B. A. 1st Semester Summer DriveSubject Name: History of India from Earliest Times up to 600 A.DSet 101 Explain the transition of man from a food gatherer to a cultivator.02 Write a note on the settlement patterns and town planning of the Indus Valley people.Answer: The Indus Valley people had remarkable skills in town planning. The city was divided into two main parts: (i) the citadel and (ii) the lower town. The citadel was the raised part of the city and looked like a fort. The citadel was surrounded by massive and high walls. Below the citadel was the lower town. This part of the city was divided into rectangular blocks by wide streets and lanes cutting each other at right angles and forming a grid.03. The people of the Indus valley civilization were art lovers. Discuss.Answer:

The people of Indus were great lovers of the fine arts, and especially dancing, painting, and sculpture. Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, terracotta figures, and other interesting works of art indicate that they had fine artistic sensibilities. Their art is highly realistic. The anatomical detail of much of their art is unique, and terracotta art is also noted for its extremely careful modeling of animal figures. Sir John Marshall once reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of the slender-limbed "dancing girl" in Mohenjo-daro:". When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged. . Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus."Bronze, terracotta, and stone sculptures in dancing poses also reveal much about their art of dancing. Similarly, a harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects from Lothal confirm that stringed musical instruments were in use in the ancient Indus Valley civilization. Today, much of the Indus art is considered advanced for their time period.

04 Explain the political structure of the Early Vedic age.Answer:

Political system is a social institution which deals with the governance of a state and its relationship with the people. Political system of a country denotes the structure of institutions that constitute the State and its Government. India is no different and it had also developed government and political institutions to give shape and form to the fundamental principles. The multiple faces and diversity of the country is the most noticeable feature of the subcontinent. The identity and unity of its government belong to the ancient Vedic age. Ancient Indian Political System goes back to about five thousand years or more. India is a land that has been shaping civilizations through settlement patterns. Thus, history of India becomes enriched with the description of the Indus Valley civilisation. This civilisation had municipal cities and a centralized administration prevailed for each city in Harrappa and Mohenjo-daro. The people formed urban societies with agriculture as an occupation. However, the invasion by the Aryans had changed the whole scenario. Indian civilisation was again predominated by the nomadic culture.A different concept of society in India developed with the Aryans, in the early Vedic period. The Early Vedic saw the upsurge of kingdom which was tribal in character. Each tribe formed a separate kingdom. The basic unit of the political organisation was family and a number of families formed a Village. A reflection ofthe Ancient Indian Political System can be traced in the social life of the Aryans. These villages were headed by Gramani. Moreover this pattern gave rise to large units or clans formed by a group of village. The circle continued with several clans forming the tribe and their leader was Rajan or the Vedic king. He protected his people from enemies and was accompanied with a senani or commandant, the Sabha and the Samithi inadministration . The Aryans can be identified as the pioneers in introducing the concept of society in Indian culture. This civilisation was subjected to various forms of kingdoms with a flow of political boundaries. In the later Vedic age, the Gangetic Valley or Aryavartha became the centre of political activity. Various Kingdoms like Kosala, Videha, Kuru, Magadha, Kasi, Avanti and Panchala came into existence. The king was the highest authority and his position was considerably supreme. Kingship became hereditary and the he was responsible for defence and maintaining law and order of their kingdoms. Moreover, they had vast empires and tried to extend their territories. In Manu Samhita the history of kingship is described. In Hinduism, Manu is considered to be the first king of the earth. Accordingly, the rulers of medieval India traced their genealogy back to him.In Ancient Indian Political System, the king as well as his subjects was bound by `Dharmas` or rule of law which were code of duties. Though a king, yet he had limited powers. The king was required to take oath and loyalty of the people. The king was not assigned with arbitrary powers and he was functional according to the approval of the people. However, on the contrary ancient Indian polity was monarchial, yet there were a few instances of elective kingship also. The power of the Indian monarchy prior to Mughal invasion was conceded as King being the representative of the divine power. The king was then only a constitutional monarch and the guardian, executor and the servant of Dharma. Besides, monarchies several republics also evolved. After the Battle of Kurukshetra, large empire began to fade away and several republican states emerged. A number of sixteen republics such as Kashi, Koshal, Magadha, Kuru, Anga, Avanti, Gandhar and Vaishali came into being. In the 1st century with the spread of Christianity, absolute monarchy prevailed as the form ofpolitical system. The word of the Kings was law. Many large empires were seen extending almost all over the sub continent. Several empires such as the Muryas, Guptas and the Mughals flourished. The rulers were hereditary kings or sub kings who ruled with the assistance of faithful ministers appointed by them.During the medieval period, King-in-Ministry became the usual form of government. In addition to that there were no republican states. Furthermore the concept of central government evolved during the period of the Sultanate. The king became an autocrat and he was entitled to the throne on the base might. In the Mughal kingdom, Ancient IndianPolitical System revolved round the autocracy of the king and he was assisted by councilors or ministers to share the multifarious activities of the state. The council of ministers was given great power and they continued to advice the kings on their day to day handling of administration. One instance of the absolute monarchy ruling the state on the advice of the council of ministers was Emperor Harsha, who was a generous ruler.Village administration was also a significant part of the Ancient Indian Political System. During the Vedic age, the Aryans had built up small villages and the administration of the area was looked after by the village councils. A system of giving taxes also prevailed in the ancient society. Taxes such as Pali, Sulk and Bhaga were collected from the people. The revenue was spent for the benefit of the subjects. Mentions of village administration are found during the fourth century B.C when republican federation existed in the society of India. The city of Vaishali had Panchayat for administering justice and courts. The republican character of the polity of Vaishali lasted for thousand of years.

