History of Marine Protected Areas
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Transcript of History of Marine Protected Areas
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HISTORY OF MARINE PROTECTEDAREAS: MEASUREMENTS,
MECHANISMS & FUTURE
OPPORTUNITIES
Leonard Sonnenschein, President
World Aquarium & Conservation for theOceans Foundation
Co-Founder, World Ocean Network
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I. HISTORY OF MPAS &BIODIVERSITY EFFECTS
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HISTORY OF OCEAN LIFE & DISCOVERY
In the days of Aristotle, and up to the late
1800s, the ocean was perceived as a limitless
bounty of food.
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H.M.S. Beagle
In 1831, the H.M.S. Beagle did an extensivereview of the living resources of the ocean. Sincethen, continuous measurements have shown adecline of species biodiversity and numbers of
species, especially those that have beenharvested, exposed to excessive pollution, orinconspicuously threatened throughanthropogenic actions. Mechanisms of these
changes include coastal development, runoffpollution, overfishing, and climate changedisturbances.
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H.M.S. Challenger Expedition
The H.M.S. Challenger embarked from Portsmouth, England onDecember 21, 1872 and changed the course of scientific history.Physicists, chemists, and biologists collaborated with expert navigatorsto map the sea. This interdisciplinary spirit has continued to the presentday. During the 4 year journey, the voyages circumnavigated the globe,sounded the ocean bottom to a depth of 26,850 feet, found many new
species, and provided collections for scores of biologists. The ship was equipped with a natural history laboratory, where
specimens were examined, identified, dissected and drawn. TheChallenger expedition produced 50 volumes, most of which describedthe organisms collected from both deep and shallow water. Much ofwhat we understood about world ocean biogeography for the next 75
years stemmed from analyses of collections made on this journey. Thislaboratory and the collections also reflected a deep collaborationbetween natural historians and other ocean specialists such as physicistsand chemists.
http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/challenger.html
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Jacques Cousteau
Cousteau brought an awareness of living
ecosystems to modern society.
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WHAT IS A MARINE PROTECTED AREA?
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are zones of
the seas and coasts where wildlife is protected
from damage and disturbance. MPAs are
widely promoted as a means of protecting
biodiversity, achieving more natural
population structures and managing exploited
fish populations.
SOURCE: http://www.loughs-agency.org/fs/doc/IBIS_UoG_PhD_JoClarke_FINALweb.pdf
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HISTORY OF MPAs
The worlds first marine protected area was probably the FortJefferson National Monument in Florida, which covered 18850hectares of sea and 35 hectares of coastal land. Although this sitewas designated in 1935, the main impetus for MPAs came muchlater. The World Congress on National Parks in 1962 was one of the
first international conservation meetings to give the subject specialattention. A follow up meeting in 1982 called for the incorporationof marine, coastal and freshwater sites into the worldwide networkof protected areas (IUCN 1987). More recently, the Caracas ActionPlan (IUCN 1994a), from the IV World Congress on National Parksand Protected Areas in 1992, promoted four objectives:
1. The integration of protected areas into larger planning frameworks.2. Expanding support for protected areas.
3. Strengthening the capacity to manage protected areas.
SOURCE: Marine protected areas past, present and futureSusan Gubbay
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HISTORY OF MPAs
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are now a mainstreammanagement tool for conserving biodiversity and assistingresource management in virtually all the world's oceansand seas. They are increasingly being used not just toprotect threatened habitats, but also to stave off the sorts
of degradation alluded to above. Several international,national, and local level initiatives and mechanisms serve toadvance MPAs as vehicles for promoting the long-termconservation and sustainable use of marine resources andbiodiversity (Agardy et al., 2003). The proliferation of these
protected areas has been astounding - whereas twentyyears ago a scant handful existed, now virtually everycoastal country has implemented at least one MPA.
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MPAs, areas designated for special protection toenhance the management of marine resources,show promise as components of an ecosystem-based approach for conserving the oceans living
assets. However, MPA proposals often raisesignificant controversy, especially the provisionsfor marine reserveszones within an MPAwhere removal or disturbance of resources is
prohibited, sometimes referred to as closed orno-take areas.
Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystem
Committee on the Evaluation, Design, and Monitoring of Marine Reserves and
Protected Areas in the United States, Ocean Studies Board, National ResearchCouncil
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MPA DESIGN
Effective implementation of marine reserves andprotected areas depends on participation by thecommunity of stakeholders in developing themanagement plan. Federal and state agencies will need toprovide resources, expertise, and coordination to
integrate individual MPAs into the frameworks for coastaland marine resource management in order to meet goalsestablished at the state, regional, national, orinternational level. The lead agency will need to firstidentify all stakeholders, both on- and off-site, and then
utilize methods of communication appropriate for varioususer groups.
Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystem
Committee on the Evaluation, Design, and Monitoring of Marine Reserves and
Protected Areas in the United States, Ocean Studies Board, National ResearchCouncil
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IDENTIFYING LOCATIONS
Choice of sites for MPAs should be integrated
into an overall plan for marine area
management that optimizes the level of
protection afforded to the marine ecosystem
as a whole because the success of MPAs
depends on the quality of management in
the surrounding waters.
Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystem
Committee on the Evaluation, Design, and Monitoring of Marine Reserves and
Protected Areas in the United States, Ocean Studies Board, National ResearchCouncil
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DETERMINING SIZE
The optimal size of marine reserves and
protected areas should be determined foreach location by evaluating the conservation
needs and goals, quality and amount ofcritical habitat, levels of resource use,
efficacy of other management tools, andcharacteristics of the species or biological
communities requiring protection.
Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystem
Committee on the Evaluation, Design, and Monitoring of Marine Reserves and
Protected Areas in the United States, Ocean Studies Board, National ResearchCouncil
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DESIGNATING ZONES & DESIGNING
NETWORKS
Zoning should be used as a mechanism for
designating sites within an MPA to provide
the level of protection appropriate for each
management goal.
Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystem
Committee on the Evaluation, Design, and Monitoring of Marine Reserves and
Protected Areas in the United States, Ocean Studies Board, National ResearchCouncil
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MONITORING
The performance of marine reserves should
be evaluated through regular monitoring and
periodic assessments to measure progress
toward management goals and to facilitate
refinements in the design and
implementation of reserves.
Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystem
Committee on the Evaluation, Design, and Monitoring of Marine Reserves and
Protected Areas in the United States, Ocean Studies Board, National ResearchCouncil
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BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION
The variety of life forms: the differentplants, animals and microorganisms, thegenes they contain, and the ecosystems
they form. It is usually considered atthree levels: genetic diversity, speciesdiversity and ecosystem diversity
(From: National Strategy for the Conservation of Australias BiologicalDiversity, Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, 1996. ISBN 06422 4427 8).
SOURCE: Scientific Principles for Design of Marine Protected Areas in Australia: A Guidance
Statement
University of Queenslands Ecology Centre
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ZONING PLANNING ALLOWS FOR BEST
MPAsBuild Climate-change Resilience
Include areas spanning the natural biophysical gradients andecological processes of the planning region that includehabitats/species sensitive or vulnerable to climate-driven changes(from drivers such as rainfall, storms, sea level, ocean temperature,
ocean currents driving species recruitment, mortality anddistribution patterns). Such areas should provide for resilience toclimate impacts through: providing inherent natural resilience to impacts (eg including areas
that are naturally highly diverse),
being source areas or refugia, with an emphasis on the southern end
of existing ranges, or protecting the critical ecological processes driving biodiversity to
promote connectivity and assist recovery, replenishment and rangeshifts/extension.
SOURCE: Scientific Principles for Design of Marine Protected Areas in Australia: A Guidance
Statement
University of Queenslands Ecology Centre
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ZONING
Within multiple-use MPAs, zoning offers the opportunity to maximise conservationbenefits by spatially separating activities that pose different degrees/types ofthreats, including those, such as tourism, that may provide benefits.
Zoning also offers the opportunity for some conservation objectives to be achievedwithin zones of protection lower than high-protection, such as where specific usescan be demonstrated to pose insignificant risk to a conservation feature.
Recognising that the burden of proof should rest with the user to demonstratethat any impacts will be maintained within acceptable levels, zoning should bebased on: The consideration of the threat that specific activities pose and the capacity of MPA
management arrangements to mitigate that threat;
The status of the conservation features potentially affected;
Opportunities to maximise complementarity of reserve areas with human values, activitiesand opportunities (ie to minimise conflict with users);
Consideration of how to efficiently minimise socio-economic costs and maximise socio-economic benefits while simultaneously continuing to deliver conservation outcomes.
SOURCE: Scientific Principles for Design of Marine Protected Areas in Australia: A Guidance
Statement
University of Queenslands Ecology Centre
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST MPA
IN 1977
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II. EFFECTS OF MECHANISMS OFMPAS
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The Causal Link Between MPAs and
Fisheries
The production of fish populations in the MPAmust exceed that in the surrounding area.
Fish production in the MPA must be exported
to adjacent fished areas. The sustained catches of fish in the areas
adjacent to MPAs must increase by an amount
of at least equal to the loss of catch resourceusers suffer as a result of forgone access toMPAs.
SOURCE: Proceedings of the 48
th
Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute
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EXAMPLES OF PROCESS UNCERTAINTIES FOR MPAsUncertainty Source Characteristics Impacts on setting targets
Climate change
(e.g., global warming)
Average climate conditions or
cycles may change. Variability and
intensity of stochastic events such
as storms might increase.
Community structure might change
in response.
Might generate non-independence
of MPA and control area. Temporal
and spatial projection of
monitoring might become
restricted.
Species invasions
(e.g., Batillaria attramentaria,
Carcinus maenas, Hymeniacidon
sinapium)
Interaction strengths between
organisms may change. Some
species might be displaced.
Physical habitat structure may be
altered.
Baseline communities will
undergo directional change,
making projection of monitoring
difficult.
Community structure following
invasion will be difficult to predict.
Disease outbreaks
(e.g., withering foot syndrome in
black abalone)
Onset of disease is not
predictable, but effects may be.
Alters mortality schedule of target
population.
Trophic cascades
(e.g., re-introduction of sea otters)
Generates relatively predictable
community changes
Might alter baseline community
and interaction strengths.
Anthropogenic catastrophes
(e.g., oil spills)
Occurrence of particular events are
not predictable, but likelihood of
catastrophes can be calculated
Resets community structure at
different spatial scales
SOURCE: Syms & Carr: Marine Protected Areas: Evaluating MPA effectiveness in an uncertain world
Eff ti t d f t i t i fi h i bj ti
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Effectiveness parameters and sources of uncertainty in fisheries objectives
Effectiveness parameter Predicted change with Protection Uncertainties
Abundance (targeted and bycatch species) Increased abundance of MPA population relative
to
unprotected populations
Recruitment success is variable, density
dependent mortality may regulate abundance
changes
Size structure (targeted and bycatch species) Increase in proportion of
larger individuals in MPA
population relative to
unprotected populations
Social inhibition of growth, time lags in growth,
large individuals might be rare
and difficult to precisely count
Larval production (targeted and bycatch species) Increase in larval production in protected areas
relative to
unprotected populations
Dispersal distance and dynamics unknown,
source of recruits to MPA and
control areas unknown
MPA population stability
(targeted and bycatch
species)
Decreased temporal
variability of large, mature
individuals and larvalproduction relative to
unprotected populations
Degree to which sub-population within MPA can
be replenished by local production unknown
Stock stability
(increased buffering of
environmental fluctuations
by storage effect)
Decreased temporal
variability of recruitment to
exploited populations and
fishery
Degree to which sub-population within MPA
replenishes exploited population unknown
Habitat Persistence of or recovery to a natural state. Natural perturbations, temporal lags in recovery
Fishery yield
(increased benefit to fishery by increased and
less variable larval production, and spillover
effects)
Dampen temporal variability of yield, increased
yield, increase catch and average size of
individuals closer to MPA by spillover
Depends upon stability of MPA population,
extent to which MPA population replenishes
exploited population, and rate of exploitation
(degree of growth and recruitment
overfishing).
Spillover difficult to measure
Genetic diversity Maintain or increase genetic diversity of MPA
populations and stock
Depends on relative contribution of MPA and
exploited populations to recruitment of each
SOURCE: Syms & Carr: Marine Protected Areas: Evaluating MPA effectiveness in an uncertain world
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Sources of Uncertainty that Operate
when Evaluating MPA Effectiveness
SOURCE: Syms & Carr: Marine Protected Areas: Evaluating MPA effectiveness in an uncertain world
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Stakeholder participation enhances compliance because stakeholders are more knowledgeableabout, committed to, and supportive of regulations if they had a say in the process.
Perceptions also affect compliance. Participants who see their contributions as making a differenceand perceive the process as legitimate and fair are more likely to comply with the result.
It may be beneficial for coastal and marine managers to involve the public to a greater extent thanwhat is required by law.
To balance strategic scientific and resource management objectives with the need for improvedstakeholder participation, recognition is growing of the need to combine top-down (i.e.government driven) and bottom-up (i.e. stakeholder-driven) approaches to environmentaldecision making.
Co-management regimes may increase legitimacy and foster community and economicdevelopment while achieving resource management goals, but implementation of such regimesmay require the development of new legal, administrative, and institutional arrangements.
Goals for a participation process should be established early and communicated clearly.
Appropriate process design depends on goals and context. There is no best place to be along theparticipation continuum, and no one process can fit all situations.
Managers need to evaluate what level of participation is appropriate to their situation, given theirstated goals, and plan accordingly.
Different participatory mechanisms lead to different levels of involvement, with some merelyfacilitating information sharing and others providing opportunities for real deliberation.
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Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been
shown since 1985 to provide a resource
recovery area and refuge for breeding and
rearing of a plethora of species.
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Marine Protected Areas also can provide
through best-management practices a method
for improving bioproductivity while
maintaining species diversity and numbers.
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III. FUTURE OF MPAS
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MPAs in the Future
In the future, it will be through management
of MPAs that we will be able to improve our
bioproductivity at the same time preserving
our biodiversity.
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MPAs in the Future
Marine protected areas have become the flagships of marineconservation programmes in many parts of the world. For thepublic and politicians, they are often the most tangible part of amarine conservation programme it is possible to visit a marineprotected area, to see what is being done to promote conservationat the site, and to be a part of its success or failure throughindividual actions. For the conservation manager, they are anopportunity to concentrate effort and resources on protectingmarine wildlife and habitats. Action taken at these sites also makesa contribution to wider conservation efforts. Two very differentexamples of this are their potential as a reservoir for species whichcan seed other areas, and as a good base for marine educationprogrammes. Marine protected areas often get a lot of publicattention and they are at the leading edge of the marineconservation programmes in many countries.
SOURCE: Marine protected areas past, present and future
Susan Gubbay
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MPAs in the Future
Permanent marine protected areas are an essentialelement in the management of coastal resources for manyreasons.
The monetary basis for sustainable management can beachieved if protected areas are developed primarily arounda system to finance MPAs and less on considerations likeoptimal designs for larval transport, geographicuniqueness, pristineness'' or species richness.
Local to national taxes along with serial donor support orboth, combined with taxes on fisheries and tourism, whenpossible, should ensure that some areas receive protective,not paper, management.
SOURCE: T.R. McClanahan, Is there a future for coral reef parks in poor tropical
countries?
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ECONOMICS OF MPAs
Establishing marine protected areas may initially be costly. One of the potentialcosts of MPAs to local fishers is that they may need to move further from home tocatch fish in legal fishing grounds. In the short term, fishers may needcompensation for loss of fishing grounds, until other livelihood options have beensecured. Studies show that a global network of MPAs covering 2030 per cent ofthe seas would cost between USD 5 and 19 billion to run per year. Such a networkwould require an increased investment in marine conservation by around two
orders of magnitude compared to today. But in the long run, benefits vastly overrule initial costs. Seen in a global
perspective, the cost of a network of MPAs covering 30 per cent of the oceans isestimated at less than global spending on harmful subsidies to fisheries. Such anetwork would help safeguard and increase fish stocks - today worth about USD 80billion yearly. It would also make sense for local fishers who, as fish stocks growand important habitats are restored, may start to harvest bigger and more fish
closer to home. Another positive effect is to ensure the sustained delivery ofmarine ecosystem services (such as reefs providing shoreline protection, andsewage cleansing in mangrove areas), worth an estimated USD 7,000 billion eachyear. And it would help coastal communities by generating between 830,000 and1.1 million full-time jobs in tourism, park monitoring, etc.
SOURCE: WWF, Marine Protected Areas: providing a future for fish and people
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MPA BENEFITS
Provide alternative incomes for local communities and alleviatepoverty
Increase fish catches in surrounding fishing grounds
Protect sensitive habitats from disturbances and damage fromfishing gear, such as bottom trawls
Foster natural age structures in populations, increasing fish catches Provide refuge for species that cannot survive in areas that
continue to be fished
Prevent bycatch of non-target species
Eliminate ghost fishing by lost or discarded gear
Serve as benchmarks of what is an undisturbed, natural ecosystem,that can be used to measure fishery effects in other areas andthereby help to improve fisheries management
SOURCE: WWF, Marine Protected Areas: providing a future for fish and people
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Thank You!
Leonard Sonnenschein, President
World Aquarium & Conservation for the Oceans Foundation
Co-Founder, World Ocean Network
[email protected] North 15thStreet, 2ndFloor
St. Louis, MO 63103 USA
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]