoman Khans, Sultan, son of Sultan, Suleyman Khan.

2 http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/OTTOMAN1.HTM3 Several titles assumed by Suleyman the Magnificent and description he placed on inscriptions himself.

6

Slave of God, master of the world, I am Suleyman and my name is read in all the prayers in all the cities of Islam. I am the Shah of Baghdad and Iraq, Caesar of all the lands of Rome, and the Sultan of Egypt. I seized the Hungarian crown and gave it to the least of my slaves.

- Suleyman

Despite not being very humble (he also called himself “master of the lands of Caesar and Alexander the great”), he believed that the entire world was a gift of God.

Ottoman State

The Ottoman Sultan also took the title of Caliph of Islam. The Ottomans claimed this title

for several reasons, including that the two major Muslim holy sites, Mecca and Medina, were

part of the Empire and that the government’s main goal was to secure Muslims around the world.

As Caliph, the Sultan was responsible for Muslim orthodoxy4. Also, almost all of the

annexations of other countries and military conquest were done with the purposes of

guaranteeing the safe passage of Muslims to Mecca (which they used as the justification for

invading non-Muslims territories) and removing heretical Islamic practices and beliefs

(justification for invading Muslim territories).

Absolute power was the core of Ottoman government, since they thought that only if

holding absolute power could the ruler guarantee justice for all, since he would not depend on

others or be subject to corruption. Historians can’t agree on how the Sultanate was passed from

generation to generation. Some believe that it was passed from father to eldest son and in other

cases to the brother of the sultan. The Ottomans’ hereditary system did not seem based on

primogeniture or seniority5. However, the Turkish and Mongols believed that the crown should

be of the most worthy inheritor; the Ottomans seemed to have a similar system. When a sultan

died, the crown was believed to fall to the most worthy successor, which was almost always the

first son.

The Ottomans thought that the act of succession was enough to prove that the Sultan was

worth his title, but if the Sultan became corrupt or grew old he would lose his value as a ruler.

The Ottomans also followed the Turkish tradition of having the entire Sultan’s land to be of his

family as well. Even though the Sultan was seen as the main responsible for all government

decisions, the government was actually run by a large bureaucracy which was controlled by a

4http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/ORIGIN.HTM

5 Primogeniture: crown passes to eldest son; seniority: crown passes to the next oldest brother.

7

strict set of rules which were applied even to the Sultan himself. The most powerful figure of the

government was the Grand Vizier, who oversaw all functions of the government.

The Ottoman Empire as a Muslim State

Ottomans were extremely tolerant of different religious beliefs. The Empire was Muslim, but

they did not force their religion on their subjects, because one of the Islamic principles was the

acceptance of other monotheistic religions. Christians and Jews in the empire prayed on their

own churches or synagogues, as well as teacher their religion on their own schools and

seminaries. However, in various places non-Muslims were restricted in particular ways. The

most important of these regulations is the special tax called the jizya, which only Jews and

Christians were required to pay, and which Muslims did not pay.

For the majority of Christians and Jews, accepting Muslim rule came as a benefit. The

Byzantine leaders who ruled the Middle East before the Arab conquest often persecuted

Christians for having non-Orthodox beliefs, but to the Muslims all Christians were simply

Christians, and not subjects of persecution.

In the Ottoman Empire, religious tolerance became the basis for government. In most

Christian states of the time, only one form of religion was accepted. But this did not happen in

Ottoman domains, where many forms of Christianity flourished. The members of each religious

group often associated with members of their same group. So, the Ottomans organized their

government life around divisions. Each millet6 had its own welfare system, schools and courts. If

the central government had to provide for these courts, schools and welfare establishments of

each of the millets, taxes would've had to been raised, and members of the millets would've been

restless about the costs and the loss of their communal control and over their own lives. So

overall, it was a good system for everyone.

Despite having systems and being extremely benevolent, Ottoman religious toleration was

not perfect. As the Ottoman Empire being a Muslim state, they gave preference to Muslims in

most parts of their government, and they felt more part of the state than Christians did. The

sultan, or head, of the Ottoman Empire had to be a Sunni Muslim, just like the king of England

has to be an Anglican Christian.

6 Millet: religious community

8

Fall of the Ottoman Empire

Regardless of Suleyman's transcendent achievements in the empire, the Ottoman started

losing ground. Historians blame this on his third son Selim II, who inherited the throne in 1566,

after Suleyman’s death. Suleyman is also to blame. He established the pattern with which later

sultans will gain and hold power.

  By the end of his life, Suleyman, broken by the absence of his two elder favorite sons,

withdrew into his palace and handled the running of the government to his Grand Vizier. This

was the example set with his son. It also became a custom for the sultans to have their brothers

strangled and to keep their sons prisoners and deprived of education and contact with the world,

which raised incompetent sultans.

  Suleyman abandoned the tradition that all his previous Ottoman Sultans had followed:

raising their sons to become Sultans. Although Selim II only ruled for eight years, he set the

paradigm for the next two centuries and the great empire.

Islamic historians blame growth in bureaucratic power and the incompetence and

disinterest of the Sultans as the cause of the decline of the empire. Western historian, point to

decline in the bureaucracy and the high military efficiency of European military power as the

main reason for the same.

Since the Sultanate institution was falling apart, power went to the Janissaries, which was

the military branch of government. The Janissaries took over the military and administrative

posts of the government and later passed their offices to their sons, which in some way

resembled the Sultanates. By this time, position in Ottoman government was determined by

hereditary, which caused the efficiency of the administration and bureaucracy to decline.

Ottoman decline was more pronounced during the 1700s. The two aspects of this decline were

the brutal population increase and their refusing to modernize.

  The 17th and 18th centuries were periods of prosperity to the empire, which caused its

population to double. This produced unemployment and shortage of food, because the economic

resources could not sustain such a large population.

European expansion also affected the Ottoman Empire and contributed to its fall. The

empire's wealth was in most part due to their trade routes. The empire held these in most of the

continents: Africa, Asia, India, and Europe. When the expansion started, European nations

9

created new trade routes that bypassed Ottoman territories, causing large amounts of revenue to

disappear from the economy.

  Moreover, the Ottomans were not industrializing the same way Europeans were during

that period. By industrialization we mean the complete modernization of labor practices. The

Ottomans maintained their old practices. The trade relation between the Europeans and Ottomans

also affected the economy. Europeans bought only raw materials from the Ottomans, and

shipped back finished products which were manufactured in Europe. These products were

produced with new, industrial methods, which made them much cheaper than the same products

produced in the Ottoman Empire. This praxis destroyed the Ottoman craft industries during the

late 18th and 19th centuries.

 

Although this paper covers the history of the empire until the 18th century, it is to mention that

the Ottoman Empire did not end officially until the November 1st 1922. That year, the Ottoman

sultanate was eliminated and Turkey was declared an official republic. The Ottoman caliphate

remained as an institution with reduced authority until its abolition on March 3rd 1924.

 

The Safavid Empire

10

The Ottomans had been the most powerful empire of the Islamic world, until the 1500s

when competition emerged from India and Persia. In 1501, the Safavid Empire was established

in Persia by Ismail I and lasted until its defeat by Afghan invaders in 1722. Even though it was

the shortest of the three Islamic empires, it was influential due to its remaining Shi’a Islam as the

official religion. The Safavid were one of the most important dynasties in Iran and they marked

one of the most important turning points in Muslim history. The Safavid origin goes to the

“Safawiyyah”7, which was established in the Azerbaijan region of Iran. From their base, the

Safavid had control of all Persian and imposed their Iranian identity in the region, becoming the

first inbred dynasty since the Sassanids to unify Iran as a state. Even though it was inspired by a

strong religious faith, the Safavid Empire was able to build a strong central government and

administration. They benefited mainly of their geographical position at main trade routes of the

world and became rich from the trade between Europe and central India and Asia.

Origins and beginnings of the Empire

In the beginning, the Safavid were participants of a Muslim religious brotherhood named

after their founder, Sari al-Din. However, it was one of his descendants Ismail I, who actually

founded the empire around the year 1500.

Ismail I rose to leadership and proclaimed himself Shah. As a child, he had been tutored

by a Shiite, which may have influenced his choice of making Shi’a the official religion of the

Empire. Before this happened, Ismail had been involved in several battles in order to consolidate

his rule and to gain territory for the Safavid. During his conquest, Ismail had the support of

Qizibalsh, which were Turkish warriors who lived in present-day Iran.

However, the settling of the Safavid Empire that existed for the next 200 years dates to

the defeat of the Aq-Qoyunlu in 1501. After this, Ismail considered himself the ruler of his own

Islamic empire and began to claim territory for this empire. In 1507 he began attacking Ottoman

lands in Asia Minor, which created conflict between these two states.

Ismail was a religious oppressor. Any citizen living in the empire who did not convert to

Shi'ism was sentenced to death. He also exterminated the Sunni population of Baghdad during

7 Sufi order founded by the Persian mystic Sheikh Safi al-Din of Ardabil. It held a prominent place in the society and politics of northwestern Iran in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; it is best known for having given rise to the Safavid dynasty.

11

his confrontation with the Ottomans. As a consequence, the Ottoman leader Selim the Grim

ordered the killing of all Shiite living in the Ottoman Empire.

  Their final battle was the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Using heavy weapons, the

Ottomans defeated the Safavid. As a result, the borders between the two empires were

established, which are also the present-day borders separating Iran and Iraq.

When Ismail died in 1524, he was succeeded by his son Tahmasp I, of only 10 years old.

Tahmasp ruled for 52 years and during his period, the state changed from the theocratic8 rule

imposed by Ismail to a more secular administration, in which the shah was not only viewed in

religious ways but also as a political monarch. At Tahmasp’s death, he was his son Ismail II

came to power. Many historians see Ismail II’s brutality as a sign of dementia. His plans of

returning the Empire to Sunnism made him assassinate most of his relatives and followers. The

next ruler was Muhammad I, who was given a coup d'état by his son Abbas at the age of 16.

Abbas the Great: greatest of the Safavid monarchs

Shah Abbas, also called Shah the Great, was probably the greatest of Safavid monarchs.

During his reign, the Safavid culture developed and the Golden Age took place. He came to

power when he was 16 years old, in 1587. Abbas ameliorated features of both the military and

civilian life. He established two armies who would be loyal to him. One of these armies was

Persians, while the other one was of Christian recruits and who were trained after the Ottoman

janissaries. He paid close attention to military affairs because his goal was to regain Safavid

lands that had been lost. He also reformed the government as well, by punishing corruption and

rewarding loyal and competent officials.

Many Europeans moved to the region, since Abbas brought Christians into the empire in

order to convince these Europeans that the empire was religiously tolerant. Abbas had hundreds

of Chinese artisans to come to the city of Esfahan, the empire's new capital. Along with Safavid

artists, these artisans produced glasswork, pottery, miniature painting, etc. This practice led to a

blend between Chinese and Persian cultures.

One of the most important outcomes of Western influence in the Safavid, was probably

the inquiry for Persian carpets, who initially reflected traditional Persian subjects.

8 Form of government in which God or a deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler, the God's or deity's laws being interpreted by the ecclesiastical authorities.

12

Abbas' empire transformed an almost-collapsed empire to one of the three major Islamic Empires

of the 17th century. Abbas involved the Safavid in European diplomacy and trade. The Empire’s

strategic location and its displeasure towards the Ottomans created high European interest. Shah

Abbas received several European charges and with the help of the English, he subjugated

Hormoz, a Portuguese colony at the Persian Gulf.

Nadir Shah Afshar’s Rule

Abbas' descendants caused the decline of this empire. This would be due because Abbas

made the same mistake as Suleyman: he killed or blinded his ablest sons when finding a

successor. He did this in fear that one of his sons would dethrone him, the same way he had

done to his father. Later in 1736, Nadir Shah Afshar, a former slave who had become a military

leader, rose to power. In 1729, he defeated the Afghans, in the battle of Damghan Nadir Shah

defeated the Afghans in the Battle of Damghan, in 1729. He had completely driven out the

Afghans, who were still occupying Persia, by 1730. In 1738, Nadir Shah recaptured Afghanistan

starting with the city of Kandahar. In the same year he occupied Ghazni, Kabul, and Lahore.

Later, he conquered territories as far as east as Delhi, but did not fortify his Persian base and

eventually, he exhausted his army's strength. He had effective control under Shah Tahmasp II

and then ruled as regent of the infant Abbas III until 1736, when he had himself crowned shah.

After Nadir's assassination by his own troops in 1747, the empire fell apart.

Fall of the Safavid and division of spiritual and political authorities

In the beginning, the Safavid Empire was held by conquering new territories and for its

need to defend itself from the Ottoman Empire. By the 17th century, the Ottoman threats to the

Empire had ceased, which caused their military forces to become less effective. Safavid Shahs

became confident, immoral and corrupt as a result of having their enemies quiet. After, power

passed to the Shi’a ulama, who were religious councils of the wise men, which eventually

overthrew the Shahs and affirmed the world’s first Muslim Republic of the 18 th century. In 1726,

an Afghan group destroyed the ruling dynasty; after, a power-division agreement was established

between these new Afghan Shahs and the Shi’a ulama. The Afghan Shahs now controlled the

foreign policies and states while the ulama remained with the control of religious practices,

reinforcing the Qur’anic Law in personal and family matters. By this period, the Empire was

13

disintegrating, situation that remained for the next two centuries. Feudal lords and bandits

ravaged it, which weakened the empire, leaving people with a wish of stability and a strong

central rule.

14

Mughal Empire

The Ottoman and Safavid Empires had emerged and succeeded in present-day Turkey

and Persia, but in India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever, and it ruled

over hundreds of millions of people. The Mughals established Islam in Southern Asia and spread

Muslim culture as well as their faith.

Origins of the Empire and first emperors

The foundation of the Mughal Empire dates to the early 1500s, when Babur, a Timurid9

prince, took control of the Doab10 and the regions of Khorasan11, which gave him control over the

lower valley of the Indus River.

Babur, descendant from Genghis Khan and Tamerlane, was the first of the Mughal

Emperor. He replaced his father as the ruler of the state of Farghana when he was twelve years

old. In 1504, Babur moved to Afghanistan after the invitation of some Indian princes who

intended to throw over his ruler. However, it was Babur who disposed of the ruler and took over.

In 1526, he captured the Turkic Ghur'iat Sultanate of Delhi, which helped him impose his rule in

Northern India. Babur confronted the Rajput12 confederacy, which was led by Rana Sanga at the

Battle of Khanwa.

Babur was succeeded by his son Hamayun in 1530, but lost most of the newborn

empire’s land before it could develop into at least a minor regional state. In 1540, Humayun

became a ruler in exile, and reached the Court of the Safavid rule in 1554. Meanwhile, his forces

still controlled small regions and fortresses. Humayun raised a mixed army and managed to

conquer Delhi in 1555, after the Pashtuns fell into a state of chaos and disorganization with Sher

Shah Suri’s death. Humayun and his wife crossed the Makran13 terrain, leaving their son

Jalaluddin behind in order to avoid him the tiring journey. Jalaluddin later became known as

Akbar the great.

9 The Timurids were the final great dynasty to emerge from the Central Asian steppe.10 "Tongue" or tract of land lying between two confluent rivers.[1]

11 is a modern term for a historical geographic region spanning north-eastern and east of Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,Tajikistan, western and northern Afghanistan and the North Western Areas of Pakistan12 A Rajput is a member of one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups of India. 13 semi-desert coastal strip in the south of Balochistan, in Iran and Pakistan, along the coast of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman.

15

Akbar the Great’s reign

Akbar was grandson of Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire. He was raised by his uncle

Askari after his parents (Humayun and his wife) left on a journey across the Makran. Growing

up in the town of Sindh, he became an excellent hunter, horseman and outdoorsman, learning the

arts of war.

Akbar’s cultural affliction

Akbar seceded his father on February 1556 at the age of thirteen, while in war with

Sikandar Shah Suri for Delhi’s throne. During his reign, he eliminated threats from the Sher

Shah Suri’s descendants and defeated the Hindu king Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat. His

ruling had a great influence in the region’s art and culture, since Akbar took great interest in

painting. He also encouraged the development of Mughal schools, and was a patron of European

art. He appreciated literature, and had several of the Sanskrit works of the empire translated into

Persian. He also accredited many buildings and was the first to invent prefabricated homes.

Akbar also started debates where Muslim scholars would discuss religious matters with

Portuguese Roman Catholic Jesuits, Sikhs and Hindus. He also founded the religious cult Din-i-

llahi which meant divine faith, but it was some kind of personality cult, and it dissolved shortly

after his death.

Akbar’s military conquests

Since the beginning of his ruling, Akbar decided to eliminate the Sher Shah’s dynasty,

which represented a threat by leading a strong army to the strongest of all, Sikandar Shah Suri,

who meant no preoccupation to Akbar since he removed himself from territory as Akbar came

nearby. However, the Hindu king Hemu, who commanded the Afghan forces, defeated the

Mughal army on October 6 1556, capturing Delhi. With the capturing of Delhi, Akbar was

advised to move to Kabul, which was safer. However, pushed by Brairam Khan, Akbar moved

on to proclaim Delhi. Akbar’s victory over Delhi left him with over 1500 war elephants which

used to siege other territories. With this, the Punjab14 was added to the Mughal Empire. Before

returning to Agra, Akbar sent part of his army to Raja Kapur Chand to capture the kingdom. By

1560, Akbar had annexed the kingdoms of Gwalior, Rajputana and Jaunpur.

14 Cultural region straddling the border between Punjab, Pakistan and Punjab, India.

16

Akbar later continued to expand the Mughal Empire by annexing neighbor kingdoms. His

next major conquest was Malwa in 1561, which an expedition led by Adham Khan. In the

decades following the seizing of Malwa, Akbar brought present-day Bengal, Gujarat and

Rajasthan under his domain.

Later in his life, Akbar came up with religion based on tolerance with views of both

Hinduism and Islam. This religion did not turn very popular after his death; it is still remembered

for its intentions of bringing people together.

Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb Alamgir

The son of Akbar, Jahangir, ruled the empire from 1605 to 1627. At his death in 1627, his

son, Shah Jahan, inherited the throne and a rich and vast empire as well. By the middle of the

century, this was probably the greatest empire in the world. It was Shah Jahan who ordered the

construction of the famous Taj Mahal, who was built as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who

died while giving birth to his fourteenth child. At the approach of his death in 1658, his four sons

broke into a war for the succession. The two main competitors were Dara Shikoh and

Aurangzeb, who was favored by powerful men. Aurangzeb succeeded, and even though the

empire continued to expand, during the late 17th century it began to disintegrate.

Under Aurangzeb Alamgir’s leadership, the empire reached its maximum peak. By the

time, it had most parts of present day India, Pakistan and Afghanistan under its control. He was

the last of the “Great Mughal kings”.

Decline of the Empire

The empire began to fell in 1707, after Aurangzeb’s death. With Bahandur Shah I (his

son), the Mughal Emperors declined in power and became marionettes, controlled by the several

attendants and later by rising warlords. The Empire also suffered the attacks of invaders from

Persia and Afghanistan, who in several occasions sacked Delhi, the Mughal capital. The greatest

piece of the Empire’s territory in India went to the hands of the Marathas, who sacked Delhi and

turned the once powerful empire into a lone city.

17

Influence of the Mughal Empire on the Indian Subcontinent

One of the major contributions of the Mughal Empire to the Indian Subcontinent was its

architecture. Many of the monuments built by Muslim emperors including the mighty Taj Mahal

are examples of Mughal architecture. Other World Heritage Sites include the Red Fort and

Humayun’s Tomb. Many of the palaces and tombs built during the dynasty still stand today in

places such as Delhi, Kabul and Agra and in many other cities of Bangladesh, Afghanistan,

Pakistan and India. The Mughal period was the witness of the blending of Iranian, Indian and

Central Asian customs. The empire gave the present world contributions that went from the

imperialistic government that united small kingdoms to landscape gardening to new trade routes

in Arab and Turkic lands.

Even though the Mughal rule included a wide spread territory into what is now

Afghanistan, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, their influence is still seen today.

18

Conclusion

The first of the Muslim empires to be discussed was the Ottoman Empire, which was

established around 1299 and located in a strategic position between the Eastern and Western

territories. It emerged from the establishment of Turkish principalities and was founded by

Osman I. The Ottomans were able to capture the important city of Constantinople, and in some

ways represented a Muslim replacement for the Byzantine Empire.

The next empire was the Safavid Empire, which was established by Ismail I in the

Persian Region. The Safavid Empire was influential in keeping the Shi’a Islam as the empire’s

official religion and was one of the most important Iranian dynasties. Despite being inspired by a

religious faith, they were able to develop a centralized government. Its geographic position

benefited them, making them a trade route between Europe and Central India.

These two empires, although counting with prepared and efficient rulers, were the first to

start the practice of fratricide15 and murdering their most capable children, some in fear of being

dethroned by them. Doing this was in most part, the cause of the decline of both empires, since

now they didn’t have able rulers to manage the empire.

The third and last of the empires was the Mughal, which rose in India and present-day

nations such as Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Pakistan. It was one of the greatest empires to

exist, and at some point of the 18th century, it was the world’s greatest empire. The Mughals

established Islam as their faith.

Another cause of the empire-declining, which affected the Empires, including the

Mughal, was the death of their ablest rulers; which left the empires in hands of people who were

not able to manage the empire as their previous rulers had.

All three empires were influential in the Muslim world and had an impact on the modern

world. Although most of them had declined by the mid-19th century, they remained as important

historical empires, whose influence in cultural aspects is still seen today. As we saw on the paper, all

three empires had outstanding rulers who helped them flourish and establish themselves as the

outstanding empires they became. Suleyman “the Lawgiver” on the Ottoman, Abbas the Great on the

15 Murder of brothers.

19

Safavid Empire and Akbar in the Mughal, helped the empire become what it was in the end, and are

considered the greatest rulers of their empires.

20

Bibliography

BBC Religions, the Ottoman Empire (1301 – 1922). 2004. BBC. Accessed on November

25th,2009.<http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/ottomanempire_1.shtml#sectio

n_3>

Turkish Toleration. 2000. Accessed on November 29th 2009.

<http://www.globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html>

Burak, Sansal. All About Turkey, t he Ottoman State and Government . 2000. Accessed on

November 29th. <http://www.allaboutturkey.com/ottoman2.htm>

Hooker, Richard. The Ottomans, 1999. Accessed on December 1st, 2009.

<http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/17TH.HTM >

Hooker, Richard. The Ottomans: Origins, 1999. Accessed on December 1st, 2009.

<http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/ORIGIN.HTM>

Wikipedia, the Ottoman Empire. 2009. Accessed on November 25th 2009.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire>

Wikipedia, Ruling Institution of the Ottoman, 2009. Accessed on November 26th, 2009.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruling_institution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire>

21

BBC Religions, the Safavid Empire (1501 – 1722). 2004. BBC. Accessed on November 30th,

2009.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/safavidempire_4.shtml>

Encyclopedia, the Safavid Empire. 2009. Accessed on December 5th, 2009

 <http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Safavid.aspx>

The Islamic World to 1600. Accessed on December 4th, 2009

<http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/safavid/safavid.html>

Wikipedia, Persianate. 2009. Assesed on November 30th, 2009.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persianate>

The Mughals. <http://sun.menloschool.org/~sportman/westernstudies/first/1718/2000/eblock/

mughal/ >

India Directory, Mughal Empire. Accessed on December 9th, 2009.

<http://india.mapsofindia.com/the-country/medieval-india/mughal-empire.html >

Manas: History and Politics, Mughals. Accessed on December 9th, 2009.

<http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html >

22

Wikipedia, Mughal Empire. 2009. Accessed on December 9th, 2009

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_ Empire >

Wikipedia, Doab. 2009. Accessed on December 10th, 2009.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doab >

Wikipedia, Thessaloniki. 2009. Accessed on December 10th, 2009.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki>

23

Annex

Map of the Ottoman Empire

Map of the Safavid Empire

24

Map of the Mughal Empire

25