05 Compare the changes taken place in the traditional features of Indian caste system.Answer:Change is universal law of nature. This law of nature has been prevailing from the primitive period till now. Since Caste System is a social institution, its aspects are naturally changed. In the modern age, many changes happen in the features and functions of Caste System. Modernisation has deeply influenced Caste System. Therefore, it is gradually losing its rigid and conservative principles. The changing aspect of Caste System in India is discussed below:

1) Declined superiority of Brahmins: In the social hierarchy of Caste System, the Brahmins occupy the top-most position. They are recongnised as superior caste till now, but their predetermined importance has been declined. The Brahmins cannot impulse their dignity and importance on other castes, as it was in ancient days. Today, in various industries, government offices and other occupational institutions efficiency of the people is given more priority that birth.

Though Caste System had established the importance of Brahmins, yet the importance is on the process of steady decline. As a result, the caste status of Brahmins is declining. They cannot enjoy their high social status as a dominant caste unlike in ancient days.

2) Changes in the Restrictions regarding social habits: In the past, Caste System had imposed certain restrictions on social habits such as food, drink and intercourse. But modern education, transportation and communication have brought a radical change in those restrictions. Though, Caste System has existed today, yet its restrictions on social intercourse have been declined. The member of different castes sits and eats together. The sense of purity-pollution is gradually disappearing among them.

3) Changes in the Restrictions regarding Marriage:The introduction of inter-caste marriage is one of the major changes in Caste System. Inter-caste marriage was strictly prohibited in the Hindu Society in ancient times but now-a-days, the spread of western education, cultural changes and female education has declined all restrictions of marriage within the caste. Inter-caste marriage destroys the backbone of Caste System. Indian Parliament also encourages inter caste marriage by implementing many Acts.

4) Changes in the Restrictions regarding Occupation: In the past, a particular occupation had been fixed for every caste. The members belonging a particular caste had no specialty in selecting occupations. They followed the determined occupation from birth of death. Now-a-days, the members of Shudra caste are established in higher post in government offices and the Brahmins works as their sub-ordinate employees. After independence the Government has abolished the occupational restrictions through law.

A person of any caste can follow any capacity. It is clearly noted that changes have taken place in occupational restrictions to some extent.

5) Changes in Caste Structure:In ancient period, the structure of caste was closed and rigid. There were different customs, traditions, folkways and mores for different castes. These rules and principles were so closed and rigid that the lower caste people could not even touch the shadow of the higher caste people. But now-a-days the structure of caste has become open and flexible.

6) Change in Caste Status:The caste status was determined in the past. Caste System gave social status to its members on the basis of birth. For example, Caste System placed Brahmins in higher social status and gave lower social status to Shudras. But now-a-days, a radical change has taken place in the social status of Shudras and other lower castes as a result of speedy scientific and technological progress. Besides birth, wealth, power and genius determine the social status of the people.

The lower caste people gradually adopt the customs, rites and beliefs of Brahmins. They follow the life style of Brahmins and try to develop their social status in caste hierarchy. Prof.M.N.Srinivas called this process as Sanskritisation. The higher caste people on the other hand, adopt the principles of Western civilisation on their food, clothing, shelter and behavioral pattern. It is called as westernisation.

7) Change in conditions of Lower Caste: Lastly many changes have taken place it the conditions of lower caste people. In the past, the condition of the lower caste people was very pitiable. They had no rights in the society. The lower castes were oppressed and neglected as Harijan Castes. But due to the direct attempt of Gandhiji, quick development has taken place in their conditions. Gandhiji lovingly called them as the people of God.

Now-a-days the Harijans get much more opportunities than other castes. The Government has brought a quick change in their conditions by legislating different Acts. They are given priority in education and services and seats are reserved for them. The lower caste people are given equal rights and opportunities in social, economic and political spheres almost like higher castes people. As a result of this, the condition of lower caste people has been quickly improved.

06 Find information on the life history of Alexander the Great and his invasion. Explain in about two pages.Answer:

Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire is considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. He was inspiration for later conquerors such as Hannibal the Carthaginian, the Romans Pompey and Caesar, and Napoleon. Alexander was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia. He was son of Philip II, King of Macedonia, and Olympias, the princess of neighbouring Epirus. He spent his childhood watching his father transforming Macedonia into a great military power, winning victory after victory on the battlefields throughout the Balkans. When he was 13, Philip hired the Greek philosopher Aristotle to be Alexanders personal tutor. During the next three years Aristotle gave Alexander training in rhetoric and literature and stimulated his interest in science, medicine, and philosophy, all of which became of importance in Alexanders later life. In 340, when Philip assembled a large Macedonian army and invaded Thrace, he left his 16 years old son with the power to rule Macedonia in his absence as regent, which shows that even at such young age Alexander was recognized as quite capable. But as the Macedonian army advanced deep into Thrace, the Thracian tribe of Maedi bordering north-eastern Macedonia rebelled and posed a danger to the country. Alexander assembled an army, led it against the rebels, and with swift action defeated the Maedi, captured their stronghold, and renamed it after himself to Alexandropolis.Two years later in 338 BC, Philip gave his son a commanding post among the senior generals as the Macedonian army invaded Greece. At the Battle of Chaeronea the Greeks were defeated and Alexander displayed his bravery by destroying the elite Greek force, the Theban Secret Band. Some ancient historians recorded that the Macedonians won the battle thanks to his bravery.The Family Split and the Assassination of Philip IIBut not too long after the defeat of the Greeks at Chaeronea, the royal family split apart when Philip married Cleopatra, a Macedonian girl of high nobility. At the wedding banquet, Cleopatra's uncle, general Attalus, made a remark about Philip fathering a legitimate heir, i.e., one that was of pure Macedonian blood. Alexander threw his cup at the man, blasting him for calling him 'bastard child. Philip stood up, drew his sward, and charged at Alexander, only to trip and fall on his face in his drunken stupor at which Alexander shouted:"Here is the man who was making ready to cross from Europe to Asia, and who cannot even cross from one table to another without losing his balance."

He then took his mother and fled the country to Epirus. Although allowed to return later, Alexander remained isolated and insecure at the Macedonian court. In the spring of 336 BC, with Philips Persian invasion already set in motion, the king was assassinated by a young Macedonian noble Pausanias, during the wedding ceremony in Aegae, the old capital of Macedonia. Why Pausanias killed the Macedonian king is a question that puzzled both ancient and modern historians. There is a claim that Pausanias was driven into committing the murder because he was denied justice by the king when he sought his support in punishing the Cleopatra's uncle Attalus for earlier mistreatment. But there are also reports that that both Olympias and Alexander were responsible for the assassination, by driving the young men into committing the act. That might explain why Pausanias was instantly put to death by Alexander's close friends as he attempted to flee the scene, instead of being captured alive and tried before the Macedonian assembly. Philip, the great Macedonian conqueror was dead, the men who liberated his own country and brought if from the edge of the abyss into a world power. His dream of conquering the Persian Empire now lays on his successor, his son king Alexander III.Suppression of the Thracian, Illyrian, and Greek RebellionsOnce he ascended on the Macedonian throne, Alexander quickly disposed of all of his domestic enemies by ordering their execution. But soon he had to act outside Macedonia. Philips death caused series of rebellions among the conquered nations and the Illyrians, Thracians, and Greeks saw a chance for independence. Alexander acted swiftly. He forced his way into Greece despite the roads leading to the country being blocked by the Thessalians. As soon as he restored Macedonian rule in northern Greece, he marched into southern Greece. His speed surprised the Greeks and by the end of the summer 336 BC they had no other choice but to acknowledge his authority.Believing the Greece would remain calm, Alexander returned to Macedonian, marched east into Thrace, and campaigned as far as the Danube river. He defeated the Thracians and Tribalians in series of battles and drove the rebels beyond the river. Then he marched back across Macedonia and on his return crushed in a single week the threatening Illyrians, before they could receive additional reinforcements.But now in Greece, upon rumors of his death, a major revolt broke out that engulfed the whole nation. Enraged, