HISTORY OF PHYSICAL

EDUCATION IN EUROPE

I

Leposavic, 2015.

1

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN

EUROPE

I

Leposavic, 2015.

2

Book:

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE

I

Editors:

Petar D. Pavlovic (Republic of Srpska)

Nenad Zivanovic (Serbia)

Branislav Antala (Slovakia)

Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, (Republic of Srpska)

Publishers:

University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and Physical

Education in Leposavic

FIEP Europe - History of Physical Education and Sport

Section

Authors:

Airikki Poussi (Finland)

Andi Spahi (Albania)

Amalia Tinto (Italy)

Arūnas Emeljanovas

(Lithuania)

Claude Scheuer

(Luxembourg)

Dean Qefalia (Albania)

Daiva Majauskienė

(Lithuania)

Dario Colella (Italy)

Dario Skegro (Croatia)

Dimitris Hatziharistos

(Greece)

Erzsébet Rétsági

(Hungary)

3

Florian Muca (Albania)

Gabriela Štěrbová

(Czech Republic)

Ilir Dojka (Albania)

Juel Jarani (Albania)

Kata Morvay-Sey

(Hungary)

Nenad Zivanovic

(Serbia)

Petr Vlcek (Czech

Republic)

Stefania Cazzoli (Italy)

Tamás Csányi

(Hungary)

Zrinko Custonja

(Croatia)

4

Reviewers:

Jela Labudova (Slovakia)

Nicolae Ochiana (Romania)

Veroljub Stankovic (Serbia)

Zoran Milosevic (Serbia)

Prepress:

Kristina M. Pantelic Babic

Printed by:

ABL PRINT, Mlynarovicova 5, Bratislava, Slovakia

Book-jacket:

Anton Lednicky

Circulation:

100 copies

ISBN 978-86-82329-52-7

NOTE: No part of this publication may be

reproduced without the prior permission of the

authors.

5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD - ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS .................... 8

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE ORGANIZATION AND

FUNCTIONING OF THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN

ALBANIA ..................................................................................................... 24

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CROATIA ........................... 39

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL

EDUCATION IN CZECH LANDS .............................................................. 58

THE ROOTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT SCHOOLS IN

FINLAND .......................................................................................... 72

ENACTMENT OF GREEK PHYSICAL EDUCATION -

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM (1835-1907) ................ 82

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUNGARIAN SCHOOL

PHYSICAL EDUCATION ........................................................................... 93

THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL IN ITALY -

FROM THE PROGRAMS TO THE NATIONAL GUIDELINES AND

PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING (PETE) ..................... 114

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE LITHUANIANS SCHOOL: SINCE

ITS ORIGIN TO THE END OF THE XX CENTURY ............................... 142

THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN LUXEMBOURG ...... 156

6

During one session of FIEP’s Section for history of Physical

Education and Sports held in Nis (Serbia) in 2014 originated the idea

and initiative for writing of History of Sports and Physical Education

in European countries. By exchange of views with present

colleagues, the idea was accepted. After consent of FIEP Europe’s

President Mr. Branislav Antala (Slovakia) regarding this matter,

during the following Section’s session the Commission for leading

this idea into realization was formed. Elected members of this

Commission were: Nenad Zivanovic, Petar D. Pavlovic, Branislav

Antala and Kristina Pantelic Babic. At the same session was decided

to start first with writing of History of Physical Education.

With the work of stated Commission members, National

Delegates and Assistant of National Delegate of FIEP Europe, as

also other associates from most European countries, this publication

on beginnings of development of Physical Education in European

countries’ schools was created. All manuscripts received for this

publication successfully passed review process. All FIEP Europe

National Delegates were informed about this project, and we

received 18 European papers implemented in this publication.

Besides, we also received a paper from Colombia about PE in Latin

America, which is an indicator of interest for this topic beyond

European borders.

We hope to include all European countries in following

publications, and also to go outside Europe in our close future.

Papers are sorted alphabetically by countries which participated in

this edition, with Colombian manuscript as a final one.

We thank all authors for being a part of this interesting

project, and looking forward to work together in the future.

With best regards,

EDITORS

7

FOREWORD

ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

Nenad Živanović, FIEP Europe, President of History of Physical

Education and Sport Section, Serbia.

When everything has its own time (Solomon), and one

should believe this to be so, then it is quite understandable that this

book on physical education and sport has awaited its time. Without

pretending that this is the final story of this beautiful theme, we

emphasize that it is only a part of our smart book (history) on

physical education and sport. From different sides and from different

angles perceived, our smart book on physical education and sport

perceives man and his desire to always be the best and excellent

among others (Homer) and constantly perceives physical exercise as

the beneficial food to man’s, primarily physical being (N.

Zivanovic). In different parts of the European continent, and in the

other parts of the world as well, man has been crossing the path of

developing its natural form of body movement - exercise all the way

to the derivative and modified forms. All this man has done in the

reverse direction, constantly returning to his natural forms of

movement - training. Of course, it has always been adapted and in

harmony with the social environment and social circumstances in

which he has lived.

However, we must point out one fact. Physical exercise, no

matter how it is defined, is not a subject that can be made and bought

in a store. Physical exercise is actually a man himself and his

movement, performed with the corresponding objective, not only to

develop or train some of his (motor) properties, but also because of

the emotional experiencing of such a movement - training. This fact

alone indicates the complex structure of man. His physical and

mental structure, consecrated by the Holy Spirit, makes him a

complete man, a personality - one, unique and unrepeatable.

Therefore, a physical exercise for him is a wholesome food essential

to his being.

8

At the heart of physical education is a man with all his

needs and desires. This man, as we have noted, has a need for

physical exercise, specific food that is essential to his, primarily

physical being. In fact, this man has a need for self-motion -

exercise. Therefore, when we talk about physical exercise and

physical exercising, we actually talk about the man himself. And this

man, searching for his identity, moves from the idea that a person is

one, unique and unrepeatable, to an individual – an atomized

individual who thinks he is self-sufficient. Thus, between these

extremes, a man wanders seeking, above all, himself and his

increasingly lost person. That is why education and, of course,

physical education is so important.

Education and physical education as well can be defined in

different ways. But it is not superfluous to recall that the term

upbringing (education) is an old Slavic word denoting feeding. Of

course, physical education as a part of general education ensures that

a physical exercise nourishes man. And from this simple fact derives

all the philosophy of physical education and sport, and it, among

other things claims: everything for a man, a man for nothing.

This philosophical idea draws its strength from the simple

fact that says life is the highest value obtained from the Creator and

noone, especially an educator, has the right to intentionally or

unintentionally, incur the collapse of these values. Hence, the

establishment of many schools, and in them the subject of physical

education, to make man stand up and show him all the values of life.

But, in all stages of life on the Earth, there were periods of ups and

downs of the human civilization and culture. Therefore, the time in

which we live should be considered taking into account this fact, and

in accordance with it we should try to find the best solutions. It is not

easy, but it is a sublime duty of the (real) experts and teachers.

It is interesting to recall the times of two hundred years ago.

Then, at the southern edge of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy a

Fruskogorskian monk Georgie, translating a V. K. Hufeld book

Macrobiotics, used a term physical education in the title of a chapter.

The book was translated into the Serbian language and published in

Budim in 1807.1 Before that, in these parts of Europe, different terms

1 More on this in: Milosevic, Z. and Berar M. Tracing the Term Physical Education, Physical

Education and Sport Through the Centuries, Vol.1, Iss. 1. 44–52.

9

denoting the organized forms of physical exercise, were used. The

most common terms used were the body exercises and gymnastics.

But this term physical education was exactly in line with the basic

meaning of education - and that is feeding. By means of the attribute

physical in this syntagm a type of food that is offered to a man,

regardless of his age, is highlighted. And that reflects a complete

pedagogical idea emanating from the basic philosophical ideas that

we have highlighted.

The Humanists

Turning towards man and his needs began in the mid-14th

century. The advent of the Humanism and the Renaissance in the

northern Italy established a new view of the world and of man in that

world. Scholars and leaders of the new movement were called the

Humanists. They had directed their learning towards the man (studia

humana) and had pointed to the humanity as a worthy decoration of a

free man.2 Such a radical shift and a break with the tradition of the

Middle Ages, whose role model was found in the legacy of the

ancient Greeks and Romans, was felt in relation to the physical

exercise, as well. Instead of generating the possibilities of the

organized physical exercise only for a selected group of (young)

people - knights, various forms of physical exercise were offered and

widely recommended to each and everyone. This urbi et orbi had

been accepted and a new wave of a tsunami force, had begun to

spread throughout Europe.

The leading humanists who spoke about education, have

always emphasized the importance of physical exercising. It was

2 Education and science that the Humanists took over from the priests and monks ceased to be the

"handmaiden of theology" and became a "teacher of life". In that school, as well as in the amended

environmental practices, one new man was formed. It was the man of this world who wanted to

live out his life to the fullest and improve the gifts with which he was endowed (so he thought) by

nature. To this and such a man ecstatic humanists sang the hymns. They tell him about his

"excellence" (exelenntia) and his "dignity" (dignitas). They equate him with God (quidem mortalis

deus) and encourage him to the comprehensive application of his own strength and quality (virtus),

the constant striving to be a "noble" and "free" (nobilitis et liber), and to achieve fame (laus). We

should now be able to add the competition, as well. After all, this is the motto of the EU, which is

written in its founding documents. This is so because with the neoliberal concept of planning and

management and the replacement of capitalism with the bankism (Gerald Selent), a Neohumanist

approach is quite possible. And, unfortunately, we are witnessing where it leads.

10

very important in the design of an educational system that included

various programs of physical exercise in their concept.3

3 It is appropriate, at least briefly to recall of the basic facts relating to these, for our profession,

significant people:

Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374) was the first who was able to show the culture of the ancient

Greeks and Romans. With his own money he has funded deciphering the Latin alphabet. His

name is linked to the humanistic movement in Italy.

Pietro Paolo Vergerio (1349-1420), in his treatise on the Education of the Master of

Padova’s son, stated as a topic of conversation: his character and discipline, free- open

minded learning, physical exercise, training in art (the art of) war, recreation. He pointed out

three allies: health, physical exercise and recreation, as well as the necessity of the

knowledge about health and all this he substantiated with many examples of the vigorous

physical exercise and recreational activities.

Vitorino de Feltre (1378-1446), followed the ideas of Greece and Rome on the importance

of physical exercise, but he stressed the importance of ball games, jumping and fencing. He

was declared the first teacher of the Renaissance as his program has well balanced the

physical, intellectual and moral education.

Aeneas Sylvius Picocomini (1405-1464) is one of the most important humanists who later

became the Pope. He claimed that the organism is indivisible and that the physical activity

helps the development of all human abilities.

Mafeus Vegius (1405-1458) believed that education should develop all of man's physical

and spiritual qualities. He especially emphasized the importance of health habits and

advocated that physical education should be free education, not to exceed in the extreme, but

to be approached as a good recreation activity.

Jakob Sadoleto (1477-1547) was the pope's secretary. But he wanted, following the model of

the ancient Greeks, to connect physical exercise and music. This was of great importance

because after many centuries this issue was given the proper attention.

Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) recommended physical activity for health. He was not

inclined to asceticism and complete specialization. He made a division of gymnastics into

the preventive and therapeutic ones. He believed that physical activities represent an integral

part of the free education.

Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) recommended physical exercise as part of the education of

children. He emphasized the importance of generous movements, but of these that will have

a positive impact in their lives. That is why he was against the creation of the athletes.

Martin Luther (1483-1546), was an enthusiasts who believed that physical training is of

great importance for the education of the youth. He was imbued with the idea of the

"muscular Christians" (Muscular Christianity). He recommended that music should be used

as a useful and beneficial activity, and fencing and wrestling were considered as beneficial

and healthy physical activities.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) believed that the games and sport were important for children

and youth. He felt that games and sport contained a certain degree of skills and that they

were very useful for the organism.

François Rabelais (1483-1553), a writer and doctor, can be called a classical humanist. He is

known for his works Gargantua and Pantagruel, in which he outlined his views on education.

In his program physical education occupies an important place, which is based on the seven

skills: wrestling, running, jumping, shooting, riding, and all types of military skills. Rabelais

described the exercises that are suitable for enclosed spaces (training rooms).

Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670) has by his practical and theoretical works contributed

most to the development of physical education. He has in his major works laid a solid

foundation of our profession. In the General Didactics (Didactica Magna) he presented his

views on education on the basis of the premise that "schools are not torture houses, nor

prisons as lunatics think, but places to play in". And then he conveyed another message:

"With prowess and not fraud to win". In his second book, The World in Photos (Orbis

11

These programs, encouraged by the new view on life and

man's place in society, had gradually diverged and were directed in

two independent directions. In the continental Europe the idea of the

gymnastic forms of physical exercise prevailed. In contrast to this

idea, in England, on the insular part of Europe, sport had won the

status of the leading idea in the organization of physical exercising.

This, of course, was conditioned by different social circumstances,

for which there had been so many different approaches to the forms

of physical exercising. The fact is that the utilitarian values of sport

and gymnastics, in such circumstances, have come into the limelight.

Egocentristic approach to sport and ethnocentric approach to

gymnastics were quite in line with the social circumstances.

Until the advent of the Reformation and later revivals that

took place, there were no substantial and concrete progress in the

organized physical exercising and its firmer inclusion in the school

system. Only with the appearance of John Amos Comenius and his

work (to make it more absurd – a post got as a punishment) in a

school in Saros Patok in Hungary, there came a turning point of the

immeasurable importance to physical education and sport. He was,

thanks to his work as well as the position of the principle of the

school, the first in the history of our profession, to award a physical

exercise (education) a place in the school curriculum, as well as the

time allotted in the teaching timetable. We now, in fact, inherit what

was done by Comenius in the mid-17th century. And when it comes

to his theoretical and practical work, even today he can serve as an

example of the serious and creative efforts to approach education

(also) as - feeding. His works, primarily the United didactics and

The World in Photos are the examples of the great foresights and

meticulousness, and are a good token of the times that are behind us.

Pictus), written in four languages he described all physical exercises and competitions then

known in Europe. This is an encyclopedic work, which is very important for the History of

physical education and sport. In addition to these important books, Comenius, as the director

of a school in Saros Patok, has alloted to the subject of physical education place and time

within the school curriculum. Thus, a subject of physical education has for the first time,

taken seriously and equalled with all other achool subjects (disciplines) that were taught in

school. (According to: Zivanovic, N. Contribution to the epistemology of physical

education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 147-154).

The other notable personalities for our profession, from the time of the Reformation, and later,

will be discussed in the framework of the Theory of the development of physical education and

sport.

12

Theories of the Physical Education and Sport

Development

Different theories of the physical education and sport

development4 have based their philosophy of development on the

goal (and mission) of the physical exercise. Each for themselves and

all together, during the tumultuous centuries that are behind us, they

have undergone various stages of development. This was caused by

different social circumstances in which they were created and

developed.

At the end of the 17th and the 18th century there have been

many revolutions, among which five of them have exerted a great

and decisive influence on the conception of social development.5

Then came the inevitable undermining of the "ancient regime" and

its subsequent marginalization.6

"The Ancient Regime" has undergone criticism and change

in education, as well. In the period of the enlightment the attitude of

the church and its control of education, emphasizing the study of the

history of the ancient times, theology, Greek and Latin languages,

were sharply criticized. New people, the philosophers, represented

the opinion that - modern history, new (live) languages, engagement

in science and, within that, in physical activities, should be studied,

instead. Prominent figures, important for the development of

physical education and sport as well are John Locke7 and Jean

Jacques Rousseau8. They were, indeed, by their educational and

4 According to: (1) Zivanovic, N: School sports from the perspective of the theo-

anthropocentrism. In. Bokan, B. and Radisavljević Janic (Ed.). International Scientific Conference,

Belgrade, "The effects of physical activity on the anthropological status of children, youth and

adults". Belgrade, 2012: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education; 112-117; (2) Zivanovic, N:

Contribution to the epistemology of physical education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 155–165. 5 The revolutions of the crucial influence on the development of social relations and the concept of

social life certainly are: scientific, agricultural, commercial or economic, industrial, democratic or

socialist ones. 6 The term the "ancient regime" is used by the French to describe religious, legal, socio-cultural

and economic institutions that prevailed in the Western Europe in the late 17th and 18th century,

because it was inconsistent with the new tendencies of the development. 7 John Locke (1632 - 1704) is one of the largest English philosopher of his time. His works, essays

on education, have influenced many teachers and political theorists. He qualified a newborn as a -

tabula rasa, who under the influence of education builds up and changes. This has resulted in many

teachers to start with a different observation of children. 8 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) was another important person of the "Age of the

enlightenment". He sharply attacked the current system, and his thoughts and messages about

education he presented in Emil, a work which is half a discussion and half a novel. His ideas on

13

journalistic work guidelines for further development of our

profession. Their numerous followers, Pestalozzi, Felenber,

Basedow, inspired by their work, have created the operating

principles and by their practical work have done much for the

development of physical education.

Theory of biocentrism

The theory of biocentrism dated back in the early 18th

century, when all the more pronounced were collisions of the old

and the new social relationships, old and new traditions, views of the

world and of man in this world. It has began to spread the notion that

man recognizes the natural impulsive moves and feels the need to

play, that he has discovered himself and his world through the

experiences, that its value is based in freedom, voluntariness and

natural forms of movement and exercising. This certainly is nothing

new, and not a new view of the world. But such ideas and thoughts

in the works of Locke and Rousseau, appeared to be new.

"It is a sad misconception that physical exercise is

detrimental to mental activity, as if both these operations could not

be carried out simultaneously, and as if one could not manage the

other".9 (3) Of course, this idea and the message for this time exuded

a new view of the man and his physical exercise. This novelty, to put

it plainly, was redolent of freshness of thought and for that social

moment, was a bold step taken towards a new era.

the new, progressive, education became the basis of many new educational programs in the mid

18th century. He believed that "constant, nature entirely similar exercises strengthen the body and

not only do they not dull the spirit but rather create a kind of reason capable of filial age, and that

every age is most needed. They teach us to know our strength, our body attitude towards the

bodies that surround us and the use of natural tools that are within our grasp and which correspond

to our organs." Such an attitude towards education and, of course, physical education stems from

his attitude - that all is the good that comes from the hands of the Creator, and by human hands is

corrupted. Therefore, he advocates a new approach to education and a return to nature. Because of

that his Emil prefers to climb the hills like a goat to jumping in the salon like a monkey following

the directions of the gallantry. Z. Z. Rousseau was among the first to raise the issue of the

education of girls. However, this education is different and appropriate to the creating of a good

housewife and a kind of decoration of the house. In the education of girls there are religious and

aesthetic education and skills. The rest of the education complements a husband at his own

discretion. Great attention he has devoted to the play. The conditions for play should be created by

the elderly and their assistance should be unobtrusive and discreet. Children need to feel free and

self-solve tasks in the play. 9 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emil or on education. Belgrade, 1925. Bookstore Rajković and Čukić,

p.53.

14

These ideas were accepted by the thinkers and educators

such as: Basedow,10

Pestalozzi,11

Saltzman, GutsMuths12

. In recent

10 Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790) has by its theoretical and practical work contributed to a

new approach to the physical education. He opened a school called "Philanthropinum," in Dessau,

in 1774. Contemporaries have called this school a "High school for humanity." In it the plan of the

daily work schedules looked like this: 7 hours - sleeping; 6 hours - dressing, feeding, rest and

recreation; 1 hour - correspondence and neatness; 5 hours - studying and intellectual work; 3 hours

- physical exercise, dance and music; 2 hours - handmade works (with physical exertion).

Throughout the summer students would spend about a month in the camp, where the nature

replaced textbooks, and another month was planned to carry out the practical work with the

peasants, craftsmen and merchants. The basics of the physical education in the Philanthropinum,

was "Dessaus’s Pentathlon", which consisted of: running, jumping, climbing, cargo carrying and

balancing (balance exercises). Great attention was paid to the persistent walking, swimming and

rowing. He advocated also for a broad application of games and gave methodological guidelines

for their application. He believed that the games developed prowess and provide emotional

experience - creating the conditions for a good life. 11 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) a Swiss educator has built his own position, which is

predominantly directing gymnastics towards raising the health and resilience of the body against

natural influences that can endanger it. In this context, special attention was devoted to

strengthening and training locomotor apparatus. Therefore, with him for the first time, simple -

joint exercises appeared. Pestalozzi has coming from town to village, begun to deal with the poor

children upbringing. In 1800 he managed to establish the "House of Education", which was later

moved to Iferten and became famous throughout the world. His "House of Education" resembles

very much the "House of Play" of Vittorino Rambaldoni (1378-1446). Among his many works the

most important are the following: Leonard and Gertrude and How Gertrude teaches her children.

There he also presented his views on the necessity of the integrated education. Because of this, he

believes that physical education should be a means of forming the spirit as well as the moral and

aesthetic education. 12Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) is one of the most important theorists and creators of

the systematization of physical exercises. He spent some time in Salzmann’s Philanthropinum,

where he received a needed experience in gymnastics work. The principles underlying his theory

and methodology are current even nowadays, which tells how his work is built into the basics of

the later system of gymnastics, and even today's physical education. Here are these principles:

• man is a physical and spiritual unity;

• weakness of the body leads to the weakness of spirit;

• highest intellectual culture, without physical education, provides only an

incomplete person, without the joy of life and beauty;

• natural practicing of the primitive peoples civilized ones should replace with

gymnastics skills; these may be military, athletic and medical, but the only type

for all of them should be the - pedagogical gymnastics;

• the duty of the most educated countries and all the teachers should be to

organize propaganda of the pedagogical gymnastics. That means everyday

gymnastics for all ... To create an atmosphere for gymnastics;

• there is a need to reinforce the concern about hygiene and one should

recommend exercise in the fresh air;

• in a teaching method one should count on the age, sex, profession, and the

composition of those who practice.

GutsMuths has in its systematization of physical exercises singled out:

a) real gymnastic exercises - jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing,

balancing, dancing, etc.;

b) handicrafts;

c) social games for the youngsters.

15

years, these ideas were more elaborated by: Laban,13

Dalkroze,14

and Montessori.15

Their programs were oriented towards young

people. So Laban had built his expressive gymnastics on a natural

desire of a child towards movement and a spontaneous play. There

were created special education programs outside of school such as

snow school, school camps. Today, this approach is observed in the

programs of schools in nature and sports camps.

The theory of ethnocentrism.

The theory of etnocentrism in the center of its development

puts ethnos, people. Also, any form of physical exercise was created

having this in mind and was adapted to that end. It originated during

the turbulent times of the 19th century, when the international

conflicts dominated Europe and Napoleonic wars simultaneously

represented a conflict between the old and the new. Nations were

getting stronger, and the period of the professional armies was

passing by. In such a situation there was a growing need for the

physical education of citizens, who would be the new troops, if

necessary. The representatives of this school are: Franz Nachtegall16

,

Pehr Ling Henrik17

, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn 18

, Miroslav Tirs.19

13 Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) was a dancer and theoretician. In 1936 he emigrated to London

(England) and there he has, within his pedagogical work, developed a system of "education by

movement". He had claimed four aspects of movement (flow, time, space and path), eight

combinations and sixteen ranks. Soon the term "movement" has become the most important term

in the representation of Laban’s concepts, and the phrases such as "art of movement", "gymnastics

by movement" and "education by movement" became the integral part of the vocabulary of

physical education. 14 Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950) as a good musician has always helped his disciples to use

movements to more easily become good musicians. After the Second World War his ideas were

accepted also in the British schools and were known as "music and movement". 15 Maria Montessori (1870–1952) Maria Montessori (1870-1952) has built on the ideas of

Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel her own educational system, in which the play and movement

were important elements. She said that "what really makes the teacher is his love for a human

child; because love is what differentiates the social duty of the educational worker and creates a

higher awareness of his mission.” 16 Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) founded the first gymnastics institute in Europe, which was, in

fact, the basis for the further development of physical education in Denmark. When the practical

benefits of such work were noticed, daily basis physical exercising was introduced as a

compulsory subject in schools (1801). He soon opened in Copenhagen a military gymnastics

school for the education of the professional staff. In addition to the practical work Nachtegall

wrote gymnastics manuals. 17 Pehr Henrik Ling (1776-1839) spent five years in Nachtegall’s school in Copenhagen, and on

his return to Sweden he formed a new system of gymnastics. Sweden as Denmark, was in a

delicate international political situation, thus it was necessary to use the Civil Army (citizens) to

16

In the theory and practice of physical education these

representatives of ethnocentrism are known as the founders of

various gymnastic systems that were aimed at gathering young

people doing physical exercise and their development in order that

they, so strengthened, could fight for the social goals and ideals. It is

through the analysis of the ideas of their systematization of physical

exercise that we notice the emergence of the ultimate goal - ethnos,

and not an individual, a member of that nation. And even today, in

supplement the professional army. Therefore, first of all, they needed special programs of physical

exercise. Ling in 1814 founded under the royal patronage the Royal Central Gymnastics Institute

in Stockholm. The institute still nowadays exists, but under the other name (since 1967 it is called

the Institute for gymnastics and sport). Ling has proclaimed four types of gymnastics:

military (for strengthening the body and one’s will to encourage the other people's

will);

pedagogical (own body to subordinate to one’s own volition);

medical (to overcome and eliminate diseases);

aesthetic (towards emotions expression).

His gymnastics program was characterized by a design-specific directionality, whose main

characteristic is anatomical and physiological justification. Gymnastics equipment, which is still

famous in the world, has been adapted to the needs of the body. 18 Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), in 28 as a soldier, survived the German military defeat, and

experienced it as a personal tragedy. From then on he devoted himself exclusively to the work on

strengthening the German nation. According to him, physical education had to create strong and

courageous warriors for the defense of France. Therefore he had devised his own system and

founded a turner organization. Since he was against everything that was not German, he would not

use the word gymnastics, known and famous throughout the world, but had found a new word -

turner. This term was derived from the medieval knight competition and exercises. In his program

he included running, jumping, climbing, suspension and exercise on special requisites. In the

period from 1819 to 1842 the Austrian Chancellor Metternich prohibited "turner". This restriction

had provoked an important change in the character of the turner exercise. In fact, during this

period training was performed secretly at homes. So there had been a restructuring of the physical

exercises, ones that required a large space were lost, and in the foreground erupted apparatus and

small space exercises. They were able to maintain discipline and control. These exercises were

later incorporated into the school programs. Jahn’s system of physical exercise, with the help of

his students spread out to other countries as well. Soon it lost a national basis and with the systems

of Ling and Nachtegall, became an important part of the development of physical education in

many countries around the world. 19 Miroslav Tirs (1832-1884) formed the Czech gymnastics society in 1862. When the German

students began to stand out and establish turner societies, Tirs organized the workout for the Czech

students. Later on his system was named "SOKO", as a symbol of bravery, heroism and nobility.

At that time, the living conditions of the national minorities in Austria were very harsh, so,

basically, this gymnastics organization was also established for the purpose of awakening the

national consciousness. It could be said that the sport has undergone through four stages of

development: (1) Patronizing sport (lat. Patronus: protector), (2) A gentleman sport or

pedestrianism (lat. Pedes: Foot), (3) School or university sport, (4) Civil sport.

The Tirs exercises system was divided into four groups:

a) exercises without requisites;

b) exercises using the requisites;

c) group exercises;

d) combat exercises.

17

these troubled times of the 21st century, there is a physical exercise

that is organized on the ideas of the ethnocentrism.

The theory of egocentrism.

The theory of egocentrism. This theory’s development is

based on man's quest to build his personality by emphasizing his

ego, his identity. And he puts in the foreground his ultimate

individualism. In sport, as one of the areas of physical education

which relies (as opposed to the physical education and recreation) on

the agon, fight, competition, man finds the ability to express his

individuality. This is why sport (along with other, primarily political

and economic reasons) has experienced a great expansion.

During the 19th century a specific system of games and

sports began to exist in England. This system has been specifically

accepted in so-called public schools20

. It has spread throughout the

British Empire and even beyond its borders. Activities were

different, but there stood out - the virtuosity of glory, fair play,

dignity, individual effort and courage. A lot of credit for the

development of school sport, which is the basis for the so-called civic

sport, belongs to Thomas Arnold21

, the priest, educator and

administrator of the Rugby College, and his followers, above all,

Thomas Hughes22

.

In the continental part of Europe, at that time the

ethnocentric approach to physical exercise dominated. However, in

the late 19th century (in 1884) Pierre de Coubertin23

visited England,

20 The development of sport is very distinctive. After the English bourgeois revolution, the new

social relations resulted in the class compromise of the English aristocracy and bourgeoisie, both at

the political and the economic levels. This was reflected in physical education, too and as a

product of that compromise a modern sport was created. It was created by merging some forms of

physical exercise and games favorite to the nobility (riding, fencing, hunting, swimming) and the

folk forms of competition (running, wrestling, pugilism, rowing). 21 Thomas Arnold (1795–1842) as a director of the college in Rugby, while watching children's

sporting events, realized and understood their significance for the education of children. Therefore,

they were included in the school curriculum. The motto of Thomas Arnold was to educate the

Christians - gentlemen. Self-improvement was something that represented a key education, which

had resulted in the creation of pedagogical system based on freedom. And in all this sporting

competitions had played an important role. 22 Thomas Hughes has as the successor of the ideas of Thomas Arnold, founded the movement

"Muscular Christian youth" (1842). Thus, sport helped young people to recognize the act of

freedom in the true sense of the word. 23 Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), has by his enthusiasm, work and his own money managed to

realize one for a long time present idea of restoring the ancient Olympic Games.

18

there he got familiarized with the sports games and, after returning to

France, started propagating sport. It was fruitful and in 1896 in

Athens (Greece) the first new Olympic Games were held. Today,

sport is experiencing a large and rapid development and is present in

all parts of the world.

The theory of anthropocentrism

The theory of anthropocentrism was established on the

philosophical worldview believing that man is the center of the

world and the ultimate purpose of its development. This theory

unifies all the previous theories of development: ethnocentrism,

biocentrism and egocentrism.

Its main features are:

1. Development of physical abilities and health,

2. Increase in social development (progress)

3. Improving the level of knowledge and skills in sports and

games,

4. Development of leading capabilities and increasing

opportunities for the cooperation with others,

5. Development of broad-based recreational skills,

especially for leisure time during the holidays.

These characteristics of the anthropocentristic approach to

physical exercise, although at first glance recognizable, represent a

distillate of the new desires and thoughts about the necessity of

human health and happiness. In doing so, it is suggested that these

two postulates, health and happiness are something that is a

necessity and purpose of man and that any form of the physical

exercise should comply with it. Of course, there is omitted closer

defining not only of health but also of happiness, but is associated

with the society in which human rights and freedom are achieved.

And accordingly, this philosophy of physical exercise first appeared

in Scandinavia and North America. In the second half of the 20th

century O. Åstrand24

and K. Cooper25

, each in their own way,

24 Per-Olof Åstrand (1922–2015) had his research studies which were basically the interval

method, in his later works, in the mid eighties of the 20th century, completely rejected and

19

developed a program of physical exercise having primarily in mind

the needs of man. Later Jane Fonda26

has developed special

programs for women. Today these ideas are present in the form of

(different) fitness programs.

The theory of theo-anthropocentrism.

The theory of theo-anthropocentrism is the youngest among

the theories of the physical education development. It is considered

to be the youngest not due to the time of its philosophy originating,

but because of the time of its presence in our profession, and that is

the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. In this

theory of the physical education development (physical education

and sport) one starts from the basic assumptions that: a) a man is

approached cautiously as if by "pigeon legs", and b) that physical

exercise is a wholesome food, primarily for the physical part of his

being. This is a theory that provides one more humane agon within

the frame of the Orthodox anthropology. This Christ-centrism allows

a Godman centric approach, in which God and man are in the center,

in the embrace of the eternal love and community.

This approach reminds us that school as a place to acquire

new knowledge and skills, is not composed of the the walls and

classrooms, but of those who are in it: the teachers and students. And

they, as the central beings of all created, may only be the

personalities in the community with another personality. For without

such a community there is no the first nor any other personality, and

there is not one thing that goes with the personality which is

freedom. Freedom, of course, implies an obligation arising out of it,

that everything is done for the well-being of the man himself. Thus,

one should take account of the duration of the physical exercise

(scope), as well as the load of the physical exercise (intensity).

replaced with the idea that man needed physical activity during the day, for 30 minutes, in the

various combinations of time intervals. 25 Kenneth H. Cooper (1931) had by his research established a system of physical exercise which

is known as Aerobics. He, like Åstrand, had based his system on 10,000 steps in a day. His ideas

are now used in many fitness centers. 26 Jane Fonda (1937) a film actress who aimed her exercise programs at women had made a

turning point in relation to the style of exercise and attitude of women towards their physical

appearance. She had developed a special program known as Aerobic exercise for women.

20

Knowing that the food (physical exercise) is varied and that it is

useful in optimal quantities (volume and intensity of exercise), it is

offered to man with love.

And to the posed questions of how and, above all, why

exercise, the answer is sought in the very being of man and his need

for this kind of food as well.27

In doing so, one does not forget that it

is necessary to each and all (Urbi et Orbi), which is, in fact, in the

very center of this theory. Representatives of this theory are Nenad

Zivanovic28

and Zoran Milosevic.29

Current time

Modern civilization resting on the neoliberal concept of

organizing the overall social life, with the Darwinist direction, faces

a major challenge. During decades long efforts it has managed to

incorporate in most people the guiding principles - only present is

what is important and what matters. Other time categories, such as

past and future are wiped out. In such circumstances one must

observe our profession as well.

Physical education and sport30

today can be seen not only as

an organic whole, but also as the two separate and, unfortunately,

absolutely independent units. And this requires careful

considerations about our profession.

Sport31

has particularly in its professional and elite parts,

completely rejected its old attributes (health, education,

socialization) and accepted the new ones (result and profit). When

talking about sport (elite and professional), one can no longer talk

27 The words of the Apostle Paul addressed at the weaken Corinthians: "I have the right to do

anything, but not everything is beneficial. I have the right to do anything—but I will not be

mastered by anything." (I Cor. 6, 12). 28 Nenad Zivanovic (1946), University of Nis, Serbia. 29 Zoran Milosevic (1962), University of Novi Sad, Serbia. 30 Terms which combine and contain physical education and sport, were different at different

times, and in different social environments. From the Renaissance to the end of the 19th and

beginning of the 20th century were dominated by the terms: the body exercise and gymnastics, and

in England sport. Later, the other two terms were crystallized from which the organizational

structure of our specialized field drew, as well as theoretical and practical work, namely: physical

education and sport 31 We recall of the classification of sport specific to the target sports:

School sport - Registered sport – Recreational sport

Registration sport is divided into: amateur, top and professional sports.

(According to: Nenad Zivanovic, et al., Theory of Physical Education. Nis, Panopticon, 2010, p.

21

about health, education, socialization, but solely in terms of the

results and profits, that is, in terms of its political and economic

utilitarianism. No longer are the ideas and messages of the

Pennsylvanian bishop Etelberto Talbot valid, as he instructed the

participants of the Olympics in London in 1908 – It is not important

to win, it is important to take part. Now, in accordance with the ideas

of the neoglobalistic New Age, there is one rule that is valid and is

assuming the level of the legal norms. This rule, established in the

mid-80s of the 20th century, says “It is not important to participate,

it is important to win”. And to win at any cost32

With this type of a

guiding principle it is not difficult to explain and understand the

emergence of the new cults: the cult of the body, the cult of sports

results and the cult of profit33

.

Amateur sport34

has, to a lesser extent, accepted the new

attributes of sport. It is fully compliant with the New Era, because

the athletes involved in the amateur sport inherit the values of the

modern civilization. And the higher the level of the amateur sport,

the more pronounced this acceptance is. But in its lower segments

(sports clubs in small towns and rural areas), it has retained to a

greater extent, the old attributes of sport and these should be nurtured

and encouraged.

School sport35

is the only link between the physical

education and sport. This fact is not at all encouraging, but we must

accept it and make sure it stays that way. On our work depends

whether we manage to keep current title school sport. There are

numerous attempts to establish the term sport in school. Such efforts

are reflecting not only the desire to come to the terminology changes,

32 After an ominous wave of sports violence of the 80s of the 20th century, we are witnessing new

outbursts of violence in all its forms. Fights of the athletes, fights of the fans, murder of fans

(Istanbul 2014), provocations at the football stadiums (Belgrade, London, ..., 2014), all of it

foretells, as well as the late 20th century, the coming evil times. In doing so, obscene and

hypocritical explanations of these events indicate that the present civilization recognizes only - the

current time and the Darwinian concept of competition. 33 More on this in: Nenad Zivanovic, Apology of physical exercise. Nis, Panopticon, 2011. 34 Amateur sport, as one of the segments of the registered sport, with excellent and professional,

very often is treated as a recreational sport. Between them there is not only a terminological but

also the conceptual difference already, and it should be taken into account during each expert

analysis. 35 School sport, by its very terminological definition, by its attribute – school puts emphasis on

education. And until it does, and while sport in school term does not prevail, there is still hope that

the sports competitions in school have a primary goal - education, rather than - (exclusively) sports

scores. And that children’s school sports dreams and sports competitions would represent one nice

part of their childhood and youth.

22

but also to the conceptual ones. And that would be disastrous for us

all. Because if we say - sport in school, this means that in this phrase

emphasis is placed on the attribute sport. This inevitably entails cruel

clear fact - that we will have in school sport with all of its

particularly negative, characteristics. Let us mention only one of

them, and it is – to achieve the result at any cost. If we let the result

be the primary goal and do everything for its realization, then the

school and its role in education of the young people will turn into a

service station of the registered sport. This is not just an ominous

assumption, but a harsh reality that we face. The cure for this terrible

disease are certainly the new humanists and teachers who love man,

but the man who has the personality - one, unique and unrepeatable.

Physical education and its very name suggests that through

physical exercise as the beneficial food, we build up the personality

of all our students. In addition, relying on the Orthodox Christian

anthropology and ethics derived from it, we know that only through

love I am what I am (O. Justin Popovic). Therefore, if we know that,

we will not be the teachers who will go in for the idea of this New

World and regard our student as an object, commodities to be

exploited to achieve our own goals, but we should observe him as a

personality, unique and unrepeatable. We know that in this given

freedom lies our responsibility. This responsibility makes quite

comprehensive the Orthodox Christian understanding of freedom,

which is reflected in the self-restrain for the sake of the others

(Solzhenitsyn). And in this effort to see others besides himself, the

man is realized as a person. Certainly, it is not an easy task at all, not

only to understand but also to perform, but we should head on in that

direction.

Our teacher, educator and expert ( in this very order) loves

his students and strives to be the Anatoly - their light and the light of

our profession as well. He makes effort because he knows that one

educates with love and by setting personal example - role model.

This is how we observe physical education, and the book in

front of you talks about it.

23

ALBANIA

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE

ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE

PHYSICAL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ALBANIA

Juel Jarani, Faculty of Movement Sciences, Sports University of

Tirana

Florian Muca, Tirana International School

Ilir Dojka

Dean Qefalia

Andi Spahi, Faculty of Physical Activity and Recreation, Sports

University of Tirana

Correspondence

Juel Jarani

jueljarani@gmail.com

Phone: 00355672120239

Abstract

During the Albanian kingdom period it is hard to come by

information on the organization and functioning of the physical

education system in schools and organized activities in the leisure

time or participation in sport activities. In the beginning of the

communist era there was the influence from eastern countries and

after the parting from eastern influence it was succeeded from the

Chinese influence. Analyzing this period it could be said that the

political influence (from the communist party) had a major influence

in the primary targets of physical education. In post communist era

(democratic period) physical education system during has gone

through phases of changes concerning the structure of class

distribution, years of study and almost the same division of

disciplines of the subject. Academic term of 2014-2015 is the most

valuable reform in physical education where in every study cycle

physical education is 3 times per week with duration of 45 minutes

per each class and taught by physical education teacher.

24

Keywords; physical education, children, communist period, school

level

Literature Review

This research is focused on the organization and

functioning of physical education in Albania during three different

periods taking into account also the establishment of the Albanian

government including: the Albanian kingdom period, the communist

period and the democratic period (post-communist era). The first

period includes 1909-1939 and it is divided in two parts: the first part

is 1909-1927 and the second part 1928-1939 (the monarch regime).

For the collection of materials it was used the database at the library

of Sport University of Tirana especially regarding gathering data for

the communist period using as a reference, the newspaper of that

time named “Popular Sport”. It was used data from different

publication from the Ministry of Education and periodical

information from Pedagogical Institutes in Albania.

The first period 1909-1939

The first period includes 1909-1939 and it is divided in two

parts: the first part is 1909-1927 and the second part 1928-1939 (the

monarch regime)

First part (1909- 1927)

During this period it is hard to come by information on the

organization and functioning of the physical education system in

schools and organized activities in the leisure time or participation in

sport activities. In this period there were only voluntary sporting

activities. There were only some sporting clubs, which are

considered to be the first organizations (cells) of voluntary sportive

activities in Albania (before the 1912 invasion of the Ottoman

Empire). Such organization of these activities continues nowadays

retaining the same features ever since the declaration of

Independence (1912) until the monarch regime (1928). During

25

1909—1927 there was an organized establishment of sport clubs and

sporting associations spread across the country which represented the

structures for physical education sporting organization in Albania.

During 1909 it was established the very first sports team in Shkodra

named “Independence” (Indipendenca) as well as the first sport

association named “Vllaznia”, and during the same time, in Korça

was established “Vllazëria” sport association. Until 1928 many

sports clubs were established such as “Sport Club Vlora”,”Sport

Club Tirana” which was founded in 1927 thanks to a significant

contribution from Selman Stërmasi, also sport clubs “Atdheu” and

“Adriatiku” were founded in Durres and Kavaja as well as sport club

“Tomorri” in Berat (1).

Second part (1928-1939; the monarchic regime in Albania)

This period was closely linked with the drafting of the

Albanian constitution in 1928 which established the monarchic

regime in Albania and marks the beginning of the state sporting

organization in a well-defined governmental structure. During 1929

(in 2 September) the national sporting body “Djelmnia Shqiptare”

was established and officially acknowledged by the government

structures. Such entity had as primary aim the physical, moral and

paramilitary training culture of Albanian youth (2). This is also the

year when for the first time was established a person responsible for

sporting activities called “Physical Education Inspector” who was

later appointed in all municipalities of Albania (1; 2).

A year later (1930) the Ahmet Zogu (King of the Albania)

government seeing the ongoing sporting activities in the country,

issued a decree in 6 June for the foundation of the Albanian Sports

Federation, a structure within the national sporting body “Djelmënia

shqiptare” to bring in more sporting youth and regulate the

organization of national and international sporting events. In every

municipality center were established regional sporting associations

which were directly depend from the federation. The sporting

activity of the Federation was divided in three main categories:

sports games, athletics and other sports (swimming, cycling, boxing

and wrestling). On 13 August 1935 in Tirana was founded the Sports

and Arts Federation “Vllaznia Shqiptare” serving as chairman the

26

Education minister Dr.Mirash Ivanaj who stressed the importance of

physical education in schools (1). It is worth mentioning that in this

period in order to help children’s physical education several

additional materials (manuals) were produced containing different

types of exercises. One of these manuals was composed of seven

types of exercises helping children with morning exercises (3). This

manual was translated from German (1935) from a gymnastic

seminar for primary schools led by Dr. Sippel, a physical education

lecturer from university of Berlin. In the following paragraph it will

be shown the purpose of this material as well as focusing on body

esthetics and body strengthening aiding human health; “……...Every

morning when I get up I jump off the bed and go to wash my whole

body using cold water and then I rub it off with a towel. Then I open

the windows and start my physical exercises. I breathe in. I breathe

using my nostrils as if smelling a flower and breathe out from my

mouth as if blowing fire …….”

This material was also illustrated by means of figures

explaining to children the differences between those who exercised

during the morning and those who didn’t use this manual; “... Thus is

the face of the boy who gets up in the morning 5 minutes early and

exercises (Fig 1) and thus is the other boy who slept 5 minutes more

and did not do any exercise” (Fig 2)

In order for the demonstration to be as interesting as

possible the author, besides the illustrations using figures he uses

animal names comparisons for the exercises for example; “ ….we

walk like monkeys (exercise 5 in the manual); ...... can you walk

27

using both your feet and hands as the boy in the picture? The boy in

the picture couldn’t do these as well. He could not bend over and

touch the ground with his fingers. But within 14 days he could do

this exercise……. “ (Fig 3 and 4).

Communist period 1940-1990

The ideological-political education of the generations

During the communist era, for the young generation

physical education, preparing for work and for defense was a matter

of great political and ideological importance. We can quote a

paragraph where such ideological and political views are stated quite

clearly; ... nowadays the issue of physical education of the working

class and in particular the youth presents a great challenge. The

aggressive intentions of the American imperialists who are aided by

the modern revisionists, their continuous conspiracies against our

country call for every town, every boy or girl to strengthen their

body to bravely protect the fatherland and the revolutionary cause

against every enemy…….. (4). The ASAU (Albanian Sportsmen and

Athletes Union) and all sports as well as all other areas in life were

linked closely to politics. In the beginning there was the influence

from eastern countries and after the parting from eastern influence it

28

was succeeded from the Chinese influence where one of the

measures taken was the abolishment of boxing as a sport (1).

Improving the ideological and political work of all sportsmen

presented a significant task for all AWYU (Albanian Working Youth

Unions) associations as well as all physical education departments.

The main goal during this period was having young educated and

capable sportsmen, able to protect the fatherland (4). During 1969

the existing elementary school programs apart from all visible

improvements went through major changes by combining physical

education with military exercises (5). Analyzing this period it could

be said that the political influence (from the communist party) had a

major influence in the primary targets of physical education; ….. the

party and the people’s power from the beginning gave a fair

assessment to physical education as a structural part of the

communist education of workers as well as giving the country what

it deserves without holding anything back ………(6). The same logic

was used for having a good health and readiness at work as well as

for defense; ......the party has instructed and ordered for all our

physical education system and the entire physical-sporting activity to

be firmly structured within the party’s ideology and to be developed

focusing on the masses (7).

During this period it could be said that besides physical

education in schools have existed several types of organizations of

children’s physical education and sporting activities such as: schools

organization of sporting classes system (these will be explained in

details further on), sporting activities for children in towns (within an

apartment building/Pioneer’s home), organized sporting summer

activities as well as sports tournaments (massive and qualitative

sports activities which have taken place only after liberation of the

country and included several types of sports)

Physical education system

During communist regime the physical education system in

primary education schools (grades 1-8) for ages 6-14 and secondary

education schools/high schools (grades 1-4) for ages 15-18 took

place twice a week with duration of 45 minutes/ class. Teaching of

first grade to fourth grade pupils was carried out by one general

teacher physical education for grades 4-12 including high school was

29

carried out by a PE specialized teacher. During 1973-1983 there was

a national unification of the educational syllabus of physical

education in all Albanian education institutions. After 1983 the

program comprising different disciplines was carried out according

to the conditions of the schools in different towns.

Till 1974, the main physical education institution which

helped improving PE comprised: the PE committees, educations

departments, sports clubs, schools headmasters offices and qualified

sportsmen (8). The link between physical education and health has

always been a cornerstone of a healthy living from childhood as well

as an inseparable part of education during the communist period.

In an article of 1989 (9) in “Sporti Popullor” gazette it is

mentioned and stressed the significant role of school in pupils and in

their physical education preparation which leads to the development

of permanent health stability. Regarding the pupil’s activities beyond

school or physical education in school we can quote the following

article; .... nowadays more than ever before it is required from the

pupil, the citizen or the cooperative worker to be educated with

regular sporting activities and sports in his present conditions, not

only by participating in a single football, basketball or volleyball

match but in gymnastics, athletics, marching, walking as well.

Everything is based upon in the dynamics of PE teachers, in their

abilities to come up with new ways to make sports as massive as

possible, to infuse pupils the concept that taking up sports is not a

waste of time, it is gained time because in this way health is better,

society improves, life is better….. (9).

Organizations which dealt with monitoring and organizing

activities in schools set up different meetings and conferences where

they draw conclusions which in turn were put into practice from

regional units such as: .....conclusion from the 5-th National ASAU

(Albanian Sportsmen and Athletes Union) Conference “a major

change needs to be implemented in our school, to transform the

school into a genuine sporting center and a place where school will

imbue the youth the education of actively and permanently taking up

sports aiming at raising the general physical education level in all

schools” ….. (10).

30

Recreational Activity Classes – Sports

During this period in schools were set up sport classes in

two study cycles starting from third grade (different sport disciplines

organized in activity classes both for the primary education schools

system for pupils aged 6-14 and the high-school/secondary education

system for pupils aged 15-18 years). Such classes were established

according to the geographical location of the schools and represented

sport clubs in sport activities such as: in athletics: in Tirana –

“Qemal Stafa” high-school represented Tirana’s sport club, “Petro

Nini Luarasi” high school Dinamo sports club and “Partizani” high

school represented Partizani sport club. Sport clubs carried out

further selection of sportsmen and at the same time gave didactical

aid and sports materials. Every academic year in primary and high-

schools there was a selection of a sport class which was taught as PE

subject/sports three times per week with duration of 90 minutes/class

(once a week in the morning and twice a week in the afternoon).

During 1984-1986 there was a significant reduction of the

quality of sport classes in different sporting activities as well as its

support with materials and didactical aid. In 1989 throughout the

country were functioning 4668 sport classes in 10 types of sports and

in which took part 14000 pupils (11) such as: in Tirana there were

schools such as “Shkolla E kuqe”, “Emin Duraku” in basketball, “29

Nentori” in volleyball, “Naim Frasheri” in gymnastics (11).

Pioneers home organization

In the framework of the development of sporting activities

it is worth mentioning activities organized in towns such as: the

Pioneers home organization which organized different sporting

activities with children from schools, alleys, streets of the capital

during summer vacations where the children from different

neighborhoods were enlisted with their respective teams (12). The

championship organization involving wide participation was

generally carried out from: pioneer sporting centers and physical

education committee of the district, which dealt with improving

work methods and forms of organization so that a higher number of

children (first grade - fourth grade) and pioneers (grades 5-8) would

be involved in sporting activities every day and physical education

31

(exercises). These activities were organized between different classes

and were based on a drafted calendar from the pioneer home

organization and PE committee such activities included: organized

activities during 1969 year; .....pioneer home organization in the

capital welcomes and sees off every day hundreds of children. In the

Pioneer home train regularly twice a week 32 groups in 8 different

disciplines-athletics, acrobatics, tourism, basketball, volleyball,

football and tennis..... (13).

Sport tournaments

Once every four years sports tournament were held

beginning from schools level and furthering into team level in town’s

sporting activities (qualitative and quantitative sporting activities

were held only after the liberation of the country and it included

many disciplines). The goal of sport tournaments was increasing

sport participation and discovering and maintaining young athletes

with perspective in different types of sports including athletics,

gymnastics, volleyball, basketball and football (15). Such sporting

organizations were held also in honor of different commemorative

occasions such as with the 1964 tournament where (citing);.... in

Tirana (the capital of Albania) were held the liberation tournament

games (year 1964), which marks the first phase of the sporting

activity between schools organized in honor of the great jubilee- the

20 anniversary of the liberation of the country and the 350

anniversary of the establishment of Tirana.... (15).

The first tournament for pioneers was held on 20-25 July in

1957, at “Qemal Stafa” pioneers’ residential home in Durres, in 9

types of sports with the participation of 586 pupils (376 boys and

210 girls) from 11 districts. The different disciplines have changed

with each year from 9 types in 7, 6 and 5 types of sports these few

last years. The biggest attendance was during 11-th Tournament in

1974 with 1384 pioneers participating. The types of sports activities

have complied with the respective federation rules. Local and

national tournaments are held in two days consecutively. In the

preparation of priority sports such as basketball, volleyball etc. there

is a chain system used along with sport classes and pioneers

organizations whereas for other sports entering the tournament there

were no such systems (14).

32

Democratic system period (post-communist era) 1990- 2015

Physical education system during this period has gone

through phases of changes concerning the structure of class

distribution, years of study and almost the same division of

disciplines of the subject.

Until 2010 the physical education system hasn’t seen any

substantial changes (19) as far as subject matter, school cycle

divisions or the duration of physical education classes (Fig 5 and 6).

Prior to this period the division has been almost the same with the

communist era where physical education was held twice a week with

duration of 45 minutes for each class. Later such structure (division

of school years and teaching) went through significant changes.

The 2010-2011 curriculums went through some changes as far

as the distribution of physical education classes in particular the

Secondary low cycle where PE subject was divided in two curricula:

the core curriculum and the free-choice curriculum.

1. Core curriculum/ obligatory (grade 10- 2 times per week;

grade 11- 1 time per week; grade 12-0 times per week)

2. Free-choice curriculum(grade 10-1 time per week;grade11-

1 time per week; grade 12-1 time per week)

During this period it is evident that there is a decrease of classes in

the weekly course schedule for physical education as far as

secondary education.

33

The content (academic year/terms 1996-2000) of disciplines

according to the program as well as the distribution table of classes

(16; 17; 18) along the many years has remained almost the same.

Below it is displayed the program content disciplines;

1. Knowledge of physical education (during the teaching

process)

2. Popular games (during the teaching process)

3. Skills and basic motor activities ( division according to

grade)

34

4. Manipulative movement skills (division according to grade)

5. Rhythmic dancing (division according to grade)

6. Sporting motor skills; free-choice depending on the

conditions and resources of the schools (basketball,

volleyball, handball, athletics, gymnastics, skiing, football)

The content of disciplines according to the program as well as

the distribution table of classes (19) for grade VI (academic year

2005-2006). Distribution of classes according to the content was

carried out in accordance with the real conditions of sporting

grounds, sporting materials as well as geographical location of the

school.

PE Disciplines contents;

1. Knowledge of physical education (during the teaching

process)

2. Basic motor movements

3. Manipulative movement skills with and without the use

of tools

4. Motor skills games

5. Rhythmic dancing

6. Gymnastics

7. Volleyball

8. Athletics

9. Football

10. Basketball

11. Badminton

12. Ping-Pong

13. Handball

The 2014 year is a golden period for physical education and

is the most valuable reform from the Albanian Ministry of Education

and Sports, including 3 times per week obligatory PE classes taught

by physical education teacher.

35

Conclusion

During the Albanian kingdom period it is hard to come by

information on the organization and functioning of the physical

education system in schools and organized activities in the leisure

time or participation in sport activities. In this period there were only

voluntary sporting activities. During the communist era, for the

young generation physical education, preparing for work and for

defense was a matter of great political and ideological importance.

Analyzing this period it could be said that the political influence

(from the communist party) had a major influence in the primary

targets of physical education. Physical education system during

democratic period (post communist era) has gone through phases of

changes concerning the structure of class distribution, years of study

and almost the same division of disciplines of the subject. Academic

term of 2014-2015 is the most valuable reform in physical education

where in every study cycle physical education is 3 times per week

with duration of 45 minutes per each class.

36

REFERENCES

(1) Miço, K (2012) Sporti shqiptar në 100 vjet. Komiteti i KP,

BFSSH. Gazeta Shekulli 03.12.2012 Tiranë

(2) Dizdari, B (2012) Themelimet e mëdha të sportit shqiptar në 100

vjet Gazeta Panorama Sport 28.10.2012 Tiranë

http://www.panorama-sport.com/opinion/themelimet-e-medha-te-

sportit-shqiptar-ne-100-vjet/#ixzz3NmKdëDLm

(3) Gogo, G (1935) Ushtrohem çdo mëngjez. Ushtrime gjimnastike

dhe këshilla (për nxënësit e shkolllave fillore, djem), marrë nga

seminari në gjimnastika për shkolla fillore prof.dr Sippel i

shkollës së lartë të edukatës fizike dhe të lartë në Berlin.

Minerva, Tiranë

(4) Sporti Popullor (1967) Për një zhvillim të mëtejshëm të

fiskulturës e sporteve në masat e rinisë. 13.6. 1967; fq 4

(5) Sporti Popullor (1969) Mendime të mësuesve të edukimit fizik.

21.1.1969; fq 3.

(6) Maçi, E (1969). Masave punonjëse dhe rinisë u janë krijuar

kushte shumë të mira për edukimin fizik. Sporti Popullor;

18.11.1969, fq 4

(7) Marko, A (1969). Kultura Fizike është kthyer në një lëvizje të

gjerë massive në luftë me prapambetjen dhe konceptet e huaja

Sporti Popullor; 11.11.1969, fq 4

(8) Sirinxhi, N (1974). Puna me masat e fëmijëve dhe me shkollat

sportive është detyrë e përhershme Gazeta “Sporti Popullor:.

29.1.1974, fq 3

(9) Sporti Popullor (1989). Sa e rrënjos shkolla te rinia edukatën

fizike për tu marrë përhere me sport; 3.1.1989, fq 2.

(10) Methasani, D (1989). Veprimtaritë sportive me nivel u

përgjigjen kërkesave të nxënësve; Dibër. Gazeta “Sporti

Popullor:. 9.1.1989, fq 2.

37

(11) Sporti Popullor (1989). Shkolla dhe ushtria qëndra të zhvillimit

të kulturës fizike e sporteve; 1.4.1989, fq 2.

(12) Domini, A (1969) Qendër e kalitjes dhe edukimit fizik të

fëmijëve; Sporti Popullor 21.1.1969, fq 2

(13) Vasjari, F (1969). Fiskultura dhe sporti në jetën e përditshme të

fëmijëve. Sporti Popullor; 7.1.1969, fq 4

(14) Hatibi, B (1989). Si mund të zhvillohen spartakiadat? Mendime,

problem. Gazeta “Sporti Popullor; 23.1.1989, fq 2.

(15) Sporti Popullor (1964). Rreth 600 nxënës në aktivitet;

20.10.1964, fq 3

(16) Ministria e Arsimit (1996). Programi i edukimit fizik për klasat

V-VIII të shkollës 8 vjeçare

(17) Ministria e Arsimit (1996). Programi i edukimit fizik për

shkollat e mesme

(18) Instituti i studimeve pedagogjike (2000). Programet e shkollës 8

vjeçare, klasat V-VIII

(19) Instituti i kurrikulave dhe standarteve (2005). Programe lëndore,

shkolla 9 vjeçare, klasa VI.

38

CROATIA

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN

CROATIA

Dario Škegro, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb

Zrinko Čustonja, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb

Correspondence

Dario Škegro dario.skegro@kif.hr

Phone: +38513658666

Introduction

Roots of physical education in Croatia go back in the

middle of the 19-th century. Political situation in Croatia at that time

was complicated. Croatia was under the Habsburg Empire until 1967

when Austro-Hungarian Empire was founded. The beginnings of

physical education as non-compulsory subject are related to Istrian

and Dalmatian area, which were under the Austrian ruling. The non-

compulsory subject named in various terms begun to conduct in

schools of Istria and Dalmatia in 1848. (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2004)

Due to the political context this was the year of revolution in

Hungary and the beginning of development of Croatia as modern

society. In Istrian and Dalmatian schools physical education became

obligatory subject in 1868 as in Austria. Three years later, in 1871

physical education becomes obligatory in Croatian Military Border

due to the need to educate soldiers in strengthening, fencing and

swimming. (Jajčević, 2010). Finally in 1874 Physical education was

introduced in Croatian civil (middle-class, lower secondary school or

higher elementary school) and plebeian (early) elementary school

curricula in the Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. This

was how the development of physical education in Croatia started.

After more than 20 years of unsuccessful trials physical education

classes as obligatory subject was implemented in schools in all of the

triune Kingdom of Croatia (Janković, 1954).

39

After introduction of physical education as compulsory

subject in school curricula new problem rise up. There were no

educated personnel for conducting physical education classes and

there was urgent need for organization of courses to resolve this

trouble mater. Courses for conducting physical education classes

were held in 1875, 1877, 1878 and 1880 in Zagreb and two were

held in Velika Gorica in 1878 and Osijek in 1880. One of the most

important moments in history of physical education in Croatia is

organization of “Course for gymnastic teachers” organized and

managed by Franjo Bučar “father of sport in Croatia” in Zagreb from

1894 till 1896. Besides Mr. Bučar there are few more important

persons that affected development of physical education in Croatia

such as Fridrich (Miroslav) Singer, Andrija Hajdinak and Frantisek

Hochman. Great impact on development of physical education in

Croatia had Croatian Sokol movement. Due to the fact that Croatian

Sokol was founded in 1874, the same year that physical education

became obligatory subject in Croatian schools; its role in

establishing Croatian physical education system was inevitable.

The aim of this paper is to give an overview of events and

important activities in development of physical education in Croatia.

Roots and beginnings of physical education are correlated with other

social and political factors of that time. But at the end, despite the

fact that Croatia lived in dynamic and complicated political

ambience it is necessary to conclude that system of physical

education in Croatia followed trends of development of PE in Europe

at that time.

Attempts to introduce Physical Education in Croatia

There are few findings (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2003;

Čustonja & Jajčević, 2004; Čustonja & Mavrek, 2004; Bobić &

Čustonja, 2005) that point out that phenomenon of physical exercise

of school children has been present in Croatia since 1797 when the

decision of Zagreb County by which public works were approved to

build playgrounds for “recreationi iuventutis scholastiea” (recreation

of the school youth) was made. However, there is no evidence or any

detailed explanations on the background of this Decision but it can

be concluded that this was very progressive attitude on exercise

(physical education) at that time in Croatia because there was only

40

few people in Croatia that were involved in physical exercise. At that

time the Kingdom of Croatia was under the state-constitutional

relationship with the Habsburg Empire (since 1527 till 1867). “Ratio

educationis” was document from 1777 that defined educational

system of the empire and later there were two more documents in

form of decree named “Ratio educationis publicae” from 1806 and

“Systema scholarum elementarium” from 1845. These documents

did not address physical education in any way. It is important to

mention that this period was also time of beginning of development

of sport in Croatia. In 1784 and two years later, in 1786 first sport

organizations were established The Osijek Civil Shooting Society

and The Zagreb Civil Shooting Society. The origins of oldest records

on organized physical education classes are from the Croatian

Military Border dated from 1828 when Austrian, German and Czech

gymnastic teachers educated “strong youngster” in military exercise

on German gymnastic system principals.

Picture 1: Ratio Educationis (source: google.com)

The proposal of the law on education, “Basics of Principal

Rules for Public Instruction in Croatia and Slavonia” (“Osnove

temeljnih pravila javnog obučavanja za Hrvatsku i Slavoniju”) was

first serious attempt to organize an advance education in Civil

Croatia in 1848. The committee appointed by Croatian Parliament

had the task to prepare a proposal of the law which will regulate the

schooling system in the Civil Croatia. The result of the committees

work is earlier mentioned „Basics“(Cuvaj, 1910). According to the

“Basics” physical education was supposed to be compulsory subject

in elementary and secondary schools. However, the political

41

developments in 1948 and 1849, the revolution against Magyars and

other political and social circumstances implementation of this law

was never done. Nevertheless, the “Basics” from 1848 are the first so

far known written source on compulsory PE teaching in the schools

of the Civil Croatia. The education public criticized the proposed

“Basics” severely, but no objection was registered for the concept of

the PE (Cuvaj, 1910). It is not possible to recognize from the text of

“Basics” how the implementation of physical education is supposed

to be carried out. There is hypothesis that this proposal of law on

education was made upon the role model of Prussian education law

where compulsory physical education classes were introduced in

1842. Austria was the first of Habsburg Monarchy states that

introduced physical education as non-compulsory subject in schools

in 1848. The “Basics” were the first autonomous legislative attempt

to organize schooling in Croatia (Bobić & Čustonja, 2005).

Before the Croatian parliament was dissolved in 1861, three

separate discussions regarding elementary, grammar and modern

schools were recorded. These discussions resulted with proposition

of the law where Physical education is compulsory subject in school

curricula. Unfortunately, due to political reasons Habsburg emperor

Francis Joseph I. decided to dissolve Croatian parliament and in that

way introduction of physical education in Croatian schools in 1861

was disabled (Čustonja & Škegro, 2011). Similar attempt occurs in

1865. In October 1865 Franjo Rački, Croatian historian, politician

and writer founded the Teachers’ Association in Zagreb, the first

society of that kind in Croatia. Their main project was elaboration of

the „Constitution of elementary school in the Triune

Kingdom“(“Ustav pučke škole u Trojednoj Kraljevini”). Among

other things, PE instruction was included in the list of the elementary

school subjects. The longest and most detailed description of the

planned PE instruction was described in this document. “The

purpose of gymnastics in elementary school is strengthening of the

body, development of movement agility, training of senses, proper

body posture, exact assessment of resistance and strength needed,

and skilful group routines. Not a definite number of hours has been

allocated to gymnastics, but youngsters should exercise according to

the circumstances – one or two hours every week outside the regular

schedule. In rural communities gymnastic exercises consist of

natural movements: running, jumping, jumping over, and racing in,

42

running, throwing, shooting, and climbing up and down, lifting,

wrestling, and so on. Therefore, each school should have spacious

playgrounds with trees on it, where children can play alone or under

control of teachers. Only in the municipal higher elementary schools,

if circumstances allow it, systematic gymnastics will be

implemented. Wherever there are opportunities, the young should be

instructed in swimming.” (Cuvaj, 1910) Unfortunately,

“Constitution” was never adopted as law in Croatian parliament

despite the fact that it was document with great support of

professional public (Čustonja & Škegro, 2011).

First teachers of physical education in Croatia

Fridrich Singer was Austrian officer who was first teacher

of physical education in Croatia. Later he changed his name to

Croatian version Miroslav. Singer taught non-compulsory PE at the

Lower Modern School in Croatian city Rijeka since May in 1855.

His Austrian roots and education in German gymnastic system were

good reference for his later advancement (Škegro & Čustonja, 2014).

In 1857 Josip Premru, principal of one of the Zagreb High Schools

decided to introduce non-obligatory classes of physical education in

his school. His correspondence with military authorities, where he

asked for physical education teacher recommendation, resulted with

arrival of Adalbert Brüll in Zagreb to teach. Unfortunately, Adalbert

Brüll stayed in Zagreb only for two months and then left this job

probably because of low income and poor interest by students for

physical education classes. After certain failure of first attempt to

organize non-compulsory classes of physical education in Zagreb,

earlier mentioned Josip Premru and Josip Torbar, principals of two

Zagreb high schools, are writing to Miroslav Fridrich Singer inviting

him to Zagreb to teach physical education (Cuvaj 1910). His arrival

to Zagreb in 1859 was the beginning of serious development of

physical education and kinesiology in Zagreb. He set first

gymnasium for the physical education classes and for physical

exercise in Zagreb in the Modern Secondary School. Low income

forced him to live in a part of the gymnasium until his death on

November 4, 1876.

As stated previously work of Miroslav Singer was not

important only in development of physical education but in

43

development of sport and exercise movement in Croatia in that time.

His involvement in foundation of Croatian Sokol movement was

very significant, due to the fact that Sokol movement in Croatia was

main organization in gathering Croatian youth interested in physical

exercise and sport. Singer’s role in Sokol movement was related to

the fact that he was creator of the first rules in Sokol and also he was

the first teacher of physical exercise in Sokol. The gymnasium where

he teaches physical education was also playground for Sokol

members and their activities. After Rijeka and Zagreb physical

education as non-obligatory subject is present in schools in Zadar,

Karlovac, Split, Varaždin, Rakovac and Samobor.

Introduction of Compulsory Physical Education in Croatia

Under the influence of social and political changes in

Croatia at that time all the preconditions were fulfilled for the new

stage of development in Croatian society. In 1868 Croatian –

Hungarian settlement has been adopted. This document guarantied

Croatian people autonomy in certain fields of governing. One of the

areas of autonomy was domain of education so the Croatian –

Hungarian settlement was sort of prerequisite for the new stage of

development of Croatian educational system. Beginnings of

education of trained personnel for conducting physical education

classes in Croatia, as previously stated, are related to the year 1874.

This was the year when the first law on education was adopted by

Croatian Parliament.

People’s party (Narodna stranka) won the elections in 1873 and its

president Ivan Mažuranić (1814-1890) became, from 1973 till 1880

Croatian Ban, key political figure in country. His work was focused

on development of Croatian society in cultural, governmental,

educational and economical way. During April 1874, a conference

was held on the reorganisation of elementary schools in Autonomous

Banovina of Croatia, which was summond and presided personally

by the Croatian Ban Ivan Mažuranić. On the basis of the proposal of

the legislative foundation for establishment of plebeian (elementary)

schools, made by the Principal of the Government Office for

Religious Affairs and Teaching Pavao Muhić, PhD, and his

counsellor Janko Jurković, the "Outline of the Law on Organisation

of Plebeian Elementary Schools and Teacher Training Schools in the

44

Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia" («Osnova zakona ob ustrojstvu

pučkih škola i preparandija za pučko učiteljstvo u kraljevinah

Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji») was prepared at the Conference. The Ban

Ivan Mažuranić submitted the Outline to the Sabor in August 1874

(Cuvaj, 1910). On September 8, 1874, the Croatian Sabor passed,

after vivid and substantial discussion, the Law on Organisation of

Elementary Schools and Teacher Training Schools in the Kingdoms

of Croatia and Slavonia, and the Emperor Francis Joseph I. ratified

the Law on October 14, 1874. It was the first law which regulated

education in Croatia. Among other things, a four-year

comprehensive, all-inclusive compulsory education was introduced,

elementary schools became general and public, they were exempted

from the church control, and the compulsory PE was introduced. The

law in its integrity was evaluated as one of the most progressive law

on elementary school in the then Europe (Ogrizović, 1989;

Dumbović, 1999).

Picture 2: Law on Organisation of Plebeian Elementary Schools and Teacher

Training Schools in the Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia (source: google.com)

There were few problems in realization of adopted law

especially in the field of physical education. There were only few

45

teachers of physical education in Croatia that could conduct physical

education classes despite the fact that they did not have any

education in that way. Other problems were professional literature,

professional terminology adapted to Croatian language, lack of

playgrounds, gymnasiums and appropriate equipment. Still the first

and the biggest problem was chronic lack of educated personnel for

conducting physical education classes. Croatian government tried to

solve this problem by introducing physical education into curriculum

of teacher training colleges so for the next three years students were

educated in the field of physical education too. Beside this

intervention, the period of three years to wait newly educated

personel for physical education was to long for wait so there was

another system of training for Physical education. Short training

courses for the elementary school teachers that already taught at the

schools.

The same year when the law is adopted, Croatian Sokol is

founded. Sokol was a citizen society for physical exercise. First

teacher of exercise in Sokol was earlier mentioned Miroslav Fridrich

Singer, the first teacher of physical education in Croatia. Therefore,

he organised and was a teacher on two month course to educate next

year teachers of physical education to be able to give instructions to

children in that subject as well. They were supposed to perform

various exercises in walking, running and jumping and also on

apparatus like rings, bar, pole and rope. Despite the fact that students

had just two months of practising, result were more than satisfactory.

Beside physical exercise classes students had theoretical lectures as

well. All of these information’s can be found in the Croatian Official

Gazette, No. 172, from July 30, 1875 in the article titled “Physical

exercise examination” (Radan, 1984). This was the first course for

Physical education teachers in Croatia. Apart from Singer, there

were several domestic enthusiasts, teachers of other subjects, who

took their own initiative to gather pupils in their schools in free time

and conduct exercise sessions, the most prominent among them

being Andrija Hajdenjak. After the death of Miroslav Singer in 1876,

František Hochman, of Czech origins, came to Zagreb to be

appointed the Singer's successor as a teacher in the Croatian Falcon

and in schools of Zagreb. With his arrival the Bohemian (Czech)

gymnastic system replaced in Croatia the previously generally

implemented German gymnastic system. F. Hochman, who brought

46

new élan and denoted a strong step forward in PE promotion,

continued with PE training courses in order to qualify more persons

for PE teaching in schools. So he started with organising a six-week

course in winter of 1877 and a month-long course in summer of 1878

and continued with courses in the years to come. A course was held

in Velika Gorica in 1877, and in Osijek in 1880 for teachers outside

Zagreb. Together with A. Hajdenjak, F. Hochman started the first

professional journal "Falcon" in 1878, which was being published

for one year. In 1890 the journal "Gimnastika"/Gymnastics" was

launched (Janković, 1954; Radan, 1970; Radan, 1984; Čustonja &

Jajčević, 2003).

Picture 3: František Hochman (Source: Croatian sports museum)

It can be concluded that there was two parallel systems of

physical education teachers training introduced in 1875. Short

training courses for the elementary school teachers that already

taught at the schools and introduction of Gymnastic as an obligatory

course/subject at the teachers training colleges (Škegro & Čustonja,

2014). In the period from 1875 till 1880 six different courses was

organized to fulfill the needs for educated personnel for physical

education.

47

The two-year course for the secondary schools PE teachers in

1894–1896 – The first high school (college) of PE in Croatia

First training courses, held under the leadership of F./M.

Singer and later F. Hochman, were scheduled for teachers with the

plebeian (early elementary) and civil/ middle class (late elementary)

schools. The act on the introduction of PE as a compulsory subject in

secondary schools resulted in the increased needs for PE teachers.

The Croatian Falcon took the responsibility to train expert teachers

in the beginning and was granted a month lump sum from the

Government as remuneration for the organization expenses and care.

Yet, it had only short-term and temporary effects. Just a few persons

were able, like Vladimir Novak, to participate in courses for PE

teachers and to get their qualification abroad. Vladimir Novak was

educated in Prague and, in fact, was one the first PE teacher with

higher education diploma in Croatia who taught PE in cities of Split

and Tuzla. He wrote several professional textbooks, among which

"Short instruction on physiology of gymnastics" was published in

Split in 1898 (Radan, 1984).

Twenty years after the compulsory PE classes had been

introduced into the Croatian elementary schools, Franjo Bučar

(1866-1946), "a father of Croatian sport", entered the ‘historical

arena’. His name was related to almost any significant event in the

area of sport and Physical Education in Croatia from the end of the

19th

century to the middle of the 20th

century. He was the first Croat

in the membership of the International Olympic Committee (1920-

1946).

48

Picture 4: Franjo Bučar (Source: Croatian sports museum)

In 1892 Professor Isidor Kršnjavi, Ph.D., the Principal

(Minister) of the Department of Religious Affairs and Teaching of

the Country Government of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia sent

Franjo Bučar to Sweden for his education. The aim was to educate

an expert who would be ready to transfer his knowledge to his

compatriots. While Bučar was studying in Sweden, Prof. Kršnjavi

was preparing the terrain for the introduction of the Swedish

gymnastic system in Croatia. Namely, the then Croatian Vice-Roy

Khuén Hédérvary considered the Swedish gymnastic system was

neutral enough from the aspect of national feelings and it should,

hopefully, decrease political influence of the Croatian Falcon and the

Bohemian gymnastic system, soaked-through with national feelings,

on the Croatian youth. Bučar’s noticeable role in the history of

Croatian sport started in 1894 after he had returned from his two-

year education at the Royal Central Gymnastic College in Stockholm

(Sweden). Upon his return, Franjo Bučar got his first assignment – to

organize and manage a two-year Course for Secondary School

Gymnastic Teachers (1894-1896). In fact, it was the first high school

(college) of PE in Croatia and in this region of Europe (Radan,

1984).

The first idea of F. Bučar was a two-year training course for

secondary school PE teachers in the form of a permanent university

49

course. The course was planned for those students that "study for

teachers of secondary schools, like in Austria, Hungary and

Germany, so that they enter such a biannual course, while they're at

the university, where they, along with other subjects can listen

gymnastics as well" (Bučar, 1896).

Eventually it was decided that the first generation of the

two-year course for PE teacher would be elementary school teachers

who will be granted a permission to work as secondary school

teachers of PE after their successful completion of that training

course. About 60 elementary school teachers applied for the course

and 30 of them were selected. Among them only one female applied

and was selected. It was Ivana Hirschmann. All elementary school

teachers were treated as full-time students and all of them received a

sort of scholarship in a form of full elementary school teacher salary

(Bučar, 1896).

The curriculum and syllabus, devised by Franjo Bučar, were

modern and comparable to any curriculum of the most popular

European schools of the time. As role models Bučar used the similar

course syllabuses from Stockholm (Sweden), Oslo (Norway),

Copenhagen (Denmark), Berlin (Germany), Vienna (Austria) and

Prague (Czech). The course started on October 1,, 1894. In the four-

semester course thirty attenders took 16 theoretical and practical

course subjects: Gymnastics (time allocation per week: 6 hours of

exercise + 2 hours of theoretical classes), Sabre (5+1), Foil (3+1),

History of Gymnastics (1), Seminar in Gymnastics (1), Practice –

exercise with the secondary school students (3), Military Gymnastics

(2), Anatomy and Physiology (3), First Aid (1), School Hygiene (1),

Games (2), Ice Skating and Skiing (2), Fire-fighting (2), Swimming,

Excursions and Dances (Bučar, 1896).

In almost ideal conditions, provided by Isidor Kršnjavi, the

Principal (Minister) of the Department of Religious Affairs and

Teaching of the Government of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia,

Bučar managed to incite interest of the Course attenders in many

sports and games previously unknown in Croatia. Certain contents

were taught and shown for the first time in Croatia, like football,

figure skating, ice hockey, field hockey, skiing, sleighing, cricket,

and fencing foil. Simultaneously, the body of knowledge and skills

was expanded on swordsmanship, tennis, exercises on apparatuses,

cycling, athletics, bocce playing and other sport disciplines. During

50

the course over 80 games for children were demonstrated (Bučar,

1896).

School practice was conducted during all semesters in

Zagreb's secondary schools. First, student-teachers taught smaller

classes and later the whole classes. History of PE was taught

according to the Löffler’s book "Gymnastics for teachers and teacher

trainees" and some foreign authors like Scheiner and Euler. At

gymnastics seminars, the course participants were acquainted with

the domestic and foreign literature.

Picture 5: Students and professors of the Course (Source: Croatian sports museum)

As Isidor Kršnjavi soon had to step down as head of the

Department of Education and Religious Affairs, the duration of the

course from the four planned was shortened to three semesters. The

classes were delivered until March 25, 1896. On March 31st final

exams were held. All attenders passed the final exam. They were

trained in teaching PE in secondary schools. Seven of them were

immediately appointed as teachers in secondary schools, while

others were promised that they will be appointed later. Before he

retired from his position, I. Kršnjavi provided budget funding for

salaries of the seven new PE teachers, as well as support for the

construction of new gymnastic halls and, for all the schools to which

51

new teachers were assigned, some basic equipment and supplies for

games and fencing equipment.

The course attenders passed the final examinations and as qualified

PE teachers and professionals in sport returned to their hometowns.

Although the Swedish gymnastic system was never officially

introduced in the Croatian educational system and the Czech Sokol

system remained predominant gymnastic system, "some Swedish

equipment (ladders, benches) became regular equipment in Croatian

schools’ gymnastic halls and also more attention was given to sports

and sports games in school curricula" (Radan, 1970). The two-year

course for PE teachers is very important in the historical

development of PE in Croatia. One of the most important legacies of

the Course lies in the fact that F. Bučar and Course attenders

managed to increase very quickly the quality of PE and sport in

Croatia.

Credits goes to them and their efforts in promoting and

improving reputation of sport, which resulted in not only inclusion of

numerous sports and sporting games in the school curricula, but in

the introduction of numerous sports to schools as extracurricular

activities and in the establishment of first sport organizations.

Unquestionable are credits to Franjo Bučar and contribution of for

his contribution to the foundations of modern sport in Croatia.

Kršnjavi introduced numerous measures to improve working

conditions of PE teachers both in the elementary and secondary

schools. He appointed Franjo Bučar the principal adviser on the

construction and maintenance of gymnasia and playgrounds in

Croatia. No new school could have been built without a gymnasium

and playground. It was a legal obligation of financiers to provide

construction of gymnasia and playgrounds according to the

determined standards (1-2 m2 of the indoor and 4.5 m

2 of the outdoor

space per pupil) (Croatian Official Gazette, 1892).

In several decades that were to come, the course attenders

were, together with Franjo Bučar, the most agile participants and

organizers of sporting events in Croatia while they were

simultaneously performing their routine teaching tasks in schools

across Croatia. The true social and historical value of the Course for

the development of PE and sport in Croatia of the time can be seen in

the fact that Isidor Kršnjavi, due to the political causes, but mostly

due to the effects of the Course, was forced to resign from the

52

position of the principal of the Department of Religious Affairs and

Teaching of the Country Government of Croatia, Slavonia and

Dalmatia. His successor abolished any vocational training of PE

teachers. Over 45 years should have passed and four systems of

government should have been changed before PE teacher training

was re-established in Croatia (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2003).

Physical education in Croatia in 20-th century

Despite the cancellation of the Course for the secondary

school gymnastic teachers, its successes and achievements of the

trained personnel aroused enormous interest of pedagogues and

sport-related persons within and outside of Croatia. So, at the request

of the Polish Falcon (Sokol) from Lavov, the Course of Swedish

Gymnastics and Modern Sports for their front men was organized in

Zagreb in 1902. Seventeen front men of the Polish Falcon (Sokol),

under the leadership of the well-known Polish educator and

gymnastic teacher Edmund Cenar, participated in an eight-day

course. Sixteen attenders from Bulgaria, among which 9 women,

participated in the similar course, organized by the Croatian Sokol in

Zagreb in 1910. Franjo Bučar was the most prominent lecturer at the

Course for Gymnastic Games, organized in Sarajevo in 1908, with

more than 40 participants (Radan, 1984). However, these were

sporadic, unsystematic and insufficient activities in the area of

vocational training of personnel in PE and sport and they could not

contribute considerably to stronger development of Croatian sport in

the first half of the 20th

century.

The first trade organization for PE – the association of

Gymnastic Teachers of Croatia and Slavonia – was established in

Zagreb in 1896, with the purpose to protect interests of PE teachers.

Franjo Bučar was the president of the Society Management Board.

Two years later, in 1898, the Society for Physical Education was

founded. Unfortunately, their activity had a small effect on practice

and they made little progress. Yet, nothing could stop the fast

growing popularity of modern sport. More and more sport clubs and

associations of different sport disciplines were established. The

Croatian Sport Association was founded in 1909.

The situation did not change considerably after the First

World War, breakdown of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and

53

establishment of a new state – the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and

Slovenes, Later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Compulsory PE was

reintroduced in elementary and secondary schools in 1920 and there

was again a shortage of qualified PE and sport personnel – the

vocational training became a fundamental issue once more. Until

1941 PE training courses (Youth Games Course and Course for

Games and Gymnastics) were being organized only from time to

time, whereas most PE teacher training activities in Croatia between

the two World Wars were related to regular front men courses in the

Croatian Falcon until its abolishment in 1929. From 1927 a PE study

was accessible for students enrolled in the University of Zagreb

Faculty of Arts (Philosophy) as the Study Group C (Minor C).

However, the issue of the high school of PE was perpetually on the

agenda. For example, Franjo Bučar actualized the need to establish

such an educational institution in 1919: «It is self-understanding that

we would be soon forced to initiate immediate foundation of the

Central Institute of Gymnastics in the Kingdom the purpose of which

would be to assume responsibility to systematically and gradually

train future PE teachers … the school should last two years or four

semesters with the perspective to improve and expand to four years

or 8 semesters … " (Franjo Bučar, Tjelesni odgoj u školi i sokolstvu.

Sokolski glasnik, Zagreb, Vol. I/1919, p. 385, according to Radan,

1984.) The issue was also addressed at the I. Congress of the

Association of Sport Federations in 1930 and several times later.

Eventually, in 1940, a decree was issued on foundation of the High

School of PE in Zagreb. The instruction began in March 1941.

Unfortunately, winds of the Second World War interrupted work of

the School in April of the same year (Radan, 1984).

The Higher School of Physculture (physical culture, i.e. PE)

was initiated immediately upon the ending of the Second World War

in 1945, but was dissolved the next year. Instead of it the Secondary

Physculture School was established in Zagreb in 1947. From the year

1948 higher education of personnel in PE and sport (two-year or

associate degree) was organized at the Teacher Training College in

Zagreb like a two-subject course of study. In 1959 it became a one

subject two-year course of pre-professional study of physical

education.

54

Physical education in Croatia today

The Institute of Physical Culture was established in Zagreb

in 1952 to improve scientific and professional research in the field of

PE and sport. But, several unsuccessful initiatives were launched

before the Parliament of the Peoples Republic of Croatia passed the

Law on the High School of Physical Culture in Zagreb on July 7,

1959. Thus, eighty-five years after the compulsory PE classes had

been introduced in elementary schools of Croatia; the educational

institution was eventually founded with the purpose to provide

quality professional training for personnel in PE and sport. The

teaching at the High School of Physical Culture started officially on

November 3, 1959. There were 58 men and 16 women in the first

generation of students. The part-time study for sports coaches

(associate degree) was launched in the academic year 1965/1966.

The study operated effectively until the 1998/1999 academic year

when was transformed into the Coach Training and Education

Department of the Social Sciences Polytechnics in Zagreb. On

October 31, 1967, the High School (College) of Physical Culture was

incorporated into the University of Zagreb. The postgraduate study

programmes (Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees)

were launched at the High School in the 1971/1972 academic year.

The High School of Physical Culture changed its name to the Faculty

of Physical Culture (Education) University of Zagreb. By the

decision of the University of Zagreb Senate, reached on January 16,

2001, the Faculty of PE has changed its name once again, this time

to the Faculty of Kinesiology University of Zagreb.

55

REFERENCES

Bobić, G., & Čustonja, Z. (2005). Early begginings of Physical

Education in Croatia. In D. Milanović & F. Prot (Eds.),

Proceedings Book of the 4th International Scientific

Conference ”Science and Profession – Challenge for the

Future”, Opatija, Croatia, Septemer 7–11, 2005 (pp. 757

– 760). Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology.

Bučar, F. (1896). Izvještaj tečaja za učitelje gimnastike u Zagrebu od

1. X. 1894. do 1. IV. 1896. [Course for the Secondary

School Gymnastic Teachers from October 1st 1894 till

April 1st 1896 – A report. In Croatian.] Zagreb:

Kraljevska zemaljska vlada Hrvatske i Slavonije.

Čustonja, Z. & Jajčević, Z. (2003). Vocational Training of Personnel

for Sport and Physical Education in Croatia – a Historical

Overview. In S. Puhak & K. Kristić (Eds.) «Making Sport

Attractive for All» Proceedings Book of XVI European

Sports Conference, Dubrovnik, Croatia, September, 24-

26, 2003, (pp. 216-224). Zagreb: Ministry of Science,

Education and Sports.

Čustonja, Z., & Škegro, D. (2011). Attempts to organize and

advance education in Civil Croatia in 1861 and 1865 and

position of Physical Education. In D. Milanović & G.

Sporiš (Eds.), Proceedings Book of the 6th International

Scientific Conference on Kinesiology, Opatija, September

2011 (pp. 383-386). Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology.

Čustonja, Z., Jajčević, Z. (2004). Donošenje zakona i preustroj

osnovnog školstva 1874. godine – uvođenje obavezne

nastave tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture u osnovne škole na

području Banske Hrvatske. U: V. Findak (ur.) Zbornik

radova 13. ljetne škole kineziologa Republike Hrvatske,

Rovinj, 19. do 23. lipnja 2004., str. 77-81.

Čustonja, Z., S. Mavrek (2004). Introduction of Obligatory Physical

Education Classes into Croatian Primary Schools. IXth

56

International Congress of Sport History, September, 23-

26, 2004, Crotone, Italy,, p.34.

Cuvaj, A. (1910). Sources of the history of education in the

kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonija from the ancient times

till nowadays (In Croatian). Vol. I-XI. Zagreb: Kraljevska

hrvatska-slavonska-dalmatinska zemaljska vlada, Odjel za

bogoštovlje i nastavu.

Dumbović, I. (1999). Razvoj pedagoške misli u Hrvatskoj. U: A.

Mijatović (ur.) Osnove suvremene pedagogije, str, 81-100.

Jajčević, Z. (2010). Povijest športa i tjelovježbe. Zagreb: Društveno

veleučilište u Zagrebu I Kineziološki fakulteta Sveučilišta

u Zagrebu.

Janković, V. (1954). Iz prošlosti fizičkog odgoja u školama

Hrvatske. Zagreb: Društvo učitelja, nastavnika i profesora

fizičkog odgoja NR Hrvatske.

Ogrizović, M. (1989). Prilozi nacionalnoj povijesti pedagogije.

Zagreb: Školske novine.

Radan, Ž. (1970). Franjo Bučar i gimnastički i sportski pokret u

Hrvatskoj. [Franjo Bučar and gymnastic and sport

movement in Croatia. In Croatian.] Zagreb: Visoka škola

za fizičku kulturu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.

Radan, Ž. (1984). Uvod. [Introduction. In Croatian.] In E. Hofman

(Ed.), Faculty of Physical Education University of Zagreb

1959-1984 (pp. 3-8). Zagreb: Fakultet za fizičku kulturu

Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.

Royal Croatian, Slavonian and Dalmatian Country Government.

(1892). The Decree of the Royal Croatian, Slavonian and

Dalmatian Country Government, the Department for

Religious Affairs and Teaching, No. 5628-1892 from May

13, 1892. Croatian Official Gazette, 24, 11.

Škegro, D. & Čustonja, Z. (2014). The beginnings of education and

training for delivering physical education classes in

Croatia – 140 years of tradition. Kinesiology,

46(Supplement 1), 127-133.

57

CZECH REPUBLIC

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CZECH LANDS

Gabriela Štěrbová, Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University

Olomouc

Petr Vlček, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University

Correspondence

Gabriela Štěrbová hostasovag@seznam.cz

Phone: +420 728 920 665

Introduction

In the Czech lands, education has its tradition and deep roots.

Although the origins of formal education can be traced back to the

period of Samo’s empire (7th century A.D.), with certainty we can

speak of schooling in the era of Great Moravia (833–906/907).

However, education at that time was dedicated primarily to persons

associated with the Church and later on to lords (Kovaříček &

Kovaříčková, 1989).

The period of humanism in the Czech lands

It is generally known that in this period the value of human

beings was recognized not only in intellectual but also in physical

terms. Humanists referred back to Ancient Greece and Rome,

including the system of physical culture. There appeared theoretical

works from the field of physical education (henceforth P.E.), which

as a subject was implemented in several schools, yet in a non-

compulsory way. These humanistic ideas penetrated the Czech lands,

too. In so called “regiments of health” and school ordinances, which

58

were often translated from Latin and German, the value of physical

exercise was explained. These documents recommended staying in

the fresh air, healthy diet, hygiene and natural physical education.

Relatedly, the works of John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), a

prominent representative of late humanism, should be mentioned. In

a number of his works he addressed, directly or indirectly, the issues

of P.E. For example, Comenius mentioned the importance of games

and physical exercise for healthy development of a child, he gave

advice on ways of prolonging life, such as physical exercise, healthy

diet, alternating work and rest, he mentioned swimming, fencing and

other sports (these ideas can be found, for example, in Didactica

magna, Orbis sensualium pictus, Leges scholae bene ordinatae). In

his work Panorthosie he even suggested restoring the tradition of the

Olympic Games. The works of Comenius had a significant impact on

European Enlightenment teachers, philanthropists and their followers

in the nineteenth century (Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Kössl,

Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998).

The era of enlightened absolutism in the Czech lands

The ideas of the Enlightenment and related political, economic

and cultural changes gradually spread from Western Europe

countries to the Czech lands, in which they created preconditions for

a new stage of the development of education and schooling. In 1774,

on the initiative of the Enlightenment empress Maria Theresa

(reigned between 1740–1780), compulsory schooling for all children

aged 6–12 in the Austrian part was implemented. Until then,

education for girls was generally neglected (Kádner, 1912). The

author of the school reform was Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724–

1788), an abbot of the monastery of Sagan. According to the General

School Ordinance (Allgemeine Schulordnung), the education of

young people was crucial for the development of nations (Kádner,

1929).1 In 1777 a similar reform was implemented on the basis of the

1 Within basic education, this General School Ordinance distinguished rural schools

(the language of instruction was Czech, absences from school were tolerated, children were taught to read, write and count), “Main Schools” in towns and “Normal Schools”

in the cities of Prague and Brno (these had an extended curriculum of Main Schools

and included teacher education courses). In both Main Schools and Normal Schools the language of instruction was German (Kádner, 1929).

59

organization order Ratio Educationis in Hungary (including a part of

the present-day Slovakia) (Krátký, 1974). In 1775 the education in

grammar schools was also reformed, resulting in the state’s control

over grammar schools (Kovaříček & Kovaříčková, 1989).

The Thereisan School Reform introduced the possibility of

physical exercise (games, natural exercise, etc.) and it recommended

that playgrounds and playing areas should be built, one near a school

and another close to the town or village. Some teachers, such as Jan

Jakub Ryba (1765–1815) or Josef Miloslav Rautenkranc (1776–

1817) supported this initiative. However, P.E. was not included in

the curriculum of compulsory education, which was caused mainly

by the influence of the Catholic Church (Novotný, 2006).

From “Schulkodex” to “Concordat”

After the death of the Enlightenment emperor Joseph II (the son

of Maria Theresa) the influence of the Church on education started to

regain strength. In 1805 (by passing so called Schulkodex), the

control over education shifted back to the Church. The efforts to

implement P.E. as a compulsory school subject was again weakened

(Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998; Nováček, Mužík, & Kopřivová,

2001). In 1848 the Exner-Bonitz Reform was realized, which

resulted in completing the organization of the system of secondary

education (for example, eight-year grammar schools emerged). Apart

from that, the inclusion of P.E. as a non-compulsory subject was

recommended. However, the actual decision depended on the school

principals and professors. After the revolutionary year 1848, in the

Habsburg Monarchy so called Bach’s absolutism (1851–1859) was

introduced. This resulted in slowing down the efforts to strengthen

the position of P.E. as a compulsory school subject and generally

limited the circulating of P.E.-related ideas in the society, which was

confirmed by the Concordat (an agreement between the Catholic

Church and the state) from 1855, which assigned the control over

education to the Church (Kádner, 1912; Kádner, 1929).

The Hasner reform

After the fall of Bach’s absolutism in the early sixties of the

nineteenth century, the tensions in the society eased somewhat.

60

Austria’s losses to Italy (1859) and Prussia (1866) seem to have

contributed to implementing P.E. as a compulsory subject in schools.

It was uncovered that the population, especially men, was in bad

physical condition. Generally, insufficient level of education was

reflected on, which resulted in realizing the Hasner reform in the

years 1867–1869. The reform wekened the influence of the Church

on education and established the Ministry of Education (Kultus

Ministerium) while passing the Imperial Basic Schools Act no. 62

from 14th

May 1869. Compulsory schooling was extended to 8 years

(from 6 to 14 years of age) for both girls and boys, and a new system

of basic schooling was established, replacing the Felbiger system.

The new system introduced “national schools”, which were divided

into a lower (five-year) stage and a higher (three-year) stage. After

finishing the lower stage, the learners could go to secondary schools

of the grammar school type, which were attended mostly by children

of the wealthy, and which were dedicated solely to boys (girls were

limited in their choice of state secondary schools, e.g. schools of

education, otherwise they had to attend mainly private schools,

which did not change until 1918) (Štekr, 1999; Základní škola –

Basic school, 2014).

P.E. was first implemented as a compulsory school subject in

basic schools with the time allocatoin of two lessons per week. In

1870 the school ordinance first defined the aims of P.E. as follows:

“the goal of P.E. is for schoolchildren to gain skillfulness,

confidence and courage, to enjoy order, to have self-confidence and

to be alive both in body and soul” (Reitmayer, 1972, 34). Clearly, the

health or aesthetic aspects were not expressed directly, thus we

cannot speak of P.E. in the full sense of the term. The curriculum

issued between 1874 and 1877, elaborated according to Spiess-Maul,

included floor exercise, marching exercise (for all grades), apparatus

gymnastics (from the third grade) while putting emphasis on

discipline. Only marginally were included games (without an

elaborated plan; they usually had a local character, such as folk and

simple games). The aim of P.E. was to improve the fitness of

prospective recruits.The curriculum soon ceased to be appealing,

which contributed to children’s dislike of P.E. In the context of

secondary education, P.E. was implemented as a compulsory school

subject in Bohemia in 1874 and five years later in Moravia. The first

curriculum for these schools was issued in 1875 only for Bohemia,

61

and four years later for all lands belonging to the Austrian part of the

Habsburg Monarchy. The curriculum in fact copied the Spiess-Maul

system (Reitmayer, 1972; Rychtecký & Fialová, 2004).

From the Taaffe reform to the formation of Czechoslovakia

In 1883, so called Taaffe reform was implemented. Due to this

reform the Church regained the control over education. The reform

slowed down the development of P.E. and education in general. For

girls at basic schools (both the lower and higher stages), P.E. became

a non-compulsory subject, which was effective until the end of the

First World War. Furthermore, school absence was tolerated for

various reasons, which included a reduction of the time allocated to

P.E. The standard of hygiene in P.E. school facilities was poor and

so was the health condition of the children. In addition, the

qualifications of P.E. teachers were not often very satisfactory

(Štekr, 1999).

Seven years later the situation improved due to an ordinance by

the minister Paul Gautsch, who was a member of Taaffe’s

government. Gautsch’s “Spielerlass” recommended implementing

non-compulsory games (mainly ball games) and also swimming and

skating. It also encouraged all state secondary schools to build sports

facilities (playgrounds, pitches, gyms etc.). In the 1890s, P.E.

gradually became a compulsory school subject at grammar schools.

Nevertheless in secondary schools for girls it was only after 1900

that P.E. became a non-compulsory subject (Kössl, Krátký, &

Marek, 1986). In 1911, a new P.E. curriculum for secondary schools

was issued. This curriculum was for boys; two years later a

curriculum for girls appeared. The curricula included floor exercise,

marching, apparatus gymnastics, and also natural athletic exercise

and games (performance-oriented). The curricula were inspired by

some elements of the Swedish system (P. H. Ling), from the most

part by the French system (Hébert, Demény, Racine), rhytmical P.E.,

the heyday of youth sport movement (Sokol2, Orel

3) and also by the

2 Sokol (in English Falcon) is a Czech sports movement and organization founded on

16th February 1862 in Prague by Miroslav Tyrš (1832 – 1884). This organization was

62

popularity of sports, both nationally and internationally (Czech

sportsmen and sportswomen took part in the Olympic Games). In

this respect, the new curricula seemed progressive as compared to

the former Spiess-Maul curriculum. There were some significant

changes for girls: the healthy and beautiful body was preferred

(including proper posture), emphasis was put on outside exercise, the

sense for smooth and elegant movement was developed as well as

physical strenght, courage, ability to react, and also the fondness for

physical exercise (Rychtecký & Fialová, 2004).

During the First World War both education in general and P.E.

specifically were dampened (a decrease in the quality of teaching,

toleratence of absences from school). Especially concerning boys,

military drill was integrated into P.E. Some school buildings served

for military purposes (quarters, hospitals). Many teachers were

deployed in the war (a number of them were Sokol members or

scouts), some of whom were at the birth of the first Czechoslovak

Republic and held important offices (Novotný, 2006).

From the First Republic to the Protectorate

After the end of the First World War and after the independent

Czechoslovak Republic was established (1918), the resort of

schooling was administered by the Ministry of Education. The first

minister was Gustav Habrmann. Although the laws from the

previous period were still effective, emphasis was put on national

and democratic aspects of education (access to education, continuity

between the individual school stages). The influence of the Catholic

Church was significantly reduced. Two years later, the first

Conference of Czechoslovak Teachers and Friends of Education took

place. The teachers called for modernization of education and for the

teaching of P.E. as a compulsory subject at all schools and with

proper time allocation. The Tyrš system became the basis for the

curriculum and sports and hygiene facilities were built at schools. A

college was to be established for getting the qualifications of P.E.

from its beginning also an inseparable part of the national movement (for more

information see Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Novotný, 2006; Perútka & Grexa, 1978). 3 Orel (in English Eagle) was a Catholic sports organization founded in 1908. It was

led by Jan Šrámek (for more information see Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Novotný,

2006; Perútka & Grexa, 1978).

63

teachers, who were supposed to be equal to other teachers and to be

insured. The conference was an important stimulus for the

development of education (Reitmayer, 1972; Štekr, 1999).

From 1920, the Journal of Physical Education was published and

was edited by Josef Klenka. The journal was a methodic tool for

teachers. The Small School Act from 1922, which also

implemented compulsory eight-year schooling in Slovakia,

confirmed compulsory P.E. for girls in primary education at both the

lower and higher stages (from the Taaffee reform in 1883 until the

end of the First World War, P.E. for girls was not compulsory; it

became compulsory in 1919, which was officially confirmed in

1922). The school act stated that the official Czech term for P.E. was

“tělesná výchova” (i.e. Physical Education), not “tělocvik”, which

can roughly be translated into English as physical exercise. This

change reflected the educational value of P.E. Two years later, a new

curriculum for P.E. in basic schools was issued. The basis of the

curriculum comprised the Tyrš system and the curriculum even went

beyond the Sokol practice. The curriculum included floor exercise,

marching, apparatus gymnastics, athletics, games, hiking and witner

sports. In 1919, compuslory P.E. for girls at secondary schools was

again implemented and resumed the curriculum from 1913. The time

allocation was two hours per week and this was effective also for

girls at teacher training institutes, where they could take an

examination in P.E. From the late 1920s there were also school

doctors who were responsible for regular check-ups of the pupils and

who were responsible for remedial P.E. This medical practice in

schools was approved of by the Ministry of Education in 1925. The

Ministry also supported the development of sports in secondary

education. In 1921 the first Secondary School Games were held in

Pardubice (for more information see Perútka, 1973). The participants

were also Slovak and German secondary school students. Due to

their popularity, the Games were included in the Sokol festivals five

years later. In 1928, after-school sports clubs emerged at secondary

schools. Various competitions and races were organized among

schools. These activities had a positive impact on the relationships

among Czechoslovak students, whose ethnic origins were different

(Kovaříček & Kovaříčková, 1989; Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998;

Štekr, 1999).

64

In the early 1930s, the P.E. curricula for primary and secondary

education were reformed, which was influenced, apart from other

things, by modern trends in P.E. such as the French natural system of

teaching (e.g. G. Demény) or so called new Austrian school (K.

Gaulhofer, M. Streicher). These trends emphasized natural exercise

as well as educational and health aspects of P.E. The new curricula

for primary and secondary schools issued in the years 1932 and 1933

were no longer based on the Tyrš system. P.E. in schools was

oriented mainly to the pupils’ health, athletic exercise and its effects

on the individual’s health; and the development of pupils’ physical

skills was preferred. Apart from that, fair play, which is related to the

moral and educational aspects of P.E., was considered to be

appropriate. In P.E. classes, natural and dynamic exercise was

preferred as well as games. In addition, girls did rhytmical

gymnastics. As far as assessment is concerned, effort was valued as

well as the actual performance. In the late 1930s, the growing power

of the Nazis in Germany raised fears of the security in

Czechoslovakia, which resulted in the Defence Act in 1937,

according to which civil defence education (including P.E.) was

implemented in all schools in August 1938. However, it was

cancelled in less than two weeks after Hitler proclaimed Bohemia

and Moravia the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (15th

March

1939) (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Novotný, 2006; Štekr, 1999).

The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

From the new school year 1939/1940, the allocation of P.E.

increased to 3 or 4 lessons per week, emphasizing the importance of

sports and athletics. The model for Czech P.E. was the German one,

which was characterized by discipline and by its orientation both to

health and to the preparation for fight and war conditions. In

November 1939, the Nazis closed all Czech universities in response

to protest meetings of Czech citizens in October and November

1939. The Nazis also reduced the number of secondary schools and

modified the curricula (Czech, History, etc.) while emphasizing the

role of the German language as a compuslory subject from the first

school form. In 1942, so called “Kuratorium” for the education of

the youth in Bohemia and Moravia was established. This compulsory

after-school organization was supposed to re-educate the Czech

65

youth (aged 10–18). The programme of Kuratorium included P.E.

and sports as well as civil defense education (for more information

see Špringl, 2004). During the war, not only the Sokol, Orel and

Scout organizations, but also the professional teacher organizations

(including those related to P.E.) were banned. Some teachers, who

often belonged to the above-mentioned organizations, joined the

resistence movement. At the end of the war, we can observe decline

and gradual cancellation of schooling (Grexa & Strachová, 2011;

Novotný, 2006; Perútka, 1973; Štekr, 1999).

The beginnings of P.E. teacher education

The Hasner reform established teacher institutes, which were to

train teachers for the primary schools Although P.E. was included in

the study, it was considered to be a marginal subject for a long time,

or it was focused on improving the fitness of the prospective

teachers. Moreover, those who taught P.E. at the institutes had

themselves insufficient qualifications (Reitmayer, 1972).

P.E. teachers were educated in P.E. institutes. The first ones

were established abroad (Denmark, Sweden, France). In the Czech

lands the first P.E. teachers were trained in private P.E. institutes. It

was Jan Malypetr (1815–1899) who was the first Czech qualified

P.E. teacher, appointed in 1849 and who founded his own P.E.

institute in Prague. This institute created the first Czech P.E.-related

terminology, upon which Miroslav Tyrš drew later on (Kössl,

Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998).

In 1870, an examination committee for P.E. teachers at

secondary schools and teacher training institutes was established in

Vienna. A similar committee was established in Prague as late as in

1878. The examination comprised a practical part and a theoretical

one. The candidates had to prepare for the examination on their own,

which often caused discongruence and problems (Reitmayer, 1972).

This is why, under the auspices of the Ministry of Education, there

was established a training course for P.E. teachers at secondary

schools in Prague in 1891. The course was four semesters long and

later on was attached to the Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of

Medicine, Charles University, which improved the quality of the

course. However, there were several problems regarding the staff

and facilities: the course did not have its own building, pitch or gym

66

until 1945. Moreover, despite women’s possibility to take the

examination (their qualifications applied only to womens’ teacher

training institutes), they were not allowed to attend the course. It was

not until 1911 that the first one-year courses for women-teachers of

P.E. at primary schools were opened. Two years later women started

attending two-year courses for teaching P.E. at secondary schools.

The lectures were attended together by both men and women, the

practical training was separate. It was from 1913 that the

examination could be taken only by those who had done the courses

and, at the same time, who studied P.E. along with another

specialization at the Faculty of Science or Faculty of Arts (Biology,

Chemistry, Languages, from 1919 also Mathematics and

Geography). During the First World War the courses were closed.

They were reopened for women one year before the end of the war

and for men one year after the end of the war (Štekr, 1999).

P. E. teacher education from 1918 to 1945

The creation of the new state caused certain changes in the P.E.

teacher training courses. In 1919, on the resolution of the Ministry of

Education, the regulations and examinations for secondary school

teachers in teacher training courses were rearranged. During the

entrance examinations, the prospective candidates were expected to

produce a secondary-school leaving examination from a grammar

school (as well as a medical certificate). Therefore school-leavers

from other schools could not be acceped. The students of the Faculty

of Medicine could study P.E., provided that they intended to become

school doctors. One could become a fully-fledged secondary school

teacher only after finishing the studying of P.E. along with another

specialization and after passing an examination in philosophy and

education. The studying of P.E. as a single subject, according to the

secondary-school department at the Ministry of Education, was not

considered to be university education. The negative reactions led to

the extending of the course from four to six semesters, which

improved the quality of the study as well as extended and deepened

the theory. In 1922, a course for secondary school P.E. teachers was

opened at Masaryk University, Brno, and in the autumn of 1939

another course was opened at Comenius University, Bratislava (at

that time the Slovak Republic was a separate state, established on

67

14th

March 1939). In the late 1920s and in the 1930s, on the basis of

insufficient physical fitness of the prospective teachers in the

courses, entrance examinations were adjusted, namely the talent test.

In 1936, the courses were extended to eight semesters and the

positions of individual subjects in the courses were rearranged. The

teaching of theory was extended and deepened and new subjects

(such as social sciences, anthropology etc.) were introduced. More

emphasis was put on methodology. Two years later the students were

compulsorily taught civil defense education. On 1st January 1939 the

programme of teaching P.E. was recognized as a fully-fledged

university education and teacher education was controlled by the

department of tertiary education at the Ministry of Education.

Unfortunately, one year later, in response to the protest meetings, all

Czech universities were closed, which lasted until 1945 (Grexa &

Strachová, 2011; Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Štekr, 1999).

1945 – 1989

Significant changes occurred after the end of the Second World

War in the year 1945, in which the Research Pedagogical Institute in

Prague took responsibility for the creation of a new curriculum. This

period was characterized by the effort to unite the school system,

P.E. became one of the elements of the comparison with the

surrounding world and reached such a level that it never had before.

For the first time, stress was put on the need for the integration of

upbringing and education. At the same time, the differentiation

between sexes was eliminated, and the foundations for standard

school were laid. After the year 1946, P.E. became an equal partner

to all other subjects, and in the following period the curriculum for

individual types of schools was designed (Antala et al., 2001).

The events of February 1948 caused the codification in P.E. and

the law of comprehensive school was passed. P.E. was influenced by

the concept of Russian physical culture, in which physical fitness

was supposed to ensure military strength, productivity, and

nationalism (Nováček, Mužík, & Kopřivová, 2001). Sports were

viewed as a way of achieving international fame.

In the year 1954, limits and norms were introduced in the P.E.

curricula and thus P.E. became an annoying subject for many pupils,

since they got bad marks and were more or less forced into P.E.

68

In 1955 the first worldwide Spartakiad 4 took place and from

that time on, Spartakiads became a part of school P.E especially in

the year when the Spartakiad took place. Due to the Spartakiads

rehearsals, which often filled the content of P.E. classes, the aims of

school P.E. were not fully carried out (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek,

1986).

During the 1970s, sport activities became dominant in the P.E.

curriculum and the emphasis was put on performance and

competitiveness. The curriculum for P.E. from the years 1973– 1976

turned out to be very demanding, and due to insufficient time

allocation it appeared unrealistic and overloaded.

In the 1980s the so called “desportification” of the Czech P.E.

emerged. The stress was put especially on the positive attitude

toward the physical activity rather than sport.

1989 – present

The “Velvet Revolution“ in 1989 meant a great change for

Czechoslovak citizens. The development of events brought radical

changes in the state, political, economic and also school life. The fall

of communism created some kind of vacuum in school P.E. The

instruction of PE often had only a recreational content. Since the

mid-1990s, the situation has been improving due to the recent

reforming process in the educational system and a more scientific

curriculum.

According to the newly introduced educational programmes,

named the Framework Education Programmes (in Czech Rámcové

vzdělávací programy - RVP ZV, 2007), a wide variety of P.E.

activities concerning health goals should be used in the P.E. classes.

Within the reforms of the Czech education system, the educational

field of P.E. was embedded in the educational area related to health

promotion (Mužík, 1999).

From the research results it is evident (see Vlček & Mužík,

2012) that the current conception of Czech P.E. is not accepted

4 Spartakiad (in Czech Spartakiáda) was a mass gymnastics display, which was held

every five years at the Strahov Stadium in Prague, when Czechoslovakia was under

the Communist rule.

69

homogenously by the teachers. According to the latest educational

programmes mentioned above (RVP ZV, 2007). a wide variety of

physical activities concerning especially health goals should be used

in the P.E. classes (Mužík, 1999). However, there is a low

congruence between the projected and realised curricula (Vlček &

Mužík, 2012), which presents a significant problem for the quality

evaluation of the subject.

REFERENCES

Antala, B. et al. (2001). Didaktika školskej telesnej výchovy

[Didactics of school physical education]. Bratislava:

Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity

Komenského.

Grexa, J., & Strachová, M. (2011). Dějiny sportu: přehled světových

a českých dějin tělesné výchovy a sportu [History of sport:

an overview of Czech PE and Sport history]. Brno:

Masarykova univerzita.

Kádner, O. (1912). Stručné dějiny paedagogiky a školství [A short

overview of history of education]. Praha: Nákladem

Dědictví Komenského.

Kádner, O. (1929). Vývoj a dnešní soustava školství [Development

and current educational system]. Praha: Sfinx Bohumil

Janda.

Kössl, J., Krátký, F., & Marek, J. (1986). Dějiny tělesné výchovy II.

Od roku 1848 do současnosti [History of PE II. Since

1848 till the present days]. Praha: Olympia.

Kössl, J., Štumbauer, J., & Waic, M. (1998). Vybrané kapitoly

z dějin tělesné kultury [Chosen chapters in history of

physical culture]. Praha: Karolinum.

Kovaříček, V., & Kovaříčková, I. (1989). Vývoj školských soustav

v českých zemích [Development of the Czech educational

system]. Olomouc: Rektorát Univerzity Palackého

v Olomouci.

Krátký, F. (1974). Dějiny tělesné výchovy I. Od nejstarších dob do

roku 1848 [History of PE I. Since the oldest times till

1848]. Praha: Olympia.

70

Mužík, V. (1999). Gesundheitlich vorbeugende Körpererziehung -

eine neue Richtung in der tschechischen Schule [Health

oriented PE – a new approach in the Czech school]. In:

J.C. Bussard & F. Roth (Ed.), Which Physical Education

for which School? (pp.91-96). Berne: SVSS.

Nováček, V., Mužík, V., & Kopřivová, J. (2001). Vybrané kapitoly

z teorie a didaktiky tělesné výchovy [Chosen chapters from

PE theory and didactics]. Brno: Masarykova univerzita.

Novotný, F. (2006). Stručný přehled dějin tělesné výchovy a sportu

[A short overview in history of physical education and

sport]. Ústí nad Labem: Univerzita J. E. Purkyně.

Perútka, J. (1973). Pokrokové tradície telesnej výchovy

v Československu [Progress traditions of PE in

Czechoslovakia]. Bratislava: Šport, slovenské

telovýchovné vydavateľstvo.

Perútka, J., & Grexa, J. (1978). Dejiny telesnej výchovy. II. diel

[History of PE II]. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského.

Rámcový vzdělávací program – RVP ZV [Framework Education

Programmes] (2007). Výzkumný ústav pedagogický v

Praze. Retrieved from

http://www.vuppraha.cz/soubory/RVPZV_2007-07.pdf

Reitmayer, L. (1972). Dějiny školní tělesné výchovy v českých

zemích [History of PE in Czech lands]. Praha: Státní

pedagogické nakladatelství.

Rychtecký, A., & Fialová, L. (2004). Didaktika školní tělesné

výchovy [Didactics of physical education]. Praha:

Karolinum.

Špringl, J. (2004). Protektorátní vzor mladého člověka [Protectorate

petter of a jang man]. Soudobé dějiny, 11(1–2), 154–177.

Štekr, V. (1999). Historie školní tělesné výchovy [History of school

PE]. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého.

Vlček, P., & Mužík, V. (2012). Soulad mezi projektovaným a

realizovaným kurikulem jako faktor kvality vzdělávání v

tělesné výchově [Congruence between projected and

realidsed curriculum as a factor of quality in PE]. Česká

kinantropologie, 16(1), 31–45.

Základní škola [Basic school]. Anonymous (2014). Retrieved from

http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1kladn%C3%AD_

%C5%A1kola

71

FINLAND

THE ROOTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT

SCHOOLS IN FINLAND

Airikki Mariitta Pousi, University of Helsinki

Correspondence

Airikki Pousi airikki.pousi@gmail.com Phone: +358 50 5367210

In Finland there has been physical education in schools

already 170 years. In this article it has been focused only into early

phases. Physical education in Finnish schools has its roots on the

other hand in the own folk sports of finish people and on the other

hand they were influenced by new ideas, which gradually began to

come here to the early 1800's onwards. People's exemplary physical

activity, particularly in rural areas were characterized by different

running and jumping championships as well as spinning and cue

games (Suomela, 1929).

Physical education at schools in Finland has gone through the

times as a part of Sweden and Russia, as well as in independent

Finland very radical development stages. Teaching started first

private grammar schools and then municipal educational institutions

and educational institution of the state.

School order 1843

In Finland there were spoken about gymnastics in early

phases when speaking all the physical education in Finland. And in

the beginning it mostly was gymnastics, The term physical education

came much later that why I use the term gymnastics as it has been

used in my sources. Some kind of gymnastics had been in

educational institutions under Swedish period. Officially, the school

gymnastics began by Imperial Senate Gracious Declaration in 1843.

72

The former high school, grammar school pedagogues and the district

schools were now instead of 1 and 2 -class primary school, 4-class

secondary schools, 2 class high schools and 2-class “schools for

women.” (1843, on the 6th of November). Hans Keiserliga

Majestäts Nådig GYMNAS och Skol-Ordning for Storforstendömet

Finland.)

At that time, the Education Act decreed that the teaching of

gymnastics had to be elementary school age five hours a week for

boys and the upper classes as well as the grammar school and high

schools they should have four hours a week. The school defines

school forms, in the teaching materials and teachers of the

requirements. Even in the 1870s the early years of our country was

only eight to the University leading the state schools and all alone

for boys. Gymnastics came by School Order of 1866 to elementary

school and gymnastics for the girls´ schools in the year 1872 (1872.

8 p elokuuta). Keisarillisen Majesteetin Armollinen koulujärjestys

Suomen suuriruhtinaanmaalle.)

The School Order defined school forms, the subjects to be

teached and requirements of the teachers. Requirements to the

teacher was the age of 21 years, student certificate , suitable

temperament, as well as a certificate of competence. The

development of the subject teachers education has been considerable.

Official gymnastics teacher training began also for men in 1882, but

before that for female students had already organized a gymnastics

teacher training in Matilda Asp´s private Gymnastics Institute 1869.

Women could get in the Gymnastics Department inform the year

1894, when also Asp´s Institute ceased the operations.

Gymnastics Teacher Education

The efforts of the development of Gymnastic Institute broke

down time to time. We had to wait a long time before the way to the

highest studies opened for the gymnastics teachers. We had unable to

have gymnastics in any place. It required “a Institute”, sufficient

space and apparatus and tools. As a prototype of Gymnastic Institute

was created on the initiative with Hjalmar Ling´s letter dated

05.05.1813 and confirmed by the Stockholm Royal Gymnastic

Central Institute GCI. GCI was repaired at the expense of the state

the old factory hall, some tools to it and salary to Ling. Apparatus

73

was imitated partly from Gutsmuts, partly imitated from nature and

sailor's life. They included: the climbing wall bars, ladders, rods,

chest, arms and a horse, benches. The wall bars were only apparatus

that was undeniably Swedish. The goal of GCI was to train

instructors in gymnastic institutes. Students, however, were initially

diverse range: soldiers, artists, priests, teachers, or students of

different subjects (Meinander, 1994).

Gymnastics Department of University of Helsinki is founded

in 1834

Proposals were made also in Finland to found gymnastics

institute. In Helsinki there were working private Department of

gymnastics founded by Gusted Mauriz Paul by the "Ling´s all over

approved model". After Paul has moved to St. Petersburg continued

his work G. Otta. The new construction of University of Helsinki

was underway. When the side building was not yet built, Engel

decided to invest fencing and dance hall there after accordance with

the wishes of Otta gymnastics. This first university gymnasium was

completed in 1834, and now it is considered of gymnastics

Department the University to be founded.

Department of Gymnastics of University of Helsinki

followed faithfully the 1870 Stockholm´s development. Hall and

apparatus of GCI's conforming to the model. Gymnastics was old

Lingian and focused in such a way medical gymnastics, where

Stockholm was in the foreground, Helsinki, gymnastics teacher

training began, however, until 1882. Until then, the University

Gymnastics Department was solely for hobby gymnastics.

Gymnastics Department had from the beginning Gymnastics of

women's. The women did not, however, required the student

examination and their gymnastics was medical gymnastics alone.

In1820s and 30s set up other gymnastic institutes among other

Turku, Vaasa and Vyborg. For economic reasons they work for only

short periods of time. Scientific education of Physical education

teachers begins 1963 in Jyväskylä University in faculty of Physical

Education. After that came the term Physical Education also in

schools.

74

Grammar Schools

Finnish people had a strong desire to raise the level of general

education. It was considered the only way to secure the Finnish own

culture. Before 1898 all the country's grammar schools were located

in cities. Therefore people of countryside had very difficult to

achieve higher education than the elementary school. When Finland's

autonomous rights were returned by the November Manifesto, the

more liberal conditions quickly began to generate private Finnish

grammar schools. When in the year 1902 there were four rural

grammar schools in our country, their number had by 1906 already

risen by 10 and 1910 entering 20. In this way the in the end of First

World War, in Finland there were the 28 private grammar schools

working. The work in grammar schools Study was based further on

the 1872 school system. Staff gymnastics had been imported and

advocated by Heikel in 1860s as a substitute for military training

with rifles. Staff gymnastics were practiced predominantly by the

two highest classes, and replaces free-standing movements. They

followed the same choreography as sabre training and rifle handling

in the other Nordic countries; the space between pupis was extended

and the movements were carried out collectively (Meinander, 1994).

In upper classes of Lyceums Number gymnastics program

should to be such that the exercises were able to substantially affect

those organs - heart, lungs, digestive organs, and others, the

condition of those organs mainly affects to persons health. The army

have had the desire to develop school sports to military service

reinforcing direction. The proposal of physical education was

immediately ready in 1918 after peace. The proposal included the

people's bold ideas to increase the condition to defend the country

(Meinander, 1992). The number of hours of exercise increased until

six hours a week. The first educational records for boys was

confirmed in 1917.

75

Elementary schools

Teacher Training Seminar of Jyväskylä

The number of Grammar schools were limited. Jyväskylä

Lyceum was established in year 1858. That was solution year was

in whole national education. Then the Tsar gave the declarations,

which Uno Cygnaeus had been based on the draft guidelines for the

presentation of the Senate following "of the foundations of

organization of public education." In 1863 was founded the first

finish seminar in Jyväskylä and the first director was Uno Cygnaeus

himself. The 1866 elementary school order did´n say anything about

number of hours of teaching gymnastics, but in 1881 National

Board of Education distributed the schools model of time table in

which each class was reserved three hours for gymnastics. Most

rural elementary schools had, however, to compromise this goal very

much. (Primary and secondary schools inspection reports from 1870

to 1884). The reason was normally a lack of space. Even the

elementary school teachers were not necessarily interested in

gymnastics, even if had received preparatory teaching of physical

education in seminars.

170 years Physical Education at Schools in Finland

76

The Regulation of School Districts was born - elementary

school to every village

Before The Regulation of School Districts, the

establishments of elementary schools was in municipal

consideration. Therefore, there were elementary schools only in

bigger villages (Halila 1949, III, 19-31, Vihola 1983, 358). The

School issue was then discussed in the year 1894 and in the year

1897 in Parliament. Until then on May 24, the day the Regulation of

School Districts was given. According to this, the rural area was

required to distribute school districts so that each pupil has the

opportunity to receive education in their mother language. If in one

school district enrolled 30 children to school striving, the school had

to be established. When doing the school district there had to be

taken into account geographic, and linguistic conditions, so that

school transport should not normally be no longer than five

kilometers long. (Halila 1949, III, 19-31.)

To organize gymnastics teaching was generally the most

difficult task in whole elementary school system in Finland in the

early days. Many were of the opinion that gymnastics, at least in

rural areas be needed. Some of elementary school teachers do not

have without any doubt accepted the gymnastics to elementary

schools. Lack of space in school rooms and lack of suitable

equipment was hampered the education. 1890 's Jyväskylä seminar

teaching of gymnastics was formulaic and rigid. We could talk about

the mode of abjection of gymnastics. (Vihola, 1983, Vihola, 1986

Old Ruoveden history III: 3, Pousi, 1988, 32). In 1903, became the

Jyväskylä Seminar colleague of gymnastics and health education,

later Licentiate in Medicine, KA Rikala, the student of Iwar

Wilskman. During his time in the seminar teaching of gymnastics

soon diversified. Gymnastics and sport equipment was increased to

the level among the best of our country (Sakari, 1969).

The Finnish conditions was applied the physiological laws of

Ling-based system, which was connected to the German gymnastic

system with rod movements. This was consisted of Finnish

gymnastics system, which involved the Iwar Wilskman´s manual

(Wilskman, 1906, Ritokangas, Järviö, 1957, Pousi, 1988, 32.). Thus,

77

for example Riihonen elementary school, which was a rural

elementary school in the Jyväskylä Seminar sphere of influence

gymnastics teaching was carried out quite versatile. The program

involved free gymnastic movements and games. "The special

movement what is practiced is explained and displayed, after which

the students will do it according to command. Otherwise monitored

by general gymnastics order, so that the different exercises follow

each other in a specific order. Gymnastics took place in the summer

time and in good weather in the school yard. In wintertime the

pupils were skating on the frozen lake, and doing cross-country

skiing. In thaws snow castles were built and snow war was played,

throwing snowballs. (Keuruu municipal archives. The curriculum

and the diary 1904-05, National Archives Keuruun Riihosen

elementary school in the district's annual reports from 1904 to 1936).

A large number of gymnastics in elementary school were made

because lack of space (Meinander, 1992, 97).

In larger schools where the student population was

approaching a hundred, boys and girls were divided into their own

groups. Boys and girls had two hours a week gymnastics. Swedish

speaking schools used typically Heikel´s manuals, which was

mainly intended for secondary school youth. Finnish speaking

schools maintained their Göös instructions. The period of

independence by the beginning of 1917, these were replaced

gradually by Ivar Wilskman´s, Elin Kallio´s and Anni Collan´s

manuals. So Riihonen elementary school Wilskman´s manual was

used for gymnastics. The lesson was as follows; Instruction is given

in such a way that the class is divided into two groups. Departments I

and II are in one group and departments III and IV the second group.

To the girls selected easier movements. In the beginning free

movements are practiced continued to rack movements, and finally

was playing. In winter, cross-country skiing trips were made. (KKA

Riihosen elementary school curriculum and annual reports.)

Athletics Track and field began to be more and more

interesting. Examples came from the Finnish sports fields and from

the Olympic Games. Successful sportsmen became role models to

follow. School children build self tools. Athletics competitions were

held outside of school hours (Pousi, 1988). The first boys'

educational records was set in 1917.

78

Physical education in Finland´s independence time

Independence time

School Compulsory Education Law 1921

After the years 1921 School Compulsory Education law

each school district had to be a four-year secondary school and two-

year primary school with different teaching managing both graduate

schools. In the primary school there were two hours of singing and

playing and in the secondary school two hours gymnastics and two

hours of sports. The Act controls the general compulsory education

and a compulsory education school became a elementary school.

National Board of Education ordered in the letter of the year1924

that each elementary school had at the first state to acquire the wall

bars and other gymnastic apparatus as well as balls, rackets, bats,

targets, high jump racks and two balls for boys.

What kind of sports types in Schools

Among types of exercise there were at first fencing, which

then became optional subject in 1911. Skiing became common turn

of the century in the schools of boys and in the first decade skiing

races spread especially in rural areas. Ice skating was common for

both boys and girls and the boys also played ice hockey and bandy.

In ball games, winter sports and athletics began the systematic

teaching, if you only had available some kind of field or terrain. Ball

games became a competitor for gymnastics. Ball Games formed

their own considerable group already around the turn of the century.

There were played: four goals, the long ball, limit the ball, the king

of the ball, football, bandy and others. Pesäpallo spread of the bus

were by the school and the Civil Guard. In the schools “pesäpallo”

became as Finlands national game to the program.

In the school program in the time schedule to the pupils there

were two terms: gymnastics and sports until 1960s.

79

REFERENCES:

Finlands Författnings Samling/Suomen asetuskokoelma:

Valton arkisto (VA), Helsinki

Kansa-ja oppikoulujen tarkastuskertomukset 1870-1879, 1880-1884.

Keuruun Riihosen piirin kansakoulunvuosikertomukset 1904-1936.

Keuruun kunnan arkisto (KA). Opetussuunnitelma ja päiväkirja

1904-05,

1872. 8 p:nä Elokuuta. Keisarillisen Majesteetin Armollinen

Koulujärjestys Suomen Suuriruhtinaanmaalle.

1843. Den 6 November. Hans Keiserliga Majestäts Nådig Gymnasii

och Skol-Ordning för Storforstendömet Finland.

Literature:

Halila, Aimo 1949. Suomen kansakoululaitoksen historia II- III.

Turku.

Heikkinen, Antero 1992. Voimistelun läpimurto. Teoksessa: Suomi

uskoi urheiluun. LTS julkaisu NO 131. Helsinki.

Meinander Henrik 1992. ”Warpaille y-lös, kyykkyyn a-las!”

Koululiikunta etsii paikkaansa. Teoksessa: Suomi

uskoi urheiluun. LTS julkaisu NO 131. Helsinki.

Meinander Henrik 1994. Towards Bourgeois Manhood, Bous

physical Education in Nordic Secondary Schools

1880-1940. Helsinki.

Pousi, Airikki 1988. Keuruun Riihosen koulu vuosina 1903-1936.

Keuruu

80

Pousi, Airikki 2003. Nuori Ilmari Vaissi. Helsingin yliopiston

kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 188. Helsinki

Ritokangas, Kalle A. - Järviö, Jouko, K. 1957. 50-vuotias

Haapamäen yhteiskoulu. Muistojulkaisu koulun

vaiheista 1097-1957. Keuruu.

Sakari, Aimo 1959. Keuruun satavuotias kansakoulu. Pieksämäki

Suomela, Klaus U. 1929. Skolungdomens fysiska fostran in Finland

på dess nyvarande ståndpunkt. Liikunakasvatuksen

työmailta IV. Helsinki.

Vihola 1986, Vanhan Ruoveden historia III:3,

Vihola, Teppo. 1983. Keuruun ja Pihlajaveden historia 1860-1917.

Vanhan Ruoveden historia III:3,1. Keuruu

Wilskman, Iwar 1906. Voimistelun käsikirja kansa- ja alkeiskouluja

varten. Helsinki.

Wuolio, Eija-Leena – Jääskeläinen, Leena 1993. Kyykkyyn – ylös!

150 vuotta koululiikuntaa. Liikuntatieteellisen Seuran

julkaisu nro 136. Helsinki.

81

GREECE

ENACTMENT OF GREEK PHYSICAL

EDUCATION - ESTABLISHMENT OF THE

GERMAN SYSTEM (1835-1907)

Dimitris Hatziharistos , Faculty of Physical Education & Sport

Science, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens

Correspondence

Katerina Zounhia kzounhia@phed.uoa.gr

Phone: +30 6976223534

The beginning of the most decisive phase of Modern Greek

education coincides with the arrival of Otto in Greece. The main

characteristic of this period is complete Bavarocracy, that is the

imposition of Bavarian systems in all sectors of the newly founded

Greek state. It is noteworthy that when Otto came to Greece, he was

accompanied by a large number of specialized Bavarians who were

intended to undertake the organization of various sectors of the state.

The organization of newly established state was such that it led

Greece to complete and final dependence from big forces. Under the

circumstances, through education such dependence would be

supported and enhanced. For the realization of their goals, the

Bavarians had also the entire support of the local privileged who

were impatient to make official the structure and operation of

education and in accordance with the principles and the intentions of

Patriarchate and the Fanariotes.

The main educational objectives of the first primary

schools, founded in 1834, were the promotion of religious

obscurantism, meticulous spirit and pseydoclassicism1. That was

consistent with the objectives of the Bavarian and the Greek

conservatives.

Physical education is not included in the curriculum of

primary schools. 62,0% of total number of hours are spent for the

teaching of ancient Greek and religious2. In a separate article of law

82

it is reported that “physical drills are executed twice a week under

the supervision of schoolteachers, during rest hours or leisure time

feasts3”. However, this provision was never fulfilled

4.

In 1836 the organization of secondary education in two

circles was completed: The three-grade Greek school in imitation of

German Latinische Schule and the four-grade High school, in

imitation of German Gymnazium. The same year Higher Education

was enacted and organized by the German Mauer. Thus, we can say

that the plans of the Bavarians are fulfilled and Bayarocracy in the

sector of education is fully established. The religious, scholastic, and

pseudoclassistic character of the studies, especially as outlined in the

1836 curriculum, stemming from Bavaria and distorted by the local

conservatives, will determine the goals and objectives of education.

71,8% of total number of hours on a weekly basis are spent on the

teaching of dead languages and religious and 28,2% on the teaching

of the remainder 12 courses5.

Physical education is not included in the obligatory courses

of the 1836 curriculum. In a separate article it is reported that during

free hours, when courses are not taught, students can execute

physical exercises (mainly in the afternoons and in the

summertime)6. This provision however was never fulfilled due to

teaching personnel shortage.

Physical education is not included in the 1834 and 1836

curriculum. Despite this exclusion, during the period, we examine,

an intense action for its dissemination begins. Main contributors to

this dissemination were the German C. L. Corck and G. Ottendorf

who came to Greece with Otto to help with the organization of

education. The Greek G. Th. Pagon, who studied in Germany and

wrote the first Greek book about physical education entitled

“Calisthenics in Summary” and published in 1837, participated in

this effort. The author says in its preface that this book was written

“in line with the books of J. C. GutsMuts and F. L. Jahn”7. At the

same time the building of first athletic facilities starts. Sport

equipment comes from Germany8. The first physical exercises stem

from the German system of gymnastics by F. L. Jahn that

contributed to the military education of young people9.

This period, therefore, the establishment of extra curriculum

physical education in schools begins. Since its establishment, the

organization of physical education had been consistent with the goals

83

of the German system. To a large extent, physical education

conformed to the desires and dreams of a group of Greeks who

believed that the establishment of physical education, for the purpose

of initiating military education in young people’s life, would

contribute to the production of an army capable of fighting against

the Turks and, thus, setting free the remainder part of Greece.

From 1836 and onwards intense actions are taken for the

inclusion of Calisthenics in the compulsory school curriculum of

modern Greece. However, only in 1862, 26 years later, Calisthenics

is introduced in the field of education. In particular, with the decree

of 8th

December 1862 Combat Drills are introduced in Secondary

education. With the same decree, military exercises are introduced in

the university curriculum and university military phalanx is

established. Military Calisthenics included dense line up exercises

taken from the infantry. Specifically, these exercises include:

phalanx marching in groups of threes or fours, changes of direction,

rhythmical marching and running, etc. For the teaching of military

Calisthenics, that continued to be taught outside the compulsory

school curriculum, a non-commissioned officer and a soldier from

the Fire Brigade Corps were appointed to each Secondary school due

to the lack of specialized physical educators10

. According to the

decree of 18th

February 1871, military exercises are introduced in the

curriculum of Greek schools. These exercises were compulsory for

those students who had reached the 14th

year of their age. However,

after 1877 military exercises did not continue to be taught in Greek

schools and Secondary schools. This discontinuance was due to the

fact that the circumstances in the army did not allow any further

detachment of officer or non-commissioned officer from the army11

.

With the decrees of 1862 and 1871, Calisthenics adopted a

strictly military focus in order to promote the sole fulfillment of

military and national goals. However, at the same period a group of

Calisthenics’ supporters, together with I. Fokianos (1845-1896) in

chief, expressed their opposition to the features and content that the

conservative circles tried to attach to school Calisthenics. Fokianos

was greatly influenced by the gymnastic system of A. Spiess, that he

had studied during the period of his collaboration with the German

84

professor J. Kebauer12

. This great pioneer of Calisthenics tried to

establish Calisthenics as a compulsory school subject. At the same

time, he endeavored to exclude its military character, so that it could

acquire an instructional character, in the context of students’

education. I. Fokianos’ one and only book entitled: “Calisthenics

Textbook” was written in accordance with the Belgian Captain’s

Docx13

work. Fokianos’ textbook was until 1900 the one and only

methodic guide for the implementation of Calisthenics as a school

subject.

Fokianos’ objective, which was the introduction of

Calisthenics as a compulsory subject (equal to the other school

subjects), was realized after 20 year of persistent efforts. With a

special decree during the year of 1880, Calisthenics became a

compulsory subject. Three hours per week were initially scheduled

for its teaching for each class. For the implementation of

Calisthenics, specially trained instructors were appointed. In

particular, one instructor was appointed for every 180 students. The

instructors’ training took part at the Central Public Gymnasium and

lasted 45 days. However, in 1883 military exercises were brought

back and with the curriculum of 1884 they were rescheduled to be

implemented in the two upper classes of Secondary schools for three

days per week14

.

According to the school timetable of 1884, Calisthenics

represented 10% of the total number of hours of a weekly school

programme. In Secondary schools, it represented 9,4% for boys and

girls15

(see Table 1 and Figure 1).

From the above, it becomes obvious that in the

organizational part, the objective of Fokianos was fulfilled for the

enactment of Calisthenics was completed. However, his objective for

the abolishment of military exercises remained unfulfilled. The

government of that time did not make any substantial modification to

the decree of 1862 that referred to the content of Calisthenics. At this

point it is worth mentioning that not only was the military character

of Calisthenics affected, but also it was more reinforced. In the new

decrees of 1883 and 1889 it was explicitly stated that military

exercises are the only factor that shapes the content of Calisthenics.

Furthermore, in the same decrees it was mentioned that the

preparation of students for their future military life remains the basic

objective of Calisthenics16

. Fokianos’ efforts against military

85

exercises continued for the next years and up to some point resulted

in persuading the Ministry of Education to remove strict military

exercises from school programs. However, the main aim and the

general notion for the subject of Calisthenics retained stable its

military-chauvinist character.

It is obvious that the organizers of school Gymnastics did not

attach to Calisthenics any educational value. People responsible for

the dissemination of Calisthenics treated it as a medium for

children’s and youth’s military preparation. For a long time the

organizers of school Gymnastics insisted on their choices, despite the

fact the need for exercising was evident and urgent, especially in

urban cities. In one of his lectures I. Fokianos mentioned that “due to

the concentration of people in big cities and the prolonged idling of

youths in coffee shops, tuberculosis and lack of physical activity,

begin to create problems in their physical development”17

.

The above pessimistic situation worsened even more after

Greece’s defeat in the 1897 war against Turkey. Many and serious

problems that came into surface made people criticize the past.

Insecurity and pessimism dominated after the defeat and made the

majority of Greek citizens develop a conservative attitude towards

life. In education, as in the rest domains of public life, there was a

generalized turn back. Education and schooling of Greek children are

dominated by militarism and chauvinism17

. School Calisthenics

revives in its primary form taking a military orientation18

.

It becomes evident that in the final phase of the era under

examination, all hopes for any kind of educational reforms were

reduced considerably. The status of Calisthenics as part of the

curriculum deteriorated. In 1896 the leader of Greek Calisthenics, I.

Fokianos, passed away. He was the man who defended its

educational goals and its content for a significant amount of time.

In the timetables of the 1897 and 1906 national curriculums,

the same percentage of time spent on Calisthenics as in the previous

ones. Specifically, the amount of time provided for teaching

Calisthenics represented 9.2% - 10.1% of the total amount of hours

of the weekly curriculum19

(see Table 1 and Figure 15).

The expectations for Gymnastics’ revival acquire a new

vitality in the beginning of the 20th

century. In 1900 the law ΒΧΚΑ’

was published. This law, signed by the Minister of Church Affairs

and Public Education A. Eftaxias, constitutes the first remarkable

86

effort for coping with the Calisthenics and Sport matters in our

country.

In the introductory report of the law BXKA’ it is mentioned

that “until 1884 the interest for students’ physical exercise was

confined to what should be done or to military exercises”.

Concerning the development of Calisthenics, it is mentioned that the

year 1884 constitutes a historical milestone in the course of evolution

of Calisthenics in Modern Greece, because that year the

“Calisthenics School” began to operate for the first time. Graduates

of Teaching and High School were entitled to attend that two year

school. In another part of the report it was stated that the Olympic

Games of 1896 created vivid interest and enthusiasm in favor of

physical exercises and promoted their value in people’s conscious20

.

In the first article of the law BXKA’ the purpose of Calisthenics was

determined as “the development of physical and mental potential, the

development of stamina and the preparation of young people for

military life”21

. In a separate decree, contained in the above law, an

official curriculum of Calisthenics was established for the first time.

That curriculum contained all the activities that had to be taught in

each class of primary school, of Greek schools and High schools.

These activities include regular exercises, games, and the teaching of

athletics and gymnastics (in the upper classes of high school only)22

.

That curriculum is accompanied by detailed instructions on the basic

methods of its application. Instructions are supplemented with

general preliminary remarks. These remarks explained the

significance of each group of exercises and supported theoretically

the value of the proposed curriculum23

. Apart from the curriculum, in

a separate decree of the law BXKA’, students’ examinations in

Calisthenics are explained in detail. The same decree also

determined the organization of school sport competitions24

.

Apart from the above contention I must admit that over the

period considered, the theoretical and methodical thinking for

Calisthenics began to move away from the level of speculations and

personal opinions and gradually was placed on scientific bases.

Specifically, in 1894 a book entitled “Robust bodies” was published.

In that book a series of exercises for developing strength in every

muscle group is presented25

and the effects of exercise on physical

development are described in an innovative way. It is worth

mentioning that the suggestions contained in this book are supported

87

with scientific arguments. For the first time in Greek literature

anthropometric data are reported. These data, included in a separate

appendix resulted from successive measurements of young people of

American College, who exercised for a semester for one hour, four

times a week26

. Around 1900, the "Association of dissemination of

useful books" published a remarkable book entitled "Calisthenics".

In the first part of this book the author refers to the value of exercise

in promoting physical development and human health. In the second

part exercises are classified and described27

.

The period presented in this section, particularly the years

between 1862 and 1894, during which I. Fokianos acts, is

particularly important to Greek physical education. The official

inclusion of Calisthenics in school curricula constituted the

foundations, on which the next generations would rely to demand:

- further improvement of methods of its application

- the creation of a strong scientific base, upon which its

future growth will be based

- its adaptation to the ever changing needs of our people.

Footnotes

1 R.D./6-2-1834: On Primary schools, article 1.

2 R.D./6-2-1834, article 1 (calculated by the author). Athens: Themelio.

3 Similarly, article 2, 8, and 9.

4 Law BXKA/1990: On Calisthenics, p. 9.

5 R.D./31-12-1836: On Greek schools. Timetable of Greek and Secondary schools,

taken from A. Dimaras p. 66 (calculated by the author).

6 Similarly, article 83.

7 Babanasis S., Soulas K: Greece at the periphery of developed countries. Themelio,

Athens 1979, pp. 153-198.

8 Pagon, g.th.: Calisthenics in summary. Athens 1837.

9 Giannakis Th. Construction of the first gymnasium in Nafplio. C. L. Cork organizes

and directs it. “Physical Education and Sport” p. 144.

10 Yearbook 1929-1930: School for the teaching of Calisthenics, p. 7.

11 Greek State Newspaper (GSN) Issue 19/8-12-1962: Decree for the Phalanx and

Greek University, article 1-8.

88

12 Calisthenics Instructors’ Union: Ioannis Fokianos (1845-1896), pp. 48-52

13 Docx: Guide pour l’enseignement de la gymnastique des garcons a l’usage des

Ecoles. Namur 1878.

14 Pavlinis E.: History of Calisthenics, Publishing house Kiriakidi, Thessaloniki 1977, pp. 398-404.

15 R.D./23-6-1884. Timetable of Greek schools and Secondary schools.

16 Law No/1883, GSN issue 139/1883, articles 1 and 7, GNS 79/1889.

17 Pavlinis E: «Lecture about I. Fokianos» in the commemorative edition of EGE in

honor of I. Fokianos, p. 15.

18 Law ΒΤΜT and R.D./11-9-1897.

19 Law ΒΧΚΑ’/1990: On Calisthenics, p. 11.

20 Dimaras A..: see Intro., p. 15, Volume Β’. Decree 11-9-1987: Time table of Greek

and Secondary schools.

21 Law BXKA’/1900, see Intro, p. 10.

22 Law BXKA’/1900: About calisthenics and sport competitions, chapter A’, article 1.

23 Law BXKA’/1900, C’ Decree: Curriculum of Primary and Secondary education, pp. 60-72.

24 Law BXKA’/1900: Instructions for teaching Calisthenics in primary and secondary

education, pp. 81-92.

25 Law BXKA’/1900, D’ Decree: On examination of school Calisthenics in Primary

and Secondary education and school competitions, pp. 73-76.

26 (Unknown author): Robust bodies, 1894

27 Similarly, pp. 257-261.

28 (Unknown author): Calisthenics. Association of dissemination of useful books.

89

Table 1

Percentage of hours scheduled for Physical Education in

comparison to the total number of hours of weekly programs

scheduled for all subjects of all grades according to the Greek

curriculums delivered from 1884 until 1985

Year Total

studying

hours

according to

weekly

schedules

(male/female

students)

Physical

Education

hours

(male/female

students)

Percentage

of Physical

Education

hours in

comparison

to total

school hours

(male/female

students)

1884 223/223 21/21 9.4/9.4

1886 224/224 21/21 9.4/9.4

1897 228/228 21/21 9.2/9.2

1906 208/208 21/21 10.1/10.1

1914 242/242 21/21 8.7/8.7

1931 180/187

Physical

Education

was

distributed

during all

days

(8.7/8.7)

1935 231/206 18/18 8.5/8.7

1939 205/216 18/18 8.8/8.3

1961 218/228 18/18 8.3/7.9

1964 204/216 18/18 8.8/8.3

1966 180/188 15/15 8.3/8.0

1967 221/221 17/15 7.7/6.8

1969 204/210 18/18 8.8/8.6

1973 205/210 18/18 8.8/8.6

1977 172/172 12/12 7.0/7.0

1981 167/167 11/11 6.1/6.1

1985 180/180 14/14 7.8/7.8

Mean percentage between 1884-1985 8.4

Maximum percentage 10.1

Minimum percentage 6.1

90

Sources:

1. Dimaras A.: The reform that never happened, Volume Α’ and Β’.

2. Noutsos Ch.: Secondary School Curriculum and social control

(1931 – 1973), p. 59.

3. ΥΠΕΠΘ: Εγκύκλιος αριθμ. Φ/210/2/109/99921/12-9-1977.

4. Π.Δ. 831/1977 (GSN 270, V. Α’).

5. Π.Δ. 12861/1981 (GSN 315, V. Α’).

6. Π.Δ. 831/1985 (GSA 158, V. Α’) και Π.Δ. 479/1985 (GSA 170,

V. Α’).

Figure 1. Percentage of hour variation provided for Physical

Education classes in the curriculums

delivered between 1884-1985

6 6,4 6,8 7,2 7,6

8 8,4 8,8 9,2 9,6 10

10,4

18

84

18

86

18

97

19

06

19

14

19

31

19

35

19

39

19

61

19

64

19

66

19

67

19

69

19

73

19

77

19

81

19

85

Percentage (%) males Percentage (%) females

91

92

HUNGARY

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE

HUNGARIAN SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Erzsébet Rétsági, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pécs

Kata Morvay-Sey, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs

Tamás Csányi, Hungarian School Sport Federation / Faculty of

Primary and Pre-School Education, Eötvös Loránd

University, Budapest

Correspondence

Tamás Csányi

csanyi.tamas@mdsz.hu

Phone: +36703181261

Abstract

This chapter presents the history of Hungarian school physi-

cal education (P.E.) from the 18th

Century until the present. Due to

expansion limitations the explanation of content focuses only on the

milestones of the evolution of P.E.. Neither will the ever problematic

infrastructure be discussed, nor the history of the training of P.E.

school-teachers. The structure of the study chronologically follows

the history of Hungary starting from the enlightened absolutism

through the reform era over the period between the two world wars

to the post-world war years of the totalitarian then soft dictatorship

concluding with the year 2015 of the democratic Hungary. We

strived to provide insight into the socio-political background deter-

mining education policies of certain periods in the overall nearly 250

years. The very first curriculum that was credited to Maria Theresia

expected schools to train obedient subjects and soldiers who are able

to protect the Habsburg Empire. In the Reform Era, multifunctional

training was believed to be the token of the progress of the common-

ers and the rise of the nation, and P.E. was marked out for having an

important role in the process. In the Horthy Era P.E. was a means of

93

covert militarization and military training. In the Rákosi Era the

purpose and task of scholastic education was to train young men that

were able to build Socialism, disciplined and loyal to the nation and

who were endowed with the ethical attributes of a communist per-

son. Raising the socialist “genotype” was in force until the 1989

change of the political system – although nobody took this aim seri-

ously from the ‘80s. Approaching European practice, democratic

Hungary introduced decentralized education direction and its im-

print, the core curriculum. Until now four core curricula (1995, 2003,

2007, 2012) were brought to light and despite their conceptual dif-

ferences and diverse elaboration, each appoint life-affirming, health

valuing personality development as the main goal.

In our study based on the works of chronicler predecessors,

we relied on the monography of Földes et al. written in 1982, as well

as relied on contemporary literature.

Keywords: Physical education history, Hungary, Curriculum

development

94

Hungarian P.E. from the 18th

Century till World War I

Hungary had been under Turkish submission for more than

150 years (1541-1699). Following the expulsion of the Turks, the

Habsburg Empire gradually gained supremacy of the Hungarian

territories. It was decided that Hungary’s own, new age development

would come off not as an autonomous state but within the confines

of national absolutism. Legislation, including education policy was

basically determined by the characteristics of the Habsburg legisla-

tion.

The 1st Ratio Educationis (1777)

During the Enlightened Absolutism, from the mid-18th

Century the state demanded increased supremacy in the aspect of

education and cultural policies, trying to decrease the ecclesiastic

authority. The primary goal of school education was to train useful,

obedient subjects, good soldiers who serve the state apparatus of the

Habsburg Empire. The first comprehensive reform act of education

was addressed as Ratio Educationis, published in 1777, credited to

Maria Theresa. The act covered the questions of youth P.E. in seven

chapters. It made preserving health a task of the schools, specified

the types of permitted and prohibited games, referred to the

configuration of youth playgrounds as well as the purchasing of

assistive devices. During this period P.E. engrossed by the versatile

training of the Hungarian nation remained at the level of personal

ambitions. A progressive thinker, Samuel Tessedik stood out for

trying to implement P.E. to practice in the school that he founded

(1780, Szarvas). He attributed particular importance – in the spirit of

the philanthropists – to regular physical activity, outdoor games and

children’s physical education. Around the turn of the 18th

and 19th

Centuries public educational tendencies were spreading, in which the

influence of Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Diesterweg, Guth-Muths

was vividly felt, having a significant mark on the national P.E.

development. In 1790-91, the National Assembly put the case of P.E.

on the agenda. By 1793 the bill was ready and it proposed the

necessity of the introduction of physical exercises in schools, with

particular regard to military aspects. The introduction of the reforms

did not eventuate (Földes et al., 1982).

95

The 2nd

Ratio Educationis – events of the beginning of the 19th

Century

The 2nd Ratio Educationis issued in 1806 did not touch upon

P.E. at all. However a separate chapter dealt with the question of

military training. From the 1820s onwards, vanguards from the

movement for a versatile youth education Miklós Wesselényi, István

Széchenyi and Lajos Kossuth urged the creation of the National

United Front for P.E. On their initiative the National Fencing

Institute (1825), the Pest Body Exercise Institute (1839), as well as

baths and stables were founded in Pest. Being maecenas of sport,

they used every opportunity to promote and develop sport. By the

second decade of the 19th

Century a new branch of public body

exercise had reached Hungary: gymnastics. The first official P.E.

teacher in Hungary was Wilhelm Egger - as a student of Pestalozzi –

moving to Pest he opened a gym where he taught gymnastics (Földes

et al., 1982).

First attempts to introduce P.E. in schools until the Freedom

Fight in 1848-49, effects of the Reform Era

In the Hungarian history we call a whole era – the nearly two

decades between 1830-1848, broadly speaking the first half of the

19th

century – the Reform Era. Reasonably as the groups of society

taking part in politics demanded and gave effect to reforms. From the

1840s onwards in the escalated process of increasing reform

movements and the growing middle social class, the great ideas of

the 19th

Century such as liberalism, conservatism, nationalism played

a significant role in the common thinking and political life. One of

the important endeavors of this era – from our point of view as well

– the issue of introducing P.E. was tried to be put through personal

initiations, then consecutively through wide social classes, too.

From 1845 onwards, as the headmaster of the Pest Lutheran

high school, Lajos Tavasi introduced P.E. in his school, that was

initially taught by Egger, then Clair. As a Lutheran school organizer,

Lajos Schedius in his school’s organizational regulation - issued in

1837 and 1840 – raised P.E. among the main subjects in public

96

schools. In the Debrecen Calvinist College from 1842 P.E. was

among the basic subjects that were taught by senior students. From

1841 in the “Pesti Hírlap” (a newspaper) Lajos Kossuth stood out to

introduce P.E. in schools, moreover he stood up for the necessity of

physical education for women. In 1846, in the Girls Boarding

Institute of Blanka Teleki, physical education was among the

subjects. On July 20th

1848, the first Hungarian Educational

Congress assembled where the proposals included the introduction of

physical education, emphasizing the importance of pre-school

education. This was the first time when such a reform plan was

developed in which P.E. was listed among the basic subjects from

pre-school till upper primary school. However, due to the break out

of the freedom fight (1848), the reforms couldn’t realized. In August

1848, József Eötvös, Minister of Religion and Education proposed a

bill in which he inaugurated P.E. as one of the main subjects in

elementary schools. During the Freedom Fight in 1848, schools and

gymnastic trainings were put into service for the army. At the end of

1848, Lajos Kossuth urged the intention to introduce P.E. in schools

(Földes et al., 1982).

Post-war ambitions concerning P.E. (1849-1867)

In Spring 1849, after the expulsion of the enemy Hungary

proclaimed its autonomy and the dethronement of the Habsburg

Monarchy. However, in the beginning of July, the aligned forces of

the Imperial and Tsarist armies marched against the revolutionary

Hungary. After a devastating defeat sanctions were taken. By the

means of the 1867 Compromise Hungary gave up most of its state

autonomy, recognized primary importance of the subsistent unified

empire. The transformed empire was referred to as Astro-Hungarian

Monarchy, which existed until 1918. After putting down the

revolution, Haynau eliminated all social organizations and institutes

in Hungary. For the representatives and pioneers of P.E. job loss and

forced enrollment in the army were waiting. It was only after the fall

of Haynau (1850) when institutionalized P.E. became possible. From

the academic year of 1850-51, the Organisations Entwurf, developed

by Károly Than came into operation, which fitted gymnastics among

the special (voluntary) subjects. The Eger Cistercian Secondary

School (1856), Győr and Ungvár elementary schools, as well as the

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collage of Sárospatak (1858) stood out in the introduction of school

P.E. (Földes et al., 1982).

Physical education from the Compromise till World War I

(1867-1918)

Following the Compromise (1867), the case of education

policy had come to a settlement. During the administration of József

Eötvös, Minister of Religion and Education, teaching P.E. with

regards to simulated fights was made compulsory not in secondary

schools, but in junior and senior classes in public elementary

schools. This act was based on the 1868. XXXVIII. Act on Public

Education and Service. According to the act besides teaching

German gymnastics, the teaching of the exercise program,

fundaments of methodology also belonged to the scope of the duties

of the teacher training institutes. Between 1868-1912 the exercises of

the so-called German gymnastics were characteristic regarding the

structural construction of gymnastic classes. From 1870 experts were

familiar with the Swedish physical exercises, however, these only

got into the Hungarian curriculum later, after the turn of the century.

Direction for secondary schools issued in 1868 contained physical

exercises, military drills, exercises on or with equipments.

Curriculum of 1870 specified military drills free and jumping

exercises plus gymnastics in the lower grades of elementary school,

which were expanded with military field- and simulated fights. The

curriculum of elementary schools was basically corresponding to that

of the public schools. Track and field exercises were given place in

the syllabus in secondary schools. The syllabus materials and

teaching books published during this period were assembled in the

manner that not only qualified gymnastics teachers but also veteran

teachers, sometimes janitors and the Wiener Neustadt NCOs could

use them. (Földes et al., 1982).

From the 1880s besides the Ministry of Defense and Culture,

a growing number of social organizations took a stand for the

introduction of physical education. The XXX. Act in 1883 ordained

secondary schools to provide weekly 4 times of military exercises in

freshmen and sophomore years, and 2 lessons in junior and seniors

years with regard to physical education. Due to the resistance of the

schools, the execution of these plans was delayed. The proposal of

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Albert Berzeviczy in 1889 (“The domestication of scholastic

physical and training exercises”) was one of the first steps taken in

order to transform gymnastics classes into physical education. As a

result, the extension of physical education by exercises and games

taken from the folk P.E was proposed. The bill of 1899 lowered the

number of classes to 2 lessons, but imposed 1 class of outdoor

activities per week as well as skating afternoons. It was only in 1905,

when the syllabus of elementary schools included the right number

of classes in P.E., where the main emphasis was in action games.

Under the terms of the bill of 1908, Swedish basic pedagogic

exercises were introduced in 15 minutes duration every lesson.

Gymnasia were equipped with Swedish banks, wall bars, vault and

trampoline. With the purpose of being more intensely time efficient,

teamwork gave place to class work.

Evolved in the 1910s, a so-called Hungarian Physical

Education system was in force until the 1940s and was based on

Swedish gymnastics as well as on elements of German gymnastics,

games and English outdoor games. P.E. classes had triple structure

(warm-up, teaching, calming down the body) (Báthori, 1985).

Hungarian P.E. between the two world wars

During the government of the 1st Hungarian People’s

Republic (16th

November 1918 – 19th

March 1919.) in addition to

reorganizing the Hungarian sport life, proposals were made

concerning the reform of school P.E., democratization of schools as

well as making the training of P.E. teachers up to date. László Nagy

had an outstanding role in proposing reforms, and therefore he is

known in posterity as “The Hungarian educator of culture”, “the

organizer of the Hungarian experimental-psychological-pedagogical

laboratory” and “guiding pedagogue”.

21st March 1919 the Hungarian Republic of Council was

proclaimed, so the cultural revolution took off. (Republic of Council

= social, political and economic revolution. People take over the

power). “Life’s most important treasure is the educated mind and the

healthy body” – says one of the posters of the Republic of Council.

László Nagy continued his professional work. In his assemblage,

“The institutes and plans establish by the Comissariat of Education”

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included “In every scholastic syllabus physical education stands

foremost” (Donáth, 2007. 168p.)

The Hungarian Republic of Council lasted only for 133 days

(1st March 1919 – 1

st August 1919). Reforms, measures and plans

could not be carried out. In March 1918 new curriculum was

developed for secondary schools, elementary schools as well as for

boys and girls separately. Remarkable reform proposals were made:

break away from the militant-minded German gymnastics and attain

a sort of multifunctional P.E. that relies on modern medicine,

biology, results and experimental methods of children’s studies.

The positive effects of Swedish gymnastics (exercises based

on anatomical and physiological knowledge, as well as preventive

and posture correction exercises) must be implemented. Radical

change was needed in the mentality of teaching physical education,

the material and in systematic teaching. The primary goal of P.E.

was to raise a hardworking, long living human who is able to create,

act and fight, is well trained both mentally and in character. For the

first time in the history of Hungarian P.E. it appeared that in addition

to physiological effects, P.E. had aesthetic, moral and communal

impact on their work as well.

The Horthy Era (1920-1944)

After the defeat of the Hungarian Republic of Council on 1st

March 1920 the Parliament elected Miklós Horthy as governor. The

new political and social structure tried to recover the positions lost in

the field of physical education and sport. Featured task was to fully

militarize the Hungarian school system – as military reinforcement.

Military exercises were meant to have a dominant role in physical

education – regarding pre-school education and all other school

types, too. The Ministry of Religion and Education resisted open

militarization, instead they thought covert militarization was more

effective. In December 1921, the National Assembly adopted the 53th

Act of 1921, the Act of Physical Education, which was later called

the “Levente” law (Levente = young souldier). Thereafter public

school P.E. became pre-school training for the military. The physical

education constraint was achieved through legislative level. Regular

physical education was made compulsory in state schools for both

boys and girls. Extracurricular P.E. was obligatory for boys only

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until the age of 21. It is only in 1924 when the law took effect. This

action tried to hand over more and more influence to the Hungarian

Scouts Union regarding P.E., especially in using the time of summer

vacation for physical activities. It specified the recording of those

obligated to physical education, and their directing to the Levente

fellowship. Constraint of Levente was a covert militarization of

physical education by securing the dominant role of military training.

Count Kunó Klebelsberg, Minister for Education had a decisive role

regarding the training of P.E. teachers (he established the Hungarian

College of Physical Education, 1925). He was an advocate for

covertly militarizing physical culture. On the positive side, in the

concept of Levente education, physical education was considered

equal with moral and intellectual education by the Minister.

Development of the cause of P.E. depended on the proceeding of the

Levente movement. Getting used to fighting and being defeated was

supported by the theories of English Common Sport Pedagogy. In

his opinion the training that was carried out by the army must be

substituted by the means of sport. Between 1928-1930 the concept of

the Levente movement unambiguously prevailed in the form of

school physical education, military drills, simulated fights and

military knowledge. In trainings military methods were used.

Exercises were focused on strength and endurance training. Girls

also had similar exercises. In 1941 militarization was intesified

(Földes et al., 1982).

Hungarian physical education between 1945-1956. The

Rákosi Era

Rákosi Era covers the Hungarian history between 1945-1956.

It was named after the leader, Mátyás Rákosi, who established a

Stalinist, totalitarian dictatorship, coming to the top of the power

pyramid between 1947-1948. He had a new constitution and state

coat of arms made in 1949 based on Soviet pattern. The

Establishment of the police state and the era of terror was about to

start. In the first period after the liberation (end of 1944 till the end

of 1948) movement of sport and the revival of physical education

was on the agenda.

Teacher’s Union, - whose P.E. department discussed issues

such as means, methods, aims of P.E., class lessons (suggestion: 3

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lessons weekly, 2 lessons of games and sport), physical cultural tasks

of schools, proposition of introducing P.E. in higher education -

played a great role. The partial reconstruction of buildings,

replacement of equipment or damaged items then the preparation of

teaching could start at the College of Physical Education. (Földes et

al., 1982). The first years of the development of physical education

was characterized by building new ground for P.E., sensational

successes and failures in sport. The second phase was between 1948-

1963, when based on the contemporary documents and terminology,

the foundations of socialist physical culture were laid down. The

start of the third phase dates back to 1963, this is the phase of the

unfolding of the socialist body culture. In 1949 three sport high

schools opened their doors in Esztergom, Kiskunfélegyháza and

Pécs. From 1950s, following the Soviet pattern, education policy was

subordinated to the interest of politics. The aim and content of

education was determined by the system of socialist ideas. In the

center of curricular aims was the breeding of the “socialist

genotype”. Regulations on school physical education were issued in

1950. Through the curriculum introduced in the 1950s (operated

until 1978/79), the administration wished to eliminate the authority

and sovereignty of schools and pedagogues. In the academic year of

1962-63, universities and colleges introduced curricular P.E., so as

pursuance of teaching-training work of secondary school P.E. was

ensured. In December 1954 the Central Directorate of the Hungarian

Labour Party was engaged in the issue of physical education and the

movement of sport, and stated that besides the achieved results, the

most neglected field was the school. In the beginning of August

1956, the Ministry of Education announced the new curriculum for

primary schools (Földes et al., 1982).

Hungarian physical education in the Kádár Era (1956-

1988)

János Kádár spent an unprecedented length of time in the 20th

Century Hungarian political life. He had been the number one factor

of power for 32 years. As the Secretery General of the MSZMP

(Hungarian Socialist Labour Party), he was two times Hungarian

Prime Minister (1956-58; 1961-88). His personality and his politics

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is called “kádárism”, or as many called it “goulash communism”.

The Kádár system was a totalitarian socialist system.

The reform of education system was carried out based on the

3rd

Act of 1961. In the 1960-70s pre-school P.E. was developed as

well as countervailing the increase of lifestyle diseases public school

physical education received more and more emphasis

(“Gyógytestnevelési tanterv és utasítás, 1965” - Curriculum of

therapeutic exercises 1965). In the ‘70s the political committee

pointed out the low quality, outdated content of requirements, and

low number of lessons in physical education. Taking all the above

mentioned factors into consideration, the works on the curriculum

started in the ‘70s. On 1st July 1973, the Independent General

Department of Physical Education and Sport went into force within

the confines of the Ministry of Culture. It was responsible the

primary, secondary and higher educational institutes’ sport

programmes. In the first half of the ‘70s more and more data slipped

out about the deterioration of youth physical fitness. Regulations

were born for the sake of the development of P.E. Developing the

pre-school system and physical culture were considered an

emphasized task. From the academic year of 1973/74 the Minister of

Education ordered 3 lessons of P.E. weekly in primary school. From

September 1978, in primary and secondary schools, P.E. teachers

were obliged to retain mass-sport classes indicated in the timetable.

In the sport of primary schools, the student olimpics played a

decisive role. In the academic year of 1977/78 schools were lacking

1000 P.E. teachers. Therefore the number of applicants enrolled in

teachers’ training program was increased, so the deficit was reduced

by the ‘80s. However the classroom teachers’ effectiveness at

primary school’s was questionable.

In secondary education 3 lessons of P.E. per week were

compulsory from 1973. In 1974, secondary school clubs were acted

upon. Concerning secondary school teacher supply, only in few

schools did troubles appear, however the situation in vocational

schools were far worse. From 1976 on new curricula of P.E. were

progressively introduced. The curriculum of therapeutic P.E. was

published as well. The health status of students was classified into 4

categories: healthy, those who take full part in P.E., those who have

reduced P.E. and the exempts.

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In 1973 physical education classes with specialized sport

curriculum were started. This provision applied to 126 primary

school classes and 23 secondary school classes. In the academic year

of 1977/78, 22.749 students took part in 764 classes specialized in

P.E. In 1st-2nd grade the weekly number of lessons was raised to 6,

3rd-4th grade to 8 lessons a week. Further important regulation was

the application of the “performance book”, which was introduced in

primary schools in the academic year of 1977/78, and in secondary

schools in 1978/79. Its aim was to improve the self directed physical

ability development. In 1978/79 new educational curriculums were

published.

Educational curriculums of 1978/79. Evolution of the new

conceptual framework of school P.E.

These curriculums (both primary and secondary school) are

included in the line of centralized and prescriptive curricula.

Curricula specialized for P.E. specified the initiation of requirements

and tasks necessary to optimal physical development of students.

They set the aims to establish and shape health-related sanitary

culture and unprompted health defending habits. Furthermore the

development of physical/mental capacity and improvement of

physical and intellectual fitness.

The specialized curricula of 1977/78 in addition to the

characteristics of centralized curriculum, proved to be productive,

firstly because of implementing eligibility and presence of curricular

approach. Although it was within the confines of traditional frames,

it tried to emphasize the physical cultural transmitting role of P.E.

through the high standards of the subject. It also contained novelty as

well: optional outdoor activities and winter sessions. Declared aim of

the curriculum was to develop intellectual skills through deriving

theoretical knowledge and basic level of curricular integration.

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Physical education since the change of political system in

1989, the democratic Hungary

From the change of political system till the first National

Core Curriculum (NAT) 1995

In Hungary, the efforts to renew the public education system

already occurred before the political transition. Public education

began to rupture the framework of the party-state and the

pedagogical theory and practice became more diverse (alternative

pedagogy, strengthening reform pedagogical trends - Rogers -

school, Komp - school, Value transmitting and Ability developing

School, Waldorf School). The first government (Antall

administration) decided on a plan to establish the minimum national

core curriculum. However, the adoption took only place during the

second government (Horn administration) in 1995. This was the

National Core Curriculum (NAT) 1995, which “was made to be a

regulatory document to be supreme to all types of schools”

(Eszterág, 2010, 85.p.). The NAT 1995 introduced on 1st September

1998, had two substantial consequences: it marked the educational-

political intention in the execution of the decentralized, bipolar

curricular regulation, and generated a structural debate. The

curriculum introduced in the preceding political system, the

“socialist” curriculum was still in force in the academic year of

2002/03.

Major characteristics and effects of the first National

Core Curriculum (NAT 1995) in regard to P.E.

The National Core Curriculum 1995 (Nemzeti Alaptanterv,

1995) is a tool of an EU compliant, development-oriented curriculum

and decentralized education management. Pedagogical programs and

local syllabuses are based on the NAT. Requirements of the

generated local curriculum were considered as positive development

regarding P.E. Implementing the previous curricula was namely

compulsory however, institutional and equipment supply made it

impossible in most schools. Among its virtues we can list the

approach of the curriculum and the expansion of its content. Topics

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like “Combat exercises and games”, „Self-defense in Martial Arts”,

“Prevention, relaxation”, “Rhythmic Gymnastics” and “Prevention”

appeared. Downside of it is though that the curriculum constricts the

value developing role of P.E. to motor sphere of the personality.

Another handicap of the NAT 1995 is that it assigns the number of

lessons in percentage among educational areas. Practically the

number of P.E. in upper classes and in secondary schools decreased

from 3 times a week to 2-2.5 times a week, it was only in lower

grades where they could preserve 3 times P.E. classes per week.

“Frame Curricula” 2000

Following the amendment of the Educational Act in 1999

(1999. évi LXVIII. törvény a közoktatásról) the content regulation

became three-staged. In the first stage, the National Core Curriculum

ensured the uniformity of public education (by its principles,

featured developmental tasks). In the second stage it provided (NAT

compatible) methodological support, optional frame curricular

recommendations and methodological software package resources.

In 2000, the only, and therefore binding, frame curricula was

introduced by which the bipolar, three-staged education management

was materialized. (It should be noted that related to the 2003 and

2007 NAT, 65 frame curricula were created). 19th

December 2000

was an important date in the history of P.E.: requirements met the

legal conditions for daily physical education in 1-4 grades in public

education (2000. évi CXLV. törvény a sportról).

National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2003

The Article 93 of the Public Education Act 2002 (2002. évi

XXI. törvény), ordained the supervision of NAT 1995, a correction

based on an empirical analysis. The NAT 2003 (Nemzeti

Alaptanterv, 2003), the result of the supervision of NAT 1995,

preserved its basic features but broke the traditions at several points.

One of the most fundamental changes is that it does not contain

detailed contents and requirements. Developmental tasks described

the desired skills, capabilities and competencies. The essence of the

concept of generating curriculum: to provide opportunity for the

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urgent need to inaugurate the development of Hungarian education

in order to make the pedagogical alternatives appear in school

practice. Therefore NAT 2003 not directly but indirectly defines

requirements for knowledge, skills, and abilities. (Rétsági, 2004,

41.p.)

NAT 2003, Field of Physical Education of Sport

The objectives of the NAT 2003 recognized that physical

education not only develops motor skills, but has also mental,

emotional and social directions and effects. New feature is that it

draws attention to forming an emphasized lifestyle; knowledge to

substantiate life and conveying beliefs and virtues. It lists features

that need to be developed in order to prepare for social life and

develope cultured manners. In addition it implies to the educational

effects on selfexpression and selfrealization through physical

education and sport. The developing exercises are conducive to

acquire independent and conscious physical activity and general

physical literacy through laying down the basics in lower grades of

primary school (1-4.), then improving the already assimilated

knowledge in higher grades (5-8.) and orientating towards age

specificities in secondary schools.

National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2007

The objectives of the NAT 2003 recognized that physical

education not only develops motor skills, but has also mental,

emotional and social directions and effects. New feature is that it

draws attention to forming an emphasized lifestyle; knowledge to

substantiate life and conveying beliefs and virtues. It lists features

that need to be developed in order to prepare for social life and

develope cultured manners. In addition it implies to the educational

effects on selfexpression and selfrealization through physical

education and sport. The developing exercises are conducive to

acquire independent and conscious physical activity and general

physical literacy through laying down the basics in lower grades of

primary school (1-4.), then improving the already assimilated

knowledge in higher grades (5-8.) and orientating towards age

specificities in secondary schools.

107

National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2012

In December 2011, the Parliament approved the 2011.CXC.

Act on national public education. Some of the elements of the new

public education law are centralization of public education institutes

put into force in January 2013; cutting down schooling age limit

from 18 to 16 years of age; local syllabus of school may differ from

the NAT in no more than 10% of the content (Nemzeti Alaptanterv,

2012 ; Frame Curricula 2012). NAT 2012 was made in the spirit of

the Public Education Act. In NAT 2012, in contrast with NAT 2007,

competencies were de-emphasized and the contents of public

education received a central role. The change in this educational-

political approach had a positive effect on school physical education,

first and foremost on introducing daily P.E. In regard to the

infrastructural situation of P.E., schools were to choose from two

opportunities: 1) five classes of P.E. weekly within the confines of

the school timetable, 2) three classes of P.E. within the school time

schedule, plus adequate lesson of extracurricular sport activities (3+2

system). Legal specification meant a great leap forward, because

many schools had only enrolled two classes per week until then. A

frame curricula was made for both variations and all types of

schools.

Physical Education and Sport in NAT 2012

With regard to the novelty and vocational quality compared to

the previous curricula, we present NAT 2012 in more details. The

curriculum assigns its mission in two areas: holistic health promotion

in schools and talent management. Its novelty can principally be

caught in the act of having holistic prescriptions similarly to the

genre of prescriptive curriculum (detailed system of goals and tasks,

a full definition of the content). In respect of professionalism it

stands out from the other curricula with its coherent set of objectives

and contents outlining a type of physical education that has such a

new quality, in content and in methodology of school P.E.

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The definitions representing the most essential virtues of

NAT 2012 can be grouped around key expressions such as health

orientation, personal and social features. Both traditional and modern

contents of physical education that serve the realization of curricular

objectives are split into three age periods (1-4th.; 5-8th.; and 9-12th

grade), and into two years of content that are closely bound up with

each other (motor literacy - culture of movements; knowledge and

personality development). The coexistence of these two unities of

content express the complexity of motor skills and the tightly

connected cognitive, affective and social skill development, which

typical for the area of literacy. Linking the two main unities, the

essential feature of physical education can be revealed. Firstly, that

shaping up motor literacy/culture of movements can only be

performed thought knowledge connected to motor content. On the

other hand, it is unimaginable to socialize to a long lasting, health-

conscious lifestyle without empirical knowledge (Csányi & Révész,

2015). The content unity of knowledge and personality development

is one of the elements of recent and innovative curriculum. NAT

2012 is the first to handle the theoretical knowledge, information

transmiting role of the area of physical education and sport literacy

(Rétsági & Csányi, 2014) according to its significance.

Another novelty is the definition of the range of cross-

curricular, interdisciplinary knowledge (physiological, hygienic,

communicational, historical, ethnographic, recreational knowledge),

as well as the appearance of the developing field of “Prevention, life

management, health promotion”.

“Frame Curricula” 2012

Serving the developing approach of NAT and Frame

Curricula, the process of acquiring the motor content of P.E. and

sport is both the aim and the tool. Therefore the thematic units of

frame curricula can be grouped according to the aim, means and the

nature of the motions. Fundamental movements dominate in the 1-4th

grades, then the toolkit of motor literacy is progressively extended

by traditional and alternative sport specific motor skills in 5-8th

grade. Teaching playfully and through games is a leading

methodological principle, moreover communication that serves the

shaping up of cooperation, creativity and consciousness is highly

109

emphasized. Physical activities that are based on preliminary

knowledge appear as a developmental aim within the confines of

units of the mentioned frame curricula. As a consequence

educational and developmental objectives of the thematic unit –

based on the specific and typical educational and developmental

goals and objectives of P.E. – are solved by logically building on

each other. It consistently takes age and pedagogical features of the

subject and the sensitive periods of development into account. Not

only does it have an impact on physical components, but also on the

whole personality (mental, emotional, physical and social domains).

Motor literacy is attached to the expansion of knowledge and

personality development. It also indicates interdisciplinary linking

points of each thematic unit. The results expected by the end of

every two-year unit determine the most prominently expected

elements of knowledge and skills. The Frame Curricula also makes a

proposal on the number of lessons devoted to each topic in the

upcoming two years. Legally, local school curricula may only differ

from the Frame Curricula in 10% of the content, which, in principle,

represents a major limitation. However, the creators of Frame

Curricula have integrated so many options to choose from that every

school, considering local possibilities, can shape the local school

curricula to their own image.

The T.E.S.I. Project and the NETFIT® for helping the

implementation of the NAT 2012

Making the transition to the new curriculum and estabilishing

a new, health-related and criterion referenced physical fitness

assessment battery presented a huge challenge for the Hungarian PE

system. To ensure a positive outcome, the Hungarian School Sport

Federation (HSSF) proposed a training and education program that

would directly support the implementation of the new National Core

Curriculum. The specific HSSF initiative (Strategic Actions for

Health-Enhancing Physical Education or Testnevelés az

Egészségfejlesztésben Stratégiai Intézkedések [T.E.S.I.]) was

officially launched in 2012 with the financial help of the European

Social Fund and the Hungarian government, and it creates the

structure for the structured PE development in Hungary. The TESI

project focused on three important areas for enhancing P.E.. The first

110

area was the establishment of a formalized strategic plan called

Physical Education Strategy 2020. This comprehensive plan

includes four main strategic goals that capture the conditions for

quality PE (e.g. infrastructure, human resources, professional

qualifications and curriculum development). A second priority was

the creation of an educational training framework and resources

needed for Quality Physical Education. This included preparation of

books, creating videos, and the distribution of resources needed to

implement the new curriculum. The focus of these resources was on

content not traditionally covered in PE Teacher Education (PETE)

programs or in-service trainings in Hungary (e.g. a student centered

instructional models, tactical games approach in games, stress

control and relaxation, health-education materials, fundamental

movement education). The third component of the TESI project was

the development of a new, national school based fitness assessment

system. The health-related physical fitness assessment system was

planned to fulfill the long term need for a standardized evaluation

system in the Hungarian PE profession (see Csányi et al., 2015).

The qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the T.E.S.I. and

NETFIT® initiative will be an important work in the near future.

REFERENCES

Báthori, B. (1985): A testnevelés elmélete és módszertana. TF.

Budapest.

Csányi, T. & Révész, L. (2015). A testnevelés tanításának didaktikai

alapjai – Középpontban a tanulás. (1. kiadás). Magyar

Diáksport Szövetség, Budapest.

Csányi, T., Finn, K.J., Welk, G.J., Zhu, W., Karsai, I., Ihász, F.,

Vass, Z. and Molnár, L. (2015). Overview of the

Hungarian National Youth Fitness Study. Research

quarterly for exercise and sport, 86(Sup1) S3-S12

Donáth, P. (2007). Nagy László beszámolója az iskolareform, a

gyermekvédelem s a gyermektanulmányozás ügyeiről

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Ms Andrea Ember for the for the

valuable comments that help improve the manuscript.

113

ITALY

THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN PRIMARY

SCHOOL IN ITALY

FROM THE PROGRAMS TO THE NATIONAL

GUIDELINES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

TEACHER TRAINING (PETE)

Dario Colella, Degree Course of Motor Activities and Sport

Sciences , University of Foggia

Amalia Tinto, S.U.I.S.M. - School of Physical and Sports Education

- University of Torino

Stefania Cazzoli, S.U.I.S.M. - School of Physical and Sports

Education - University of Torino

Correspondence

Colella Dario

dario.colella@unifg.it

Mobile: (+39)3476680998

Phone (+39)0881309334

Fax (+39)0881309346

Abstract

The Documents ministerial (Ministry of Education) for the

teaching of physical education in primary schools in Italy, in the last

thirty years, have shown significant changes in the structure and

terminology regarding disciplinary epistemology, aims and

objectives, didactics indications.

The historical evolution of school regulations has affected the

development of the physical education but are not there have been

specific measures for the training of teachers. The first evidence

regards the name: Moral, civic and physical education (1955); Motor

Education (1985); Sports Science and Sports (2004); Body and

Movement (2007); Physical Education (2012). The evolution of the

philosophical, pedagogical, psychological and educational theories

have characterized the programs and the teaching of the physical

education in schools. The Documents have expressed some essential

114

themes: the transition from planning for goals to the Programming

competences, the personalization of educational intervention, the

curricular organization for learning units, the specific learning

objectives for education to civil coexistence; the goals for the

development of competences and the vertical curriculum.The

generalist teacher education in physical education limits the

implementation of the teaching process and the various national and

regional projects are a partial answer to the problem.

Introduction

In Italy the teaching of physical education in primary school

was marked by profound changes: the evolution of the philosophical,

pedagogical and didactics theories, laws and organization of school,

the need to redefine teaching models, the need to respond to changes

in society.

The teaching of physical education in primary schools in Italy, from

the eighties to the present, has been marked by significant changes

resulting from various factors: the evolution of the laws and of the

school organization (self-government of school), the need to respond

to changes in society, the need to adapt education systems to the

latest scientific evidence, about the processes of teaching and

learning. The terms used in the programmatic documents are the

result of a long process but expressed uncertainty epistemological

and methodological and a difficulty in recognizing a real disciplinary

autonomy (Fig.1).

In the National Guidelines (2012) reappears finally the term Physical

Education (used worldwide) and reaffirms clearly of the disciplinary

the contribution to the educational process of the person. In fact, are

defined the goals for the development of competences at the end of

primary school and the learning objectives at the end of the fifth

class, for all schools in the Country

The implementation of the learning process requires the structure of

a vertical curriculum (kindergarten to middle school) and

personalized, through the learning units. An open question concerns

the generalist teacher education and cooperation with the specialist

teacher (Expert) for physical education in the curriculum in the

primary school.

115

The various national projects (2010-2014) and regional responses are

provisional and partial: concern some classes and for a limited period

of the school year.

The programs of primary school. Moral, civic and physical

education (1955)

The process of teaching and learning over the years, has been

conditioned by the philosophical and pedagogical theories. In Italy in

particular, in the programs of primary school the physical education

is with the moral and civic education (Moral, civic and physical

education). The name indicates a reference to the philosophical

dualist theories; the man expresses two ways of living and acting, as

body and spirit. According to the dualism in the individual there is

no continuity or possible cooperation between the activities sense-

perceptual-motor and cognitive functions.The programs contain

instructions and guidelines for the physical education activities for

the first cycle (first and second class) and the second cycle (third,

fourth, fifth grade). The program is a summary of the elaboration

time on the pedagogical way of thinking about the values of the

physical education in to a training project aimed at children. The

aims of the physical education are as follows:

Hygienic-physiological. Health promotion, prevention of

paramorphism, the development of respiratory and

muscular functions and motor executions correct;

Recreational and expressive. The various physical

activities, the exercises and the games are the motivations

for children to enable them to express themselves and

communicate;

Moral. Physical education is a way to adjust the physical

energies and direct them to the child's educational goals

ethical, personal and social.

The ministerial document expresses a particular attention to the

physical and corporeal aspects of the child. Such attention is

expressed as part of a vision implicitly dualist: between mind

and body, between the cognitive and motor functions are not

allowed mutual relations. In teaching the dualism expressed

with the physical education has two purposes, opposed to each

116

other: training technicist or the recreational activity

spontaneous.

The programs of primary school. Motor Education (1985).

The text of the programs of primary school (DPR 12

February n. 104;1985) of Motor Education [the term used in Italy has

expressed the teaching of physical education in primary school]

expresses a synthesis of various theories and practices of motor

activities for children and adolescents, present in years past.

In the Programs the motor education is an autonomous discipline and

with a clear identity didactic and pedagogical (Fig.2).

The scientific conceptions that have guided the program are,

essentially, the phenomenology (Merlea-Ponty,1945), the

cognitivism / structuralism (Bruner, 1967) that express the unity of

the person and the education and the overcoming of every dualism.

Each discipline is a tool of knowledge to learn how to learn.

Fig.1 – Physical Education in the primary school in Italy.

1955 •Moral, civic and physical education

1985 •Motor Education

2004 • Motor Sciences and Sport

2007 •Body and Movement

2012 •Physical Education

117

The innovation disciplinary is determined by the following factors

and perspectives:

a. the unitary conception of the person, considered in the

interdependence of functions and variety of experiences; b. the motor

experiences of the child gradually contribute the evolution and

development of cognitive, emotional and social-emotional during

childhood; c. physical education is not considered a marginal

discipline of the school curriculum, because it is characterized by

specific content and educational values are realized through multiple

interdisciplinary and transversals connections; d. motor activities in

the school curriculum are not sports premature nor recreation, to be

integrated into the development process of the person.

The Programs affirm the value of corporeality that expresses the

unity of the person and the levels of development cognitive, motor,

emotional, social-affective and mutual relations, in relation with the

motor experiences.

Corporeality is considered:

expression of the unity of the person;

mode of relating through the gestural expressiveness and

postures (language);

learning mode through the motor function.

All learning takes place through the body and movement: the

movement for all children is one of the languages (expression and

communication) through which mediation occurs between the person

and all learning (Giugni,1986).

The programs show that motor activities promote the development of

all aspects of the personality, cognitive, organic-motor, emotional

and social and indicate the directions of development curricular:

education through the body and movement;

education of the body and movement;

education to the body and movement

These directions will be a constant focus for the curriculum in the

subsequents documents (2004,2007,2012).

The education through the body and movement highlights the

function of mediation of the experience motor for cognitive,

emotional, motor and social development of each child and the

contribution of the discipline for promote learning in all areas of

curriculum (Arnold, 1988; Colella, 2011).

118

The motor activities promote learning of topological concepts

(space, time, quantity, quality and their relationships, in relation to

the body, the tool, the other, the environment), the resolution of the

problems, the development of relations interpersonal.

The structured motor activities conducted at school have a key role

in the processes of motor learning of the child and the experiences

are very related to the physical self-efficacy, at the perception and to

awareness of their skills and self-evaluation of the results achieved

(Bandura, 1993).

Through multiple and varied activities and organizational modalities,

it provides an essential contribution to emotional development,

particularly in the enjoyment and the learning intrinsic motivation

(Ryan & Deci, 2000; Chunlei & Buchanan, 2014).

The education of the body and movement expresses the gradual

process of learning skills and development of the motor abilities.

Motor activities have a fundamental role to enrich the language of

the engine and complete the process of literacy of the engine

(Gallahue & Cleland., 2003). The motor literacy is a learning process

that enables to all children to acquire a linguistic repertoire-motor,

used not only in motor activities but also in other areas of the

curriculum in close relationship with the learning of reading, writing,

mathematics, art and music.

The first stage of the process of education of the movement is the

development of perceptual motor skills, auditory, visual, tactile,

kinesthetic, which through the perception of multiple information

relating to the analyzers, allows the child to structure a correct

perception and self-awareness, develop many different answers

through the fundamental motor skills (crawling, rolling, walking,

running, jumping, throwing, grabbing, kicking, etc.). The

fundamental motor skills, are the alphabet of movement, the matrices

of each subsequent learning of motor skills, through the interaction

of variables executive, spatial, temporal, quantitative and qualitative,

and mutual relations. The concepts of space, time, quantity, quality,

and their relationship, when applied to one or more fundamental

motor skills are variants, or ways to perform the motor skill and

combine different motor skills (Sotgiu & Pellegrini, 1989; Wrisberg

& Schmidt, 2000; Gallahue & Cleland, 2003).

The variants of the movement are generalities, rules, concepts, for

the evolution of learning, interaction of fundamental motor skills,

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transferable in different languages and, therefore, transverse to the

learning of skills in different areas of the curriculum.

Through the execution of motor tasks in which they express the

relationships between the fundamental motor skills and the variations

of the movement, it realizes the process of learning of motor skills,

gradually more specific, in relation to sports and the development of

motor abilities coordinative and conditional (Wrisberg &

Schmidt,2000). The teaching process will tend to acquire each child

"the broadest base motor" of the fundamental motor skills (number

and variety), ie, a repertoire of motor skills, essential for motor

development and the educational process. The motor experiences

motor to school are among the essential determinants of the

educational process of each child: their reduction or absence limits

the opportunities for growth and development and affects the links

between cognitive, motor, emotional and relational.

The education in the body and movement indicates a rich and

articulated process that completes the curriculum and involves

various areas of pedagogical intervention with which motor activities

enter into relationship: nutrition education, environmental education,

road, citizenship, affectivity, health education, with the broader

meaning (Bertagna, 2004). The movement education indicates

interventions for understanding the preventive role of motor

activities, the promotion of physically active lifestyles and well-

being; a path that will accompany the child even in subsequent

educational levels.

The game-sports is an indication of absolute novelty for programs of

primary school (1985); methodological and teaching is an indication

for: a. realize the broader repertoire of individual motor skills; b.

develop motor experience in a playful, varied, investee; c. assist in

the conduct of activities gradually more organized (group games and

team, individual sports, dance, expressive activities, activities in

different contexts).

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Physical Education in Ministerial Documents – Italy

Moral, civic and

physical

education

[1955]

Motor Education

[1985]

Motor Sciences

and Sport [2004]

Body and Movement

[2007]

Physical Education

[2012]

Finality Finality Objectives

Hygienic-physiological

Promote the

development of abilities related to the

sense-perceptual

functions.

Skills and

Knowledge For the first class;

the second and

third class (first two years); fourth

and fifth classes (second two years)

Specific learning

objectives:

Movement ;

Expression;

Game and

sport;

Education

and social

life

The body and perceptual functions.

The body and its relation to space and

time.

Recreational and expressive

Consolidate and

refine, a concrete

level, the fundamental motor

skills static and

dynamic essential to the control of the

body and to the

organization of

movements.

The movement of the

body and its relation to space and time.

Moral

Contribute to the

development of coherents relational

behaviors through

verification, lived in experience of the

game and sports, the

The body language as a

mode of communication-expressive.

The body language as a

mode of communication-

expressive.

The game, the sport, the

The game, the sport,

121

need for rules and playing by the same

rules also developing

the abilities of initiative and

problem solving.

rules and fair play. the rules and fair play.

Connect the motricity to the acquisition of

skills related to

communication and gestural mimic,

dramatization, to the

relationship between movement and music,

to improve the

sensitivity of expression and

aesthetics

Safety and prevention,

health and wellness.

Health and wellness.,

prevention and safety.

Fig. 2 - Aims and objectives for Physical Education in the Documents Ministerial (1955; 1985;

2004; 2007; 2012).

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The game-sport promotes the acquisition of a map of individual

knowledge, combining the motivations of the child and the general

and specific objectives of the primary school. The game-sports is an

opportunity to experiment with new methods of execution, new

rules, different ways of solving problems, it is not immediately sport,

is not related to the individual and team performances. The transition

from playing the sport can be realized when every child will have

understood the meanings of participation, rule, role, comparison,

competition, results and performance, through educational proposals

and teaching styles adapted and proportionate to the individual levels

of organic development, psychological, emotional and social

(Giugni, 1986; Arnold,1988).

The National Guidelines. Motor sciences and sport (2004)

The National Guidelines (2004) they renew the documents and

the discipline is called "Motor Sciences and sport". The change of

the term follows the development of standards for the Italian

universities and indicates an area of learning and education, from

primary school to university.

The pedagogical and psychological reference consists of the motor

competences teaching.

The school autonomy is the background and institutional innovation

most important legislation from 1985 to 2004. Each school sets its

own plan of training offer and a reference curriculum for all classes.

The National Guidelines contain specific learning objectives, broken

down by skills and knowledge to be achieved at the end of: first

class; second and third class (first two years); classes fourth and fifth

(second two years), in order to learn motor competences

The specific learning objectives, are prescriptive for all schools in

Italy, relate to the motor learning, the development of the motor

abilities, perceptual, conditional and coordinative (motor skills,

expression, game and sports) and are the basis for the drawing up of

educational objectives, peculiar to the curriculum of each school and

group of children (Bertagna, 2004).

The educational objectives - with an indication of the performance

standards for each group-class- are needed to the teacher to prepare

the learning units and personalized study plans.

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In the Indications are confirmed in the directions of the development

of the previous curricular program but the teacher of primary school

will have to programme (and implement) a curriculum for

competences using motor skills and knowledge for each class-group.

The Programming for motor competences in the school curriculum

indicates a major breakthrough that highlights the cultural and

methodological formative values motor activities. Each motor

experience accomplished by the child, requires an understanding of

what has been done and the results achieved, the mastery of

concepts, terms and definitions, the application of skills and

knowledge in different contexts (Arnold, 1988; Colella, 2003;

Ubaldi, 2005). According to this perspective, the motor learning is a

process in which the child has an active role, is aware of the skills

performed, revises the information about the task and the context in

which it is located, expressed skills and knowledge.

The motor learning is influenced by the styles of teaching and

learning and the potential of individual development (Mosston &

Ashworth, 2002).

A process of motor learning, is achieved through the continuous

interaction of factors, motor abilities-skills, knowledge, attitudes of

the person that evolve according to different rates and vary according

to the individual processes of maturation - learning - individual

development (Malina, 2004; Gallahue & Cleland, 2003; Colella,

2011). The first stage for the structure of the curriculum in the

document is the definition of the objectives, in terms of motor skills

and knowledge resulting from specific learning objectives (the same

for all schools). The educational objectives confer organic unity and

direction of learning, (the temporal sequence of experiences of

teaching and learning), respond to specific individual needs and are

divided according to their greater or lesser correlation with the

motor competences. The teacher identifies the educational goals for

the group of children and proposes the learning units, to facilitate the

learning of motor skills and knowledge necessary to skills. A motor

competence is the practical use of knowledge, is the practical

application of one or more knowledge and indicates a close

relationship between knowledge, skills, interpersonal skills (Colella,

2003; 2011).

124

The Guidelines for the curriculum. Body and Movement

(2007)

The Document of 2007 presents the learning objectives

(Fig.2) that the teacher uses for programming of the curriculum; is a

document more concise than the previous.

Essential characteristics: a. identifies four core themes, each with a

different number of educational objectives; b. the targets for skills

development are established in two periods: at the end of the third

class and fifth class. The structure of the document providing for the

establishment of the curriculum starting from the objectives set at the

national level (the number is less than the previous document) and

gives the teacher a wide range of choice and adaptation the

objectives.

The core themes for define the objectives: a. the development of

perceptual motor skills; b. the development of motor coordination

through the execution of fundamental motor skills and variant

embodiments; c. learning and skill development of mimic-gestural

through activities, body expression and dramatization; d. motor

learning through games of pre-sport, individual and team,

cooperation, safety and prevention and health promotion (Fig.2).

The educational objectives show that motor competence is the

capability of the child to express appropriate behaviors to a broad

spectrum of areas (disciplinary) and situations (practices), through a

repertoire of motor skills, sports and mimic-gestural, knowledge and

individual motivations (Colella,2011; Pisot,2011).

The result of learning of the child, in the curriculum for

competences, is the use of motor skills and knowledge in a given

context. A motor competence expresses the integration of knowledge

(knowledge), motor skills (the skills) and behaviors.

The goals for the development of competences at the end of primary

school the child include: a. self-awareness through the performance

of fundamental motor skills and variability of the practice; b. skills

through experiences mimic-gestural experiences of expressivity and

rhythmic music; c. the relationship between physical activity and

healthy eating habits and lifestyles physically active according safety

and prevention; d. the experimentation of various motor skills. The

game remains a learning environment essential because it allows the

125

child to experience motor skills and adapt; is an opportunity to

experience relationships with others and develop the primary

motivations to move. Subsequently, the implementation of the game

requires the introduction of rules, fundamental for the development

of the social dimension of human behaviour. The sporting experience

is the process of the motor development, emotional and social

development of the child and the experience of the game and sport

expresses gradual stages of maturation and development of the

person until the age of puberty. The motor and sports activities

promote also the culture of respect for others and respect for the

rules (fair play) and are an area of social inclusion.

The national guidelines for the curriculum. Physical Education

(2012)

The National Guidelines (2012) express the return of the

name a shared in the various nations, Physical Education, also used

in the secondary school degree. The document highlights is the

continuation and the revisiting of previous welcoming the recent

scientific evidence and good practice more widespread.

The national guidelines for the curriculum of the school system are

the answer to rapid social change, the role of the school that interacts

with other learning contexts (not formal) and recognizes that the loss

of the monopoly of education and training (Ministry of Education,

2012).

In particular, the document is the educational background and

normative for allow each institution to draw up a curriculum

adapted to the needs of the different local school communities, while

respecting the freedom of teaching. The physical education has a

structure similar to the previous document, but with three differences

in content (Ministry of Education,2012).

The first difference concerns the core themes and learning

objectives: they are further reduced (Fig.2) and terminology to

indicate the skills and knowledge are precise and concrete, indicates

the person. The core themes and learning objectives are integrated

and interdependent on each learning unit and motor experience.

The second relates to the goals for the development of competences:

is it clear what the child should learn and express in various areas

(development of the motor abilities, the learning of motor skills and

126

mimic-gestural; the game-sport; promotion health through lifestyle

physically active).

The third difference is that in physical education (and the disciplines

of the non-verbal language) the objectives are achieved at the end of

the cycle of primary school (five years) to highlight the motor

literacy process. Consequences: the core themes and the

corresponding learning objectives allow in each school of decline the

objectives for the five classes; highlighting the vertical curriculum,

the educational continuity, progression of motor competences and

the cyclicity of learning. Finally, the core themes predispose possible

aggregations disciplinary necessary to achieve interdisciplinarity and

expand the formative values of physical education.

The term game sport is present between the learning objectives; is a

topic full of interdisciplinary relationships and cross. The process of

sports education starts in primary school through the proposal of the

variability of content and will continue during preadolescence,

through the evolution and consolidation of motor skills, the

development of emotions and interpersonal relationships, in relation

to learning opportunities proposals.

The sports experience at school is an opportunity to experience

motor skills through content and activities that mobilize the area

psycho-affective and social, for their cyclical nature (vertical

curriculum), become occasions for growth of the person (Seclì &

Ceciliani, 2014).

The core themes and learning objectives provide a complete

educational process. The motor activities, the game and sports, are a

primary need of the person in childhood and the school is a very rich

and privileged context to promote the self-perception, learning of

motor competences and to acquire physically active lifestyles for

throughout life, through proper disciplinary action.

The motor activities and sports promoting, since primary school, the

culture of respect for others and respect for the rules, are the vehicle

for social inclusion and contrast to issues related to the discomfort

childhood. In the various Italian regions have been planned and

implemented numerous measures of training and education of

teachers to guide the implementation of the national document; in

physical education the main problem concerns the generalist teacher

education and the ways of cooperation with the specialist teacher.

127

Physical Education Teacher Training (PETE)

The sport, exercise, physical activity and movement

educational dimension are general described as Physical education

(Borms, 2008). The term and the concept of Physical Education (PE)

changed and evolved in the time.

In the International document of UNESCO (1978) the PE was

became fundamental right of children. In the last MINEPS V (2013)

PE was declared part of the sport system as complementary

function in the society for educating the students versus the future

citizen. In the 2013 Unesco Berlin Declaration glossary has defined

the “physical education is understood as an area of the school

curriculum concerned with human movement, physical fitness and

health. It is focused on developing physical competence so that all

children can move efficiently, and safely and understand what they

are doing, which is essential for their full development, achievement

and for lifelong participation in physical activity” (ICSSPE, 2010).

The PE was became a multi-system paradigm by organization based

on different levels:

A. education by sport, exercise, physical activity,

movement.(cultural and value level);

B. physical education as school curriculum subject (educational

level);

C. physical education as science of the family of sport science

(scientific level);

D. physical education as profession and PE teacher training (Cazzoli,

2014).

In the West oriented country was used Physical Education for

scholarly physical activity. In the last decade there was orientation to

use “Sport pedagogy” and “physical Education” in all educational

activity, in different settings, target groups, in all the domain of

human movement and sport. The focus was extended from children

to the age of all life, from pre-school skills and abilities to all special

people (with disabilities, elderly), from the school environment to all

the institutions of the community (ICSSPE, 2008). The PE was

became the science of sport based on the teaching and coaching

(Borms, 2008;Cazzoli 2015) . The PE teacher training needs new

paradigm for improve the PE quality in the 3rd

millennium. “The

high quality teaching has become one of the key objectives of the

128

Strategic Framework for Education and Training (‘ET 2020)

(European commission, Eurydice,2013), as contribution to economic

recovery, growth and jobs. The high quality of teaching need to

provide development of multi-system teacher education in

longitudinal/vertical continuity (time continuity, in the long life

learning, perspective):

initial teacher education;

continuous professional development for teachers and

trainers;

make teaching an attractive career-choice.

And in transversal/horizontal continuity (place continuity, in the

education multi-agency and stakeholder perspective): University;

School; Professional Community; Culture and Society (Cazzoli,

2015).

In Italy the PE teachers are generalist, they are certificate for to

teach all the school subjects. They attend at the University Master in

Science Education for Primary and Pre-primary school. (5 academic

years, one cycle, 300 CFU -University Formative Credit). The

University curriculum parts are: Basic Discipline 78 CFU (

Pedagogy, Didactics, Psychology, Sociology); Area1 School

Knowledge disciplines 135 CFU (Biology, Chemistry, Physics,

Music, Literature, Linguistics first language, Mathematics, Physical

Education, Geography, History, Art); Area 2 Disciplines for Special

Needs and Students with disabilities 31 CFU ( Special Pedagogy,

Psychology , Legal disciplines and sanitary). Other activity:

apprenticeship in the schools setting 24 CFU; Technology

Laboratory 3 CFU; European Language Learning – Level B2 12

CFU; Final work for Master Thesis 9 CFU.

The Physical Education university course is 9 CFU (8 for lecture –

56 houres; 1 for Laboratory).

The "professional knowledge" as "the set of knowledge and skills

that are needed to operate successfully in a particular profession".

The knowledge necessary to the teaching profession are many,

diverse, composite, heterogeneous.

Professional competence is built with the transition from academic

knowledge to know act / action in the process of teaching and

learning (Cazzoli, 2015)

"Teachers' professional knowledge can be of 3 types: Disciplinary

Knowledge acquired in university education; Knowledge of

129

professional training in higher education; Knowledge of experience

acquired through practice in the school"

Knowledge professions are not only the combination / amount of

practical knowledge, technical, scientific but the 3 knowledge must

be reinterpreted according to the logic of taking account of: purpose,

values, inscription in temporal context. The teachers knowledge are

reconstructed in the work (working knowledge of M. Kennedy,

1983) (Cazzoli , 2015)

The pre-primary; primary and secondary school pre-service PE

teacher training was in according with : structure; training level and

duration; characteristics and duration of the internship in school;

treatment guidelines on training; methods and selection criteria for

access to teacher training; alternative track training to teaching.

The PETE needs the development across three questions:

1st Task of PE in the school in 3

rd millennium;

2nd

Competencies of PE teacher for in order to the task;

3rd

Consequence for drawn contents and structure of PETE (Cazzoli,

2015).

1st TASK

It is necessary the definition of basic issue of the concept of PE and

PETE by three domain:1. PE and the improvement of students

fitness training; 2. the PE is a pleasant and recreational in accordance

with the learning oriented school day; 3. teaching-learning enterprise

for facilitated the students acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes

and to develop emancipated, satisfying and lasting participation in

the movement culture. It is import emphasise the task of PE teacher

is a professional teacher and not fitness educator (fitness trainer,

entertainer/recreational guide).

The PE task aspects are summarize at three levels:

a) Micro tasks: the hearth of the profession by task of planning,

realization and evaluation of teaching-learning situation

concerning embodiment, exercise, games and sports in the

formal lesson dimension, classroom setting in the gym or

play/sport ground;

b) Meso-tasks: the internal professional relationship by tasks to

cooperate and to share with the frame of the school organisation

and school community;

130

c) Macro-tasks: the external professional relationship by tasks to

cooperate and to share with education agency (local, national,

international), professional and social networking with sport

clubs, fitness centre and other sport related agency.

The micro tasks contains are:

planning and development plan of lesson (single or

coordinated in a series) in according with the frame of the

national curriculum and with phases of mental, physical and

motivational student grow, development management and

organize positive learning climate and atmosphere in

according with the theory of communication, motivation

and warrants the psychological, social and physical safety

for all the students;

planning of clear learning setting goals in each lesson and

educative activity

predisposition, adaptation and flexibility arrangement of

learning situations (equipment, furniture, space division,

organization of the workgroups)

communication to the students, parents, school community

of the clear learning setting task

provision of instructional feedback and other support to the

students participation at the PE class, programme, curricula;

management of the conflicts between students, by

themselves;

evaluation planning and management of the process of

students learning, individual progress (qualitative and

quantitative);

evaluation planning and management of quality of the

teaching process (self-evaluation, external evaluation);

The meso tasks contains are:

participation at the PE department activity/consultation in

order at school PE programme, school educative

programme;

management the PE equipment, furniture, materials

(acquisition, surveillance, take care);

131

planning and management curricular and extracurricular

sport activities (in-outside, in-outdoor);

participation at the school staff meeting, commission,

bodies, events;

management the parents contacts, communication and

relationship;

management the tutoring on the students class.

The macro tasks contains are:

planning and management the contacts, communication and

relationship with the local sport authorities;

planning and management the co-operation with local

sports clubs and other sport agency;

planning and management the students sport orientation and

support the students involving in the local sport club;

management and organization the participation at the

extramural sport meeting (Cazzoli, 2015).

2nd COMPETENCE

The European education trend showed the curricula

translating from contents to the competencies paradigm. The national

education system give the general indications and the final standards.

The singular school institution became responsible of planning,

decision making and managing of local curricula in order at the

national guideline frameworks. The teacher degree freedom is

largely implemented (Darling-Hammond, Wise and Pease, 1983).

The teacher decision making responsibility is highly for arranging

the daily and local teaching with national standard. The teacher

profession become based on decision making profession as doctor in

medicine, advocate, manager. The teacher training needs new

competencies model and paradigm based on the knowledge,

understanding for resolution of problem in real and life in situations

(WHO, 1993-1997; Cazzoli, 2014).

The PE teacher decision making profession needs the development

of international and national support by line-guide, textbooks,

standardized test, examinations applications, professional evaluation

132

and feedback protocol, deontology code and professional protocol

shared by scientific and professional community (Cazzoli, 2015).

The PE teacher professional function in the high autonomy degree is

generally more complex for the specific teaching environment and

setting by knowledge, understanding and competencies about :

repertoire of teaching techniques, educational value and goals, self –

evaluation and judgment of professional decision making by the

function of “reflective professionals”(Shavelson & Stern, 1981).

The PE teacher reflective professionals is also oriented at the student

learning. The PE is education is focused on:

the physical education (education aimed to develop to physical

performance) the movement culture (education aimed to develop

by/thought the movement; to acquire the movement knowledge,

skills, attitude and competence; to emancipate, satisfying and lasting

participation at movement culture by social and cultural approach).

The PE school and PE teacher work are an intersection of schooling

and movement culture in the domain of embodiment, movement,

exercise, play, dance, sport (Crum J., 1995).

The movement culture is historical situated and social constructed.

The exercise and sport practices are oriented by movement-technical

issues, embody and reflect the ideological, political and economic

context.

The students point of view are continuing in change (Tinning &

Fitzclarence, 1992).

3rd CONSEQUENCE

The PE teacher is reflective professional in order to

movement and youth cultures: The PE teacher needs theoretical

support frames for inspection and judge of movement culture,

schooling phenomena. The pedagogical knowledge is special

amalgam of contents for foundation of PE professional knowledge

(Shulman L. 1987).

It is the theoretical base for understanding the transformations from

sport, performance skills, movement learning in the PE values and

attitude in according with the young age and the schooling context

(Feiman-Nemser S., 1990). The PE or Sport pedagogy became the

teaching and coaching science of the family of Sport Sciences

(ICSSPE, 2008;Cazzoli 2014).

133

The PETE program needs the curricula based on: sport sociology,

sport pedagogy, teaching methodology, teaching

supervision/tutoring, sport skills grounded in the social PE social

construction and students learning needs, cooperative teaching and

learning strategy in the educational departments (Academic and

school setting). The biomechanics, exercise physiology, physical

activity psychology, sociology, pedagogical, sport skills courses

needs focus on the relevance of contents and organization in order at

the teaching and coaching context (Cazzoli, 2015). In all

international documents the teacher and qualified training is

fundamental element for to develop the Quality of PE (QPE)

(ICSSPE, 2010). The recommendations asked to improve the

academic levels for enter teaching and the quality education

programs from early 1980s (US National Commission on Excellence

in Education, 1983).

The revolution was initiated gradually and in the time become the

evolution and it is stills ongoing. The reform changes shaped

contents and conduct of Physical Education Teacher Training

(PETE). The new structures of PETE programs: the initial

certification passed from 4 years to 5-years programs

path/curriculum. It is award of a Master’s degree. The standard-

based teacher education and accreditation defined the specific

content standards for preparing new teachers. The National

Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) wrote

standards for PE teacher in 1995. They were the base for

development of National Council for Accreditation of Teacher

Education (NCATE).The PETE programs are under NCAPE

accrediting process every five years. The university officials and

faculty prepare the NCATE standards review (Cazzoli, 2015). The

Pete license and program contents are oriented at the Curricula area

based on: University Core curriculum; Professional core; Sport

Science and movement content; Curriculum and pedagogical

methods; Practica and students teaching. The debate is open on

“profession versus discipline”: advocates of professional education

and advocates for disciplinary study. The debate influences the

distribution of university credit hours in teacher education programs.

(Metzler M., 2003).

The European model become the similar after the Process of

Bologna (1999) The criteria maybe it is balance between the sport

134

science discipline (power of scientific core) and the teaching science

(professional core, movement contents, curriculum, pedagogy, field-

experience) (Cazzoli, 2015).

The PETE conducts are based on students engagement strategies to

learn knowledge contents (sport science scientific core) and

pedagogical contents (sport pedagogy and teaching core) . The

evolution need shift model from traditional lectures methods

(students passive learner: attending at lectures, taking note, studying

on the text and preparing predictable types of examination) versus

active model students involvements (using interactive engagement

strategies, cooperative learning, sport education principles and rules,

authentic learning building with theory addressed at the practice

application in the teacher professional work-competence orientation;

self-assessments of personal learning process and understanding

(Cazzoli, 2015).

The students pedagogical knowledge engagement in PETE courses

for teaching was oriented at traditional methods with approaches:

historical (studying the history of the sport pedagogy); peer teaching

in the university location (adults aged). The new method is Field-

Based: pre-service teacher are instructed school aged children before

the formal student teaching experience. The field basing PETE in

based on: pre-service teacher learns curriculum and instructional

methods by teaching in PE classes of children, in the regular PE

school setting. The Field Based concept is the development of the

Professional Development School started in 1990s. The Field Based

became also university credit hours in the PETE curriculum and it

allowed more efficiently and efficacy pedagogy knowledge and

teaching science and competences development.

The regulation the teacher education was government developed by

fixing: entry qualifications for teacher education programs;

background check on students; require for teacher pass standardized

examinations; require test for approval certification; criteria for

teacher educator qualifications; teacher education programs scrutiny

by regular reports (Cazzoli, 2015).

The PETE needs researches for improve the efficiently and efficacy.

The government teacher education studying is in the general about

workforce teachers, demographics and qualifications trend data. The

teacher education researches are generally generated from

departmental, college and university support, but it wasn’t so

135

diffused the research on PETE. From 1980s the PETE scholarship

received impulse by: educational journal became included the

publication of PETE research; proliferation of association and

conferences focused on issue related PETE (NASPE, AIESEP); body

PETE knowledge was developed by perspectives based in

constructivism, post-modernism, critical and comparative pedagogy

(Metzler M., 2003; Cazzoli, 2015).

In the Italian primary school from 2010 were on-going national

projects for implementation of Physical Education. The projects

were based on the cooperation between the MIUR (Minister of

Instruction, University and Research) the CONI (Committee

Olympic National Italy) and Presidency of the Council of Ministers

of the Italian Republic. The project were focused on the participating

of generalist primary school teacher and specialist teacher of

Physical education and Sport Science (teacher training and

certification in the Faculty/department of Physical Education and

Sport). The project characteristics were: Alfabetizzazione Motoria

(Motor Literacy) 2010-2013,.on 2013 it involved 3500 schools,

25,000 classes, 500,000 students; Progetto Primaria (Primary

Project ) on 2014 (the data will be available on 2015): The project

2015 Sport di classe (Class Sport) is on-going and the data will be

available on 2016.

CONCLUSION

The analysis presented has traced the evolution of discipline

in the curriculum of the Italian school, to identify the constants and

the elements of innovation and the process of teacher education

The teaching quality of physical education in primary schools is a

much discussed topic among experts of the sciences of human

movement, the primary school teachers, school administrators,

parents of children, the world of sports associations territorial. In

recent years the scope of public health has demonstrated particular

attention to the teaching of physical education and to the

interdisciplinary relationships.

The time is ripe for a quality education in physical education; the

discipline has its own identity and a specific repertoire of

pedagogical content and organizational methods.

136

The current National Guidelines are a fundamental reference for

designing physical education at school and to propose interventions

related extracurricular physical activities and sports childhood and

youth and the necessary interactions and additions [school-

community].

Numerous and recent scientific evidence and claim that the

curriculum of physical education properly conducted, allows you to

to obtain benefits for motor development of the child (Lonsdale et

al., 2013). The most effective measures to prevent and combat the

sedentary habits, in fact, they start at school, privileged setting for

health promotion through lifestyle physically active (Chunlei &

Buchanan, 2014; Cripple & Faith, 2014; Colella, 2014).

Also is well demonstrated the contribution of physical activity

curriculum for the cross-cutting objectives, eg., cognitive

development and school performance, emotional-affective

development, motivation, self-efficacy and physical enjoyment,

basic constructs for the direction of life skills education (Bryan &

Solmon, 2007; Goudas, 2007; Hillman et al., 2014). The game and

sport are content and organizational modalities peculiar of physical

education that, through the fair play, accompanies the maturation of

the interpersonal relationships of the child and that the rules for civil

coexistence. The Indications to favor interdisciplinary relationships

and planning between school, sports and health, no longer put off.

137

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141

LITHUANIA

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE LITHUANIANS

SCHOOL: SINCE ITS ORIGIN TO THE END OF

THE XX CENTURY

Arūnas Emeljanovas, Faculty of Sport Education; Lithuanian

Sports University

Daiva Majauskienė, Faculty of Sport Education; Lithuanian Sports

University

Correspondence

Arūnas Emeljanovas arunas.emeljanovas@lsu.lt

Phone: +37061540405

The Lithuanian state was established in the XIII century.

After the christening of Lithuania in the XIV century, schools were

established. The embryos of physical education in schools appeared

already after establishing the first school under Vilnius Chapter in

13871. It may be the beginning of organized physical education of

children although physical education as a separate subject did not

exist in schools for a long time.

The attention of the state to physical education in schools

only grew in the period of the Enlightenment. The physical activity

of pupils became higher in 1773 when the Educational Commission

established by one of the first world ministries of education in

Europe introduced physical education as a separate discipline in

schools2. It is said in the document issued in 1774: „It is said in the

instructions of the Educational Commission of the state of the Polish

Kingdom and Great Duchy of Lithuania that „... children should not

be pampered; children must adapt to cold, discomfort and troubles so

1 Šapoka, A. (1989). Lietuvos istorija. Vilnius: Mokslas. 2 Ten pat.

142

that they become strong, mobile and enduring“3.Thus, according to

the decision of the Educational Committee, physical education of

children, especially in secondary schools, was legitimized as an

optional subject and it was mandatory in some schools. It was the

first case in Europe when the state started taking systematic care of

physical education of young people in schools.

In 1792 the children of Kraziai school exercised with sticks

(fenced), performed military duels and learned to use weapons. In

the period of the Education Commission, visitors took care of the

hygienic condition of schools and physical preparation of children.

Visitor J.Chodzka wrote in his report about Ukmerge school: “The

most popular games are games with a ball (maybe the games of the

type of battledore and square) because Lithuanian children like them

most and play by running. There are no exercises (...), little attention

is paid to physical education“4. It is obvious from the reports of the

Educational Commission that exercising is mentioned among other

forms of physical education at the end of the XVIII century.

In 1795 there was the first division of Poland-Lithuania and

Lithuania got into the composition of the Russian Empire. In 1803

the Tsarist Government following the political intentions did not

include physical education as a subject in the plans of schools. After

the rebellion of 1831, the regulations of schools compiled according

to the Russian model were introduced to Lithuania. The Tsarist

officials and officers, who worked in Lithuania, took care of physical

preparation of their children. They invited different foreign

specialists of physical education (especially from France) – these

were fencing, riding, shooting, lawn tennis or swimming

“professors” who organized small circles for lovers of these branches

of sport. Some Lithuanians also belonged to them. There were some

ads in the local press, especially in the magazine “Dziennik

Wilenski”, inviting to learn fencing, shooting, riding or art of

dancing.5

Bishop Motiejus Valancius preached a sermon in 1834 and

expressed a new attitude towards games and entertainments in

3 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai. 4 Lukšienė, M. (1970). Lietuvos švietimo istorijos bruožai. Vilnius. 5 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija. (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai.

143

schools. M.Valancius recognized the significance of games and

physical exercises as means of relaxation after hard mental or

physical work.

The situation was better in the Small Lithuania which had

come to Prussia after the third division of Poland-Lithuania.

H.Cymus, who was a teacher in Klaipėda, started cultivating

swimming in the Dane river in 1831 and Vydunas, who was a

teacher in Kintai, taught physical education beside other subjects6.

After the Russian revolution of 1905-1907, the influence of

the empire was lower in Lithuania. The number of secondary and

semi-secondary schools and pupils was gradually growing in

Lithuanian gubernatorial places. However, there were no physical

education lessons in the learning plans of gymnasiums at the

beginning of the XX century7; there were exercising lessons as an

optional subject beside music, singing, dancing and handicraft

lessons. The specialists with special preparation taught in

gymnasiums, special secondary schools and cadet corps. 2-3 hours

per week were mostly intended for physical education. Physical

education in Lithuanian schools was based on Sakalai exercising and

the Swedish and German exercising systems were less popular.

During the World War I, Lithuania was occupied by the

German army and schools almost disappeared – most teachers and

pupils of secondary schools were evacuated to Russia. Then, the

German Government allowed organizing schools in the local

languages, but poor material conditions did not allow paying any

attention to physical education.

After the World War I ended, the Lithuanian state regained

its independence. According to the experience of other countries, the

physical education and sport system was started. A few physical

education programmes were developed.

The first programme of physical education for primary

schools was called ,,Gymnastics and games“ and issued in 19198. It

is quite simple but also difficult, because it was divided not into

periods according to children‘s age but according to months (month I

6 Ten pat. 7 Žukauskas, K. (1960). Iš Lietuvos mokyklos istorijos. 1905-1907 metai. Vilnius. 8 Dineika, K. (1935). Kūno kultūros raida mūsų pradžios mokykloje. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 1, 42-44.

144

– Swedish and Norwegian gymnastics, month II. – German

gymnastics, month IV – high jumps, long jumps, jumps over the

goat, climbing a rope, climbing a pole, months VII-X – football,

crocket, relay-race, swimming, principles of fence and so on. The

defect of this programme was the fact the material was chosen

without considering a child‘s age and it was not divided into periods

of age and forms.

In 1925 the second programme of physical education of

primary schools ,,Exercising, programs of games“ was passed9. Its

base was made of the system of pedagogical gymnastics by P. Ling,

however, the creators of the programme hesitated between a Swedish

method and a French method. This programme was already adjusted

to children‘s age and sex. The children whose health was weak had

to do exercises in separate groups, pull-ups, inter-struggle, climbing

were involved for upper forms.

The programme of physical education of 1935 was much

more perfect. It conformed with the purpose of the practice of

physical education for pupils - ,,to keep normal development of

pupils‘ body, to train their capability, to motivate for hygienic living

and implant habits of sociality“10

. The material taught in the

programme was divided following its purposes: I. Subjects of

hygienic habits had to give the necessary knowledge; besides, the

task of all kinds of gymnastics is to motivate for hygienic living. II.

The gymnastics of capability had to train an employable body and

train to keep one‘s ear open, to discipline and regulate. III. The

gymnastics of alignment had to eliminate and correct corporeal

defects. The forming gymnastics had to help to elaborate a good set

and a move form for gymnastics and work. IV. The part of jokes and

artistic moves had to train to use a move for a luxurious and artistic

play. The tasks above had to be implemented in lessons of physical

education and while organizing free time (games, camps, travelling).

In the programme the material was divided following the periods of

age: 7-9., 9-12, 12-15 years old, because the base of physical

education is a child‘s natural physical and psychical development.

9 Ten pat. 10 Ten pat.

145

This programme of physical education is quite concrete: it defines

both the content and the volume.

Thus, after the World War I, the physical education lesson

was included in the programmes of primary schools, however, it was

practically absent because there was a lack of teachers who were

able to teach these lessons, there were no rooms suitable for

gymnastics and other exercises. The teachers of physical education

were the people who had a bad understanding about this area. In

1923 there were just a few diplomate teachers of physical education.

Their work was also aggravated by the fact a unit system of physical

education had not existed for a long time. Teachers of physical

education had to prepare and plan everything. Everything depended

on teacher’s capability and ingenuity. There were no squares and

rooms for gymnastics near many schools. Because of a lack of

rooms, in winter physical education totally slept in schools.

In 1924 R.J. who learned at the third form of Marijampole

gymnasium remembers a lesson of physical education: „We usually

ranked in the yard of the gymnasium after ringing the bell. The

teacher came and greeted us: “Hello, fellows!” We answered:

„Hello, Monsieur“ and went to the square of the gymnasium accross

the road almost in front of our gymnasium. The square was small,

there were very few devices for gymnastics. We sometimes did some

exercises: arms forward, back, upward, downward (...). All these

moves were performed with the tensed muscles of our arms, legs,

waist. This gymnastics did not make our moves more flexible and

beautiful. These artificial tough moves were performed with the

compacted, tensed muscles in our lessons and they helped little to

improve moves by the youth. The pupils who had had stiff bodies

and moves remained like these.“11

While we were going or running during lessons, nobody took care

whether we waddled like ducks or lowered our heads as if we were

looking for lost money or the toes of one foot were turned outwards

and those of the other inwards – the teacher did not use to correct

those mistakes (...). We practised very few games except square

played by everybody or battledore. Besides, we tried to play

basketball, but we failed because we hardly observed any rules (...).

11 Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga.

146

The working conditions of our teacher were poor, especially in

winter, because there was no sport-hall. So, we used to have our

exercising lessons outside: after falling into line, we used to march a

little or run a kilometre and came back. While it was raining, we

used to spend our physical education lessons in the classroom, but

our teacher did not use them and did not provide the pupils with

theoretical knowledge about a certain branch of sport although they

were so necessary.“12

On 17 June 1923 the championship of track and field

athletics for Kaunas pupils was organized, a pupil of Kaunas

„Ausra“ national gymnasium D. Toliusis especially shone there by

doing a high jump 1,55 m, a long jump - 5,68 m, a high jump with a

pole - 2,315 m. The most sporty gymnasia were Kaunas „Ausra“

gymnasium for boys and Marijampole Rygiskiu Jono gymnasium

(A. Akelaitis, V. Razaitis, S. Sackus, A. Tamulynas and other good

sportsmen learned there). In 1923 in the latter one the first

Lithuanian sport clubs were established: a club for boys ,,Vaidotas“

and a club for girls ,,Mirga“.

According to K. Dineika, in 1932 a new epoch of school life

began13

: In 1932 the law of physical education was passed, in 1932

the House of Physical Education (HPE) began to take care of

physical education. The activity of the HPE involves two areas: a)

physical education in schools b) physical education and sport by the

organized youth.

The development of physical education in schools, summer

squares, kindergartens was arranged by the HPE in three ways: a)

material conditions suitable for physical training were created and

were stimulated to create; b) directly (attending schools, courses) and

indirectly (programmes, VKKZ) leading the school work of physical

training c) consequences of work were observed (health

examination, holidays, championships and so on).

According to A. Vokietaitis, in a primary school the subject

of physical education was still supposed to be as a secondary matter

12 Ten pat. 13 Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 8.

147

in 193314

. In many primary schools, especially in the country,

physical education was not taught at all.

The content and teaching methodology of lessons of

physical education changed slowly. In 1933 V. Augustaitis-

Augustauskas wrote: ”In our primary school the subject of physical

education still is a completely technological subject, its lessons are

isolated. It‘s time to relate lessons of physical education to social

pedagogy, to artistic, hygienic and cultural factors of national

politics.“15

After starting to implement the national system of physical

education ,,Sporuta“, under the law by the minister of education K.

Sakenis on 8 February 1933, two additional afternoon lessons by

„Sporuta“ were introduced in gymnasia, in teachers‘ seminaries and

secondary schools, all pupils were able to participate there after

turning 1416

.

In 1933 V. Augustaitis-Augustauskas stated “in schools, the

spiritual balance must be made; exercising corporeal forces by the

youth must equally help to mature a personality, give it real joy, so

that it becomes a man and dedicates for the nation‘s creation;

training a body cannot become “sportsmanship”, it must remain a

wide life for the youth where there is some place for expressing

sociality. (…) It is necessary to refuse of vain sport rivalry, it is

necessary to create new forms of physical education which are

related to the principles of social education. Then it is possible to

easily reach values of education by the House of Physical Education:

health, resistance, discipline, working capacity, love of fatherland.“17

At the end of the 3rd decade sport holidays were prepared

for primary schools, since 1930, they were also prepared for pupils

of districts and parishes. In 1934-1935 33345 children participated in

holidays of primary schools; 1935-1936 - 58189 children, 29110

participated in holidays, 29079 – in picnics; In 1936-1937 46949

14 Vokietaitis, A. (1933). Kūno kultūra kasdieniniam mokyklos darbe. Fiziškas

auklėjimas, 3, 190. 15 Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175. 16 Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga. 17 Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175.

148

children participated in holidays, 78827 – in picnics, 498 – in camps,

in total there were 126 274 children18

. These numbers show physical

education was improving in primary schools, its forms tended to

become more various by leaving the new programme of physical

education for a reformed primary school.

By the beginning of 1933, the holiday programmes of

primary schools consisted of exercises (mostly of a geometric form),

roundels, various games of running and with a ball, plastic exercises

and simple dances by girls. Somewhere songs were included. In

1927-1930 the primary schools of Kaunas city prepared even 2-3

holidays according to this programme, 500 - 1000 people

participated there. The purpose of these holidays is more

demonstrative– walking, parade, gymnastics, races.

After 1933 school holidays became more various, teachers

showed their creation there. There were holiday programmes of

separate schools, schools of country districts, children‘s camps,

districts and parishes: 1. The programme of a school holiday

consisted of these elements: hymn, explanatory word for parents,

songs, declamation; outside gymnastics, roundels, relay-races, comic

things, end; 2. The programme of a school holiday with a picnic:

roundels and dances for young people; short demonstrative lesson;

relay-races, dances and games for young people; fire, talking,

performance, songs, final word. 3. The programme of a country

school holiday: worship; walking in the village, putting a crown by

the monument in honour of casualties; speech; hoisting a flag; lively

word (initials of Lithuania or by the President); common gymnastics;

songs; team games by boys among schools; gymnastics by girls;

merry performances by separate schools; end of the holiday. 4. The

programme of a district or parish school holiday: the first day:

registration; accommodation in the places assigned; gymnastics

repetition; lunch; song repetition; free time; supper; sleep; the second

day: breakfast; repetition; worship; lunch; parade; hoisting a flag,

speech, hymn; initials by the President; songs; performances by

separate towns-villages; interschool relay-race; end.

The development of school holidays show the primary

school becomes more active: it gives children both the knowledge

18 Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 9.

149

and teaches to tidily communicate at holidays, picnics, camps. The

primary school entered a new kind of life. Physical education as a

factor of education gave a lot of various communication forms, they

just needed to be able to use them and create the material conditions

suitable for its development.

By 1937 the pupils who wanted to go in for sports

participated in the activity by sport organizations or clubs and in

championships. The government of the Ministry of Education

disagreed with it – it meant pupils ,,turned aside from the line of

pedagogical education“, but they tolerated it for a long time. On

22.01.1937 the minister of education forbid pupils to participate in

the activity of sport organizations and clubs. It was ordered to move

all events only to schools, pupils were just able to represent their

school at sport championships19

.

In spring of 1937 gymnasia started establishing sport

companies (circles). In 1938 41% of the boys and 37% of the girls of

state and private gymnasia to have these rights participated in sport

companies20

. Beside trainings and championships, these companies

organized trips, lessons, evenings of physical education. Companies

were divided into 2 groups - junior (by the IV form) and senior (from

the IV form) ones. In mixed gymnasia there were separate sport

companies for girls and boys.

At the end of the 4 decade physical education became

almost on an equality with other subjects in gymnasia. M. Baronaitė,

A. Jurgelionis, S. Sackus, A. Vokietaitis and the others contributed

to it much. In the 4 decade in the gymnasia that taught in Lithuanian,

there were four lessons of physical education and military

preparation for the boys of all forms, there were three lessons for the

girls of I-III, VII forms and two lessons for the girls of IV-VI forms.

Since 1935, pupils‘ Olympiads were organized, their

programmes consisted of basketball, volleyball, track and field

athletics and dancing (on 11-14.06.1935 about 1500 pupils

participated in the Olympiad).

After establishing the State Mark of Physical Education in

1936, schools paid much attention to the preparation and following

19 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija. (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai. 20 Diržius, K. (1938). Gimnazijų fizinio lavinimo kuopos. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 12, 36.

150

its norms. In the schoolyear of 1937/1938 the norms of this mark

were passed by 522 pupils of 881 or 62,6% in gymnasia.21

In 1938

school-leavers of gymnasia had to obtain the State Mark of Physical

Education instead of the final examinations of physical education.

Some pupils achieved good sport results at the National Olympiad in

1938.

In 1940 the Soviet Union occupied Lithuania and started the

sovietization of the country. According to the programme of

comprehensive schools of the USSR, a new physical education and

military preparation programme was introduced to Lithuanian

schools in 1940-194122

. Since 1941, the pupils had to pass the

standards of BRWD (Be Ready for Work and Defence) and RWD

(Ready for Work and Defence).

In 1941 the Lithuanian territory was occupied by Nazis and

the sport movement was organized in the same principles as in the

independent Republic of Lithuania. Championships of town pupils

and students of different branches of sport as well as friendly

intertown competitions were organized. In 1942 about 5500 young

people participated in different competitions23

.

After the World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the

Soviet Union again. The soviet physical education and sport system,

which had started in 1940-1941, was restored and strengthened in

Lithuania. In 1947 the Ministry of Education issued the physical

education programmes for primary schools, progymnasiums and

gymnasiums. In 1954 the head of the division of physical education

of the Ministry of Education, A. Starovolskis took an initiative and

introduced new physical education programmes for primary, seven-

year and secondary schools which were mot adapted to Lithuanian

conditions. They were based on the requirements of the RWD

complex and sport classification, but they also had peculiar features.

2 hours per week were given for compulsory physical education in

schools. Every pupil leaving from the 8-year school had to pass

standards of BRWD and that leaving from the secondary school –

first-grade standards of RWD. Pupils improved their sport excellence

21 Dėka. (1939). Valstybinis kūno kultūros ženklas. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 12. 22 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F.933. Ap.1. B.1044. L.34. 23 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 976, Ap. 1 B.2. L.58.

151

in sport schools of children under the system of the Ministry of

Education and sport communities. Republican competitions of pupils

were organized every year since 1946 and every two years since

1964. Since 1954 the Lithuanian selection of pupils participated in

competitions of pupils of the Union. The first sport school was

established in 1946. In 1958-1959 there were 6 profiled sport schools

in Lithuania (Kaunas 23rd

school: swimming, diving; Marijampole J.

Jablonskis school: track-and-field athletics, swimming; Kaunas S.

Neries: basketball; Kaunas 6th

school: track-and-field athletics,

swimming; Kaunas A. Mickeviciaus school: football, volleyball;

Panevezys 5th

school: sport games).

In 1959 comprehensive schools started lessons from

exercising every day. Mobile games were organized during pauses if

possible; subject lessons involved physical education pauses and

there were physical education lessons twice per week. There were

physical education practices in day-boarder groups. In 1962-1963 the

implementation of universal eight-year teaching was completed and

the physical education system involved all 7-15-year-old children.

As compulsory secondary learning was implemented in 1971, almost

all young people until 18 obtained the elements of physical education

and sport. At the end of 1970s, the schools applied morning

gymnastics for pupils and recommended mobile pauses. In 1982, the

physical culture credit was introduced for pupils of the final classes.

It was the first time after the war that physical culture got among the

final examinations of subjects. In 1984 the physical education

programmes were specified in order to make physical education in

schools a harmonious, scientifically based and consistent system.

Attention should be paid that most pupils had an indifferent

attitude towards sport, especially physical education, in the years of

stagnation. Pupils of comprehensive schools exercised in two

physical education lessons per week. However, it was too little.

Besides, pupils often came to lessons unprepared and sat on the

bench. According to the data, the young generation was weaker and

weaker and fell ill more often every year. The research performed in

1989 showed especial worsening of physical condition of girls24

.

24Stakionienė, V., Mieželytė, A. (1989). Mielos mergaitės, susirūpinkite ir savo išvaizda ir sveikata. Sportas, vasario 14., 3.

152

Taking into account of it, a group of Lithuanian physical education

teachers applied to the Council of Ministers and Ministry of

Education and asked to increase the number of physical education

lessons in schools, provide them with sport facilities in the priority,

move the preparative groups of sport schools to schools and include

the checking of physical preparation in all matriculation

examinations25

. However, the above-mentioned suggestions were not

accepted although certain measures were taken: morning exercising

before lessons was introduced to schools and pauses became more

mobile. Unfortunately, these measures did not catch on. Schools only

consolidated the physical education credit.

Little attention was paid to physical education of pupils in

the years of reorganization. Although the Ministry of Education and

Ministry of Higher and Special Secondary Education aimed to

prepare physically strong conscripts for the Soviet Army, RWD

badges and rank holders and the Central Committee of the

Communist Party of Lithuanian controlled this work and adopted a

decision for the improvement of this work every year, it helped little.

In the reports submitted by these organizations, 99-100 per cent of

young people had badges of RWD and were rank holders of different

branches of sport, but it emerged after checking that fewer than one

half of these young people passed the compulsory standards. In 1988

the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Lithuania decided

to introduce the national checking of young people26

and compiled

the Republican Commission for the determination of physical

preparation of young people.27

It was decided to reorganize the sport

management of pupils. The Ministry of Education and the Sport

Committee adopted the decision „On the management of physical

education and sport activity of pupils and its“28

. On this basis, the

division of physical education and sport of the Ministry had to

manage the physical education process in comprehensive schools

and the sport community “Work Reserves” had to manage post-

school and out-school activities. Pupils were able to do sports in

25 Tūpienė, J. Ir kt. (1989). Kreipimasis į Lietuvos TSR Ministrų Tarybą, Lietuvos TSR Liaudies švietimo ministeriją. Sportas, rugpjūčio 24, 2. 26 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.14.L. 41. 27 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.7.L. 385. 28 Kas vadovaus moksleivių sportui. (1989). Sportas, Vasario 2, 6.

153

sport clubs of children. However, the material condition of most

clubs was very bad.

In 1988 the Sport Committee adopted the decision “On the

tasks of the Republican sport organizations in the support of

children’s homes and boarding schools” in order to obligate sport

organizations to “turn around” to children’s homes and boarding

schools.

At the end of 1988 the conception of the national school

was declared29

and the forces of Lithuanian pedagogues, scientists

and artists were recruited in order to develop new educational

programmes based on the education of the own nation, textbooks and

means of teaching; the theoretical elements of the educational reform

(conceptions of types of schools and educational contents) and

juridical reform documents (Law on Education, regulations of

schools etc.) were prepared. In 1990, the independence of our

country was declared and the attitude towards physical culture also

changed. Physical culture was treated as a holistic trend of physical

education emphasizing the pupil’s physical nature, health, physical

endurance considering his/her age, gender, way of life and right of a

free choice, not only recording the results of physical preparation30

.

Mandatory physical culture practices are organized in schools

according to the teaching plans and programmes set for those

institutions.

To sum up, it can be stated that physical culture has deep

traditions in the Lithuanian school. However, it only became equal to

other school subjects in the XX century. The national experience of

physical culture and politics of adjacent countries in respect of

Lithuania as well as educational models had a big influence on the

total educational system of the country and physical culture in

schools.

29 Lietuvos švietimo koncepcija. (1992). Vilnius: Leidybos centras. 30Išsilavinimo standartai. (1999). Vilnius Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija.

154

REFERENCES

Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis.

Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175.

Dėka. (1939). Valstybinis kūno kultūros ženklas. Fiziškas

auklėjimas, 3, 12.

Dineika, K. (1935). Kūno kultūros raida mūsų pradžios mokykloje.

Fiziškas auklėjimas, 1, 42-44.

Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas

auklėjimas, 3, 8.

Diržius, K. (1938). Gimnazijų fizinio lavinimo kuopos. Fiziškas

auklėjimas, 12, 36.

Išsilavinimo standartai. (1999). Vilnius Lietuvos Respublikos

švietimo ir mokslo ministerija.

Kas vadovaus moksleivių sportui. (1989). Sportas, Vasario 2, 6.

Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija (1996). Vilnius: Margi

raštai.

Lietuvos švietimo koncepcija. (1992). Vilnius: Leidybos centras.

Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.7.L. 385.

Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.14.L. 41.

Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 976, Ap. 1 B.2. L.58.

Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F.933. Ap.1. B.1044. L.34.

Lukšienė, M. (1970). Lietuvos švietimo istorijos bruožai. Vilnius.

Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga

Stakionienė, V., Mieželytė, A. (1989). Mielos mergaitės,

susirūpinkite ir savo išvaizda ir sveikata. Sportas,

vasario 14., 3.

Šapoka, A. (1989). Lietuvos istorija. Vilnius: Mokslas.

Tūpienė, J. Ir kt. (1989). Kreipimasis į Lietuvos TSR Ministrų

Tarybą, Lietuvos TSR Liaudies švietimo ministeriją.

Sportas, rugpjūčio 24, 2.

Vokietaitis, A. (1933). Kūno kultūra kasdieniniam mokyklos darbe.

Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 190.

Žukauskas, K. (1960). Iš Lietuvos mokyklos istorijos. 1905-1907

metai. Vilnius.

155

LUXEMBOURG

THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN

LUXEMBOURG

Claude Scheuer, Faculty of Language and Literature, Humanities,

Arts and Education; University of Luxembourg

Correspondence

Claude Scheuer

claude.scheuer@uni.lu

Phone: +352/466644-9233

Abstract

Physical education was established in Luxembourg in the

19th century by the Germans Euler and Stammer, based on the ideas

and conceptions of Spieß. At that time, lessons in gymnastics were

first held on an optional basis (1848), then compulsory for

preparatory classes (1860), and finally compulsory for classes of

lower secondary school (1892). Back then, Gymnastics were

recognized as a subject mainly because of their recreative quality

compared to intellectual activities. In 1908/1909, physical education

became compulsory in all school grades at all levels. Objectives,

content, and methods were inspired by the Belgian example and

postulated the rational method of the Swede Per Hendrik Ling. This

concept did not experience significant changes until the beginning of

the 1970s, when the Ministry of Education defined two major strands

in the physical education curriculum: basic activities and sport-

oriented activities. This curriculum had different parts for boys and

girls, with a focus on traditional cooperative games for boys and

rhythm and dance activities for girls. It was only in 1980 that the

dualistic, utilitarian, and rational conceptions of the 19th century

were replaced by a new curriculum based on actual scientific and

pedagogical findings. This process led to a sport-oriented concept –

similar to the concepts in place in German-speaking countries at that

time – which was implemented in 1985 and remained in place until

2009, considering physical activities with educating, competitive,

156

exhilarant, and prophylactic aims. A new and very innovative

curriculum concept was finally implemented in 2009.

Keywords: physical education, Luxembourg, curriculum,

international relations

This chapter highlights the foundation and the development of

physical education in Luxembourg over the two last centuries.

Established in the beginning of the 19th

century by a German teacher,

physical education has known in Luxembourg – known well as one

of the smallest countries in Europe – a quite slow development for

several years, with more or less important influences coming from

the neighbour countries. It was only in the end of the 20th

century

that major changes, based on scientific evidence, were implemented

by the means of the curriculums for physical education. This

development finished – for the moment – with the implementation of

a very innovative and well-received curriculum by both the physical

education teachers in Luxembourg and the German-speaking

scientific community. This development over the years will be

described in the following, closing by a short section on the relation

between FIEP and physical education in Luxembourg.

THE BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT

THE ATHENAEUM1 (1817-1970)

“Deutsches Turnen” (German gymnastics) is taught at the

Athenaeum in 1818

A year after its conversion in 1817, the Royal Athenaeum

already had physical activities in its programs. Indeed, in 1818, a

German teacher, Heinrich Stammer (1785-1859), recruited through

advertisements in major European newspapers of that time,

introduced games sessions and “Turnen” (gymnastics) at the

Athenaeum, during breaks and free afternoons for volunteer students.

However, these actions were not to the liking of everyone, as

evidenced by excerpts from a letter sent to The Hague by the

1 The Athenaeum is the oldest secondary school in Luxembourg and was founded in

1603 as a Jesuit college.

157

governor of Luxembourg at that time, mentioning, that the gymnastic

games that Stammer gave first on the “glacis”, a field close to the

city, were to take different attitudes of the body and make more or

less difficult jumps. These innovations initially displeased friends of

true education of youth, who could easily see the modesty of this age

in danger of being sacrificed to false assurance. These oppositions,

especially from the clergy of the nearby cathedral, were aimed

primarily against Stammer. But they did not prevent him to open on

its own, in 1837, a gymnastics school. It is interesting to see that a

few years after the publication in 1814 of “Turnkunst” (gymnastic

art) of the German “Turnvater” (father of gymnastics) Friedrich

Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), gymnastics and popular games were

already applied, on an optional and voluntary basis, with the sons of

the high bourgeoisie in Luxembourg attending the new Athenaeum.

At that time, there was no compulsory education (Decker, 2010a).

The official program of the Royal Athenaeum in Luxembourg

provided from 1836 to 1837 optional gymnastics courses for all

classes. Decker (2010a) mentions contents like

articulation exercises; walking and running; jumping

through a hoop, over ropes, sticks, students, a 4-12 feet

wide ditch;

impulse exercises on the horizontally laid tree and on the

through horse; bar exercises;

climb the greasy pole, the perpendicular and oblique pole

and to the hanging rope.; climb a rope, using or without

using the feet; climb the rope ladder;

fighting drills;

different cooperative games in the fresh air; short

excursions.

In the following years were added swimming and fencing.

This program carries the signature of Professor Stammer and reflects

completely the influence of Jahn, as well as that of Johann Christoph

Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) and his “Gymnastik für die

Jugend” (gymnastics for the youth). The goals of this gymnastics did

not follow purely hygienic purposes, as it was the case a few decades

later, yet we do not know if Stammer taught it in the same rebellious,

liberating and revolutionary spirit, that was rigor in the first

gymnastics clubs created in 1849 in the capital of Luyembourg: “La

Gym”, “La Fraternelle”, “La Libre” (Decker, 2010a).

158

In 1859, following Decker (2010a), gymnastics still appears

as a mandatory subject for two hours per week at the Athenaeum’s

program. As early as 1860-1861, gymnastic classes are mandatory in

preparatory classes. The program includes “preparatory exercises,

balance exercises and jumping exercises on the scale, parallel bars,

on the easel, the frame and the trapeze”. These exercise classes were

taught by gymnastics teachers, actually former non-commissioned

officers or gendarmes that have been formed hastily by the German

Charles Euler, born in Trier in 1809, and called for Luxembourg in

1847 to reorganize the gymnastics classes at the Athenaeum.

Although gymnastics becomes mandatory from 1892 on for

students of the two lower classes and optional for all other students,

and becomes compulsory in all secondary classes from the academic

year 1908-1909 on, its practical realization is disturbed by the lack of

both qualified teachers, adequate facilities and materials. Until the

1937-1938 years, gymnastics masters had neither the title nor the

rank of professor or tutor and were appointed by the government

member in charge of education, on the proposal of the conference of

teachers and paid by the body of the domestic service of the

Athenaeum using some of the money collected as tuition fees. They

were traditionally chosen among military or among other interested

teachers. It was not until a decree in the end of 1935 that the

conditions of appointment for master of gymnastics allowed the

arrival of young teachers holding the qualifications of maturity,

justified by a special preparation at foreign schools that have a one-

year internship and, at the end of the course, a practical test. The first

well trained teachers were Norbert Bourcy and René Bauler. They

added, since the 1945-1946 years, an extra year of advanced training

at the regional institute of physical education from the University of

Nancy, to become the first “real” gymnastics teachers of the

Athenaeum after the war. As for the sports facilities of the

Athenaeum, the situation has improved with the New Athenaeum

opening in 1964, with his two gyms, a swimming pool and a stadium

with athletics track (Decker, 2010a).

The reign of the Swedish rational gymnastics (until 1970)

As for the offered content or, better, imposed on students

throughout the first half of the last century as drills, it was primarily

159

rational Swedish gymnastics based on physiological and anatomical

knowledge of the human body and recommended by a committee

established by royal decree in 1906 for middle school reform of

higher degree. In a ministerial statement of 1907 on the gymnastic

and sporting exercises, it can be read that in schools, physical

exercises serve a dual purpose: first, they tend to develop the forces

of the body. On the other hand, they are called to oppose a welcome

counterweight to intellectual effort to be observed by the students.

The scientific or Swedish gymnastics – which Ling is the initiator of

– was specifically designed for this purpose. It only includes

exercises with helpful action on the body. These dualistic

conceptions reserving physical education only extrinsic functions,

countervailing and sanitary formed the theoretical basis until the

1970s (Decker, 2010a).

These ramblings have still been uttered 40 years later by the

Minister of Education, Nic. Margue, who writes in the foreword to

the second edition of the “Practical Guide to Physical Education”

published by Victor Decker in 1946:

“In our advanced civilization era, where the joy

that gives life is replaced by the enjoyments who

brutalize, the faith that animates by the superstition

that diverts, the outdoor movement by sedentary

occupations and natural and healthy diet by the use of

drugs and poisons, those became the benefactors of

humanity who drew their attention to the need for

physical education and the practice of muscular games.

By bringing back the man to nature, referring to the

inescapable demands of his body, they told him a way

that should never have been neglected and allow him

to be and act in the real world.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 23)

And Decker (2010a) continues, that

“a primary school physical education will not

be a branch of the program, called gymnastics and

taught for some hours a week. Its purpose is not to

teach a child the knowledge which he will use later in

life or to teach him the tricks that would be of use for

him. He does not run to get faster and when he climbs

it is not to avoid the use of a ladder. Even swimming is

160

not primarily intended to save from death those that

fall into water.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 24)

These abstruse views are far removed from current designs,

with the unity of man with the “learn to move and move to learn”,

with the acquirement of action competence in sports.2

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICAL

EDUCATION CURRICULUMS IN LUXEMBOURG (1970-

2009)

Modern physical education and sports and current trends

in curriculum development

Physical education lived, in recent decades, unprecedented

changes in its history. In schools nowadays, providing physical

education is not (only) to play sports. Although a large part of the

population confuses the one and the other: to have physical

education classes is not only to recreate and to have fun, even if the

students are in need of this. Today, physical education has its own

identity from kindergarten to university. It is a fundamental school

discipline for the holistic development of the individual. Reading,

writing, arithmetic do not help to learn to move. Just as there are

reading rules and principles, spelling or math, there are rules and

principles of motor action that students should know and use. The

school shapes fundamental ways of thinking and it has to help

building basic modes of action as well. Besides literacy and

numeracy, it is physical literacy that should be developed as well

(Decker, 2010a).

2 Indeed, in recent official documents from 1989 for primary education, the general

objectives of physical education are formulated as follows: “Physical education is a

fundamental discipline focused on the development of the person acting as a whole.

She leads the child into a world where it increases the knowledge of its capacity to act

and channels all his motor, cognitive and emotional resources needed to master the gesture. By allowing children to learn to move while moving to learn, it helps to

achieve common goals in all education, namely, integration with the personality of

different knowledge as disciplines, sometimes artificially separated, proposing to acquire, each achieving the objectives of its own.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 24)

161

With regard to a classification of the different stages the

curriculum development in Luxembourg passed through, a first look

across the borders into other countries, especially to Germany, where

the redesign of curriculums has a certain really diversified tradition

because of the federalism of the states, is undertaken. Overall, the

curriculum development in Europe is heavily dependent on the

current discussion on educational concepts in physical education and

sports pedagogy. Nowadays, there are four main influences in the

conceptual development of curricula, based on the current

dominating concepts of physical education in Europe: physical

education in the traditional sense, sports education, movement

education and health education. The boundaries between the

concepts in recent years become increasingly diffuse and lose

selectivity (Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Appearance of sports content in curriculums: “Education

Physique” (Physical Education) (1970 - 1985)

In 1970, the Ministry of Education issued a curriculum for the

seventh grade still dividing the content into two large blocks (Decker,

2010a; Scheuer 2010):

Basic activities; analytical and rhythmic exercises

exercises adapting to the natural environment and

professional practice;

Sports Orientation: Learn the essential motor practices

(traditional sports) and performing the basic activities

outdoor (like e.g. athletics: run fast, regularly, jump high,

away, throw away, precisely; apparatus: familiarization

with the equipment, first aid training and parades;

swimming: floating, breathing; propulsion; games:

learning a range of small games of increasing difficulty;

preparatory to the great games; learning the basic rules;

outdoor activities: physical activities based in nature:

introduction to folk dance and rhythm only for girls).

As can be seen in the curriculum for the secondary level

“Horaires et Programmes” (Schedules and Programmes) from

1972/1973 (Ministère de l’Education Nationale, 1972; Decker,

2010a; Scheuer, 2010), there were two different programs for boys

and girls from the 10th grade on. It is to be emphasized that the

162

traditional team sports were reserved for the boys, whilst

rhythmically dancing activities were designed exclusively for girls.

Thus can be identified on one side an insistence on the dualistic,

utilitarian and rational conceptions of the 19th century as well as a

certain eclecticism in the formulation, but on the other side

especially a more tense orientation on sports with games

progressions and exercises ranging from simple to more complicated,

with so-control criteria exercises for student assessment. Only in

1980 it came to a serious attempt at formulating, testing and

implementing a curriculum which leaned on one hand on the latest

scientific and pedagogical knowledge, but on the other hand, took

into account the characteristic of Luxembourgish circumstances and

resources.

“Education Sportive” (Sports Education) (1985 - 2009)

The result of this lengthy development and drafting process,

which began with the creation of a first document in 1977, was the

secondary school curriculum entitled “Education Sportive” (Sports

Education), which was published in March 1985 (Ministère de

l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985; Scheuer, 2010). A

modern interpretation of the term “sport” as a wide range of possible

physical activities with educational, competitive, exhilarating and

prophylactic purposes came to the foreground. This detailed new

curriculum, which from that moment on dominated extensively

physical education at the secondary level for nearly three decades.

Common among physical education teachers under the name “Blo

Bibel” (blue bible), the curriculum was divided into five main

chapters, which are summarized below.

Chapter 1 made general considerations to a specialist

curriculum for physical education at the secondary level. In a first

part, the global objectives of physical education were described

(Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/4):

Contribute to the development and maintenance of the

necessary skills to well-being, as well as body awareness,

coordination and perception

Contribute to the improvement of physical skills such as

communication and expression

163

Contribute to provide information on body-related and

sports activities, their rules, structure and effects, as well

as its possibilities and limitations

Another point dealt with the specific objectives of the

subject physical education (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de

la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/6):

Contribute to the physical development of the individual

General motor education, resp. physical education

Specific motor education, resp. physical education

Education of psychological and sociological behavioral

factors

Theoretical knowledge and understanding of the

phenomenon “Sports”

Developing an awareness of the need for sporting

activities

In the next section, first considerations to contents were

made in a selection of subject contents at three levels (Ministère de

l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/7ff):

On the first level the subject content was divided for

practical reasons in the three blocks “collective sports

games”, “other sports” and “classic individual sports”.

A second level merged these sports activities in a

mandatory and an optional set of sport activities.

In the third and final level, these sports were

operationalized and the various levels of training and

objectives were defined, representing thus the actual

curriculum itself.

Chapter 2 represented the curriculum for the induction and

orientation phase in physical education (grade 7 to grade 10). This

comprehensive 121-page chapter began with some preceding

remarks which described this first of two phases characterizing

physical education with its main objective of the introduction,

observation and orientation of the students in their sports practice

(Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, II/6ff).

In the following, important remarks were made with regard to the

provision of quality physical education: adequate sports facilities and

164

sports equipment, realistic class sizes, as well as consistent three-

hours of sports in all grade levels. Furthermore, the creation of a

school-based curriculum in the various schools was advised. In the

fourth subsection, the largest part of the overall curriculum with 99

pages, the sports activities to be treated were shown and described,

with each giving teaching goals, methodological recommendations,

and instructions for the grading and recommended reading in detail.

Chapter 3 represented the curriculum for the decision phase

in physical education (grade 11 to grade 13). In this third part of the

curriculum, foregoing remarks followed a subchapter enumerating

the objectives of this phase (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de

la Jeunesse, 1985, p. III/3):

Increased motivation for physical activity, taking into

account the individual prerequisites of the students

Ensure the acquirement of knowledge about sport

Allow a progressive descolarization in practicing sports

Preventive counteract of the phenomenon of drop-outs in

sports

For these higher-level teaching goals, practical and

educational consequences revealed and were illuminated in a third

subchapter. Finally, the option system has been described in detail as

recommended educational organization form of instructional design

at this stage in the fourth subsection.

Chapter 4 made reflections on the evaluation and calculation

of the grades in physical education, whilst Chapter 5,

a comprehensive 67-page appendix, listed performance tables

for swimming and athletics to be used to calculate the sport note

grades in physical education (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et

de la Jeunesse, 1985).

“Standards and competences for physical education”

(from 2009 on)

In 2006, a working group of the national program

commissions for the subject physical education received by the

National Ministry of Education the mission to develop a curriculum

based on competences. In the following are described the most

relevant features of the new curriculum framework (Ministère de

165

l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009;

Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Educational accentuation and profiling

In the first chapter on the mission of the new curriculum, the

educational profile of the educational concept in the form of a double

mandate is clear. On the one hand is represented “Education through

movement, games and sports”, on the other hand, the “Education for

mature participation in the movement, games and sports culture” is

focused on. Accordingly, it is on the one hand to promote

development of individuals through the provision of comprehensive

and attitudes. On the other hand, students should develop through the

mediation of sports-related abilities, skills and knowledge, a

participation and judgment against the broad field of action sports.

For the successful design of a respective accentuated physical

education, three principles of educational physical education are

essential: multiple perspectives, reflection and self-directed

autonomy (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation

professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Standard and competence orientation

According to the guidelines of the Ministry of Education, the

new curriculum defines, just like in other subjects in the school

curriculum, mandatory minimum standards, which specify the skills

that students need to have at the end of a particular learning cycle.

These subject-specific competency requirements are assigned to six

overarching areas of expertise in the new curriculum, which

highlight the options of multiple perspectives of physical education

(Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation

professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

166

Table 1

Subject-specific areas of competence

Area nbr Competence area

Area 1 Health and perception-oriented movement actions

Area 2 Social and integrative movement actions

Area 3 Ability and achievement-oriented movement actions

Area 4 Game-oriented movement actions

Area 5 Shape and performing movement activities

Area 6 Adventure and risk-oriented movement actions

Consequently, competence-based physical education should

help the students to build skills that serve them to cope with

problem-oriented situations in the field of “movement, play and

sports”. So it is no longer considered to plan lessons in sports, but

these subject-specific competence expectations should be illustrated

with a selected content based on physical activities in general

(Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Opening up and variety of content

As a result, the sports and physical activities are no longer the

starting point for the content structure of the curriculum. The seven

content areas of the new curriculum are characterized by open and

enlarged “movement fields”, which represent the diversity and the

broadness of the movement, games and sports culture (Ministère de

l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009;

Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Table 2

Movement fields in physical education

Area nbr Competence area

Area 1 Health and perception-oriented movement actions

Area 2 Social and integrative movement actions

Area 3 Ability and achievement-oriented movement actions

Area 4 Game-oriented movement actions

Area 5 Shape and performing movement activities

Area 6 Adventure and risk-oriented movement actions

167

Arrangements for individual schools

Another major change in the concept of the new curriculum is

that the schools are granted scope for individual development for the

purpose of its own movement- and sports-related profiling. The

reduction of provisions and liabilities in the so-called “core

curriculum” is left to the schools in order to take decisions about the

content, the learning progression and the general organization, which

are recorded as a part of the school's curriculum work. These school-

based curriculums are designed in the professional community of

physical education teachers in a school in their own responsibility.

The following aspects should be described in the school's curriculum

of each school (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la

Formation professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010):

Agreement on the minimum competencies to be achieved

at the end of a year cycle

Allocation of minimum competencies to be achieved to

grading years

Allocation of minimum competencies to be achieved to

content areas

Planning of teaching periods

Principles of assessment and development of specific

grading criteria

Subject-related appreciation of the current curriculum

In the frame of an empirical study on the acceptance and

reception of the new curriculum concept, Stibbe, and Ingelmann

(2009) agree on the following didactic appreciation of this

innovative concept in German-speaking countries and beyond.

Core Curriculum. The rough guide frame of the core

curriculum is made concrete in the school curriculum of the

respective professional community according to the specific

conditions of the individual school. In this way the schools are to

provide their own school-specific profile.

Minimum standards. The subject-related competences and

standards are, as required by the Ministry of Education, established

in the form of mandatory minimum requirements, unlike in many

168

standard based curricula in Germany, which are determined by

general standards.

General-independent standards and competencies. The

standards are not related to movement fields that are linked to a

specific content, but they are formulated as general-independent

standards and competencies. What movement-related content the

respective standards and competencies are implemented with in

physical education is decided by the professional communities in the

schools.

Development of a subject-specific competence model. The

objectives contained in the pedagogical perspectives are formulated

as competence expectations, and thus justify the development of a

subject-related competence model, even if this model remains a

pragmatic one and is not validated empirically. This linkage of

competence expectations and pedagogical perspectives guarantees

the essentials for the educational principle of multiple perspectives in

physical education.

Education theoretically-grounded educational “physical

education-parent”. The shift from a traditional “skill-oriented sports

program” to an education-theoretical justified “educating physical

education” reveals the new curriculum as innovative, contemporary

and educationally challenging.

Instruction schemes. The starting point for planning lessons

are not sports activities, but instruction schemes or teaching projects

as fixed points of a standard and competence-based curriculum

development, in which motion fields and areas of competence are

linked to each other.

Relations between APEP (Luxembourgish physical

education teacher association) and FIEP

FIEP was founded in 1923 in Brussels, Belgium, under the

name Fédération Internationale de la Gymnastique Ling (FIGL) by a

group of mostly European leaders from countries in which was

taught the formative-educational Gymnastics derived of the

fundamental principles of the Swedish Per Hendrik Ling. In 1953,

officials of the International Federation decided at the World

Congress in Istanbul, Turkey, to change their name and take the

name of Fédération Internationale d’Education Physique (FIEP).

169

This to mark on the one hand their international character and,

secondly, to emphasize their competence in all forms and content of

physical education lessons practiced in the world (Decker, 2010b).

The first contacts documented by Decker (2010b) between

physical education in Luxembourg and FIEP started in 1958, when

Robert Decker, as a young physical education teacher just sworn and,

on the private level, young married, and very interested in physical

education, participated in the World Congress of Physical Education

organized in Brussels on the occasion of the World Exhibition by the

Belgian Federation of Physical Education, specifically under the

auspices of FIEP. It was on this occasion that Robert Decker was

able to establish a first contact for Luxembourg with this

international organization bringing together national delegates from

most European national agencies of physical education, and even

worldwide.

These contacts were reinforced during the Physical Education

World Congress organized on the occasion of the Olympic Games in

Rome by the Italian Federation of Physical Education affiliated to

FIEP, conferences which Robert Decker had the privilege of

representing the APEP. It was at this conference that Robert Decker

got to know the French Pierre Seurin, director of CREPS Bordeaux-

Talence, Secretary General of the French Federation of Physical

Education and of FIEP, as well as editor of the Physical education

journal “Healthy Man”. Noticing that Robert Decker also spokes

English, he asked him, if he wanted to summarize English

publications for the readers of “Human Healthy”, as well as of the

“FIEP Bulletin”, which he agreed to do (Decker, 2010b).

Robert Decker had over the time some successive functions in

FIEP: delegate for Luxembourg from 1960 to 1996, President of the

School Section of FIEP from 1960 to 1994, Secretary General of

FIEP from 1995 to 1997, Vice-President for Europe of FIEP from

1997 to 2008 and, since then, Honorary Vice-President of FIEP. His

successor as delegate of FIEP Luxembourg was, from 1997 to 2009,

his colleague and friend Gaston Malané, named Honorary Delegate

of FIEP in 2009. The current FIEP Delegate for Luxembourg is

Claude Schumacher, President of APEP, with Claude Scheuer, also

APEP and current President of the European Physical Education

Association (EUPEA), alliance partner of FIEP-Europe, as Vice-

Delegate for Luxembourg.

170

For completeness, it can be said that FIEP Luxembourg has a

total of three institutional members, namely the association of

physical education teachers (APEP), the Olympic and Sports

Committee Luxembourg (COSL) and the Faculty of Literature,

Humanities, Arts and Sciences of Education of the University of

Luxembourg.

Conclusion

What is typical for Luxembourg, but also holds true in the

development of physical education over time, is that there were

significant influences both from French and German concepts of

physical education. Considering the developments of the last decades,

it seems that the actual conceptions are more likely nearby concepts

grown in German-speaking countries. From a special interest is also

the close relation between Luxembourg and FIEP, especially by the

person of Robert Decker. As described before, Robert Decker had

several important position in this world-wide organization,

highlighting the importance that has physical education for a holistic

development of the children and the adolescents and thus advocating

for the place of physical education in the school systems and beyond.

In the light of this close links between FIEP and physical education

in Luxembourg, the upcoming FIEP European congress to be hosted

by the University of Luxembourg in Luxembourg in September 2017

will certainly be a highlight.

REFERENCES

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l’éducation sportive à l’Athenée (1817-1970). [Stammer,

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Scheuer. C. (2014). Innovative concepts in Physical Education in

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HISTORY of Physical Education in Europe. 1 / [editors Petar D.

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... et al.]. - Leposavić : University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and

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ilustr. ; 21 cm

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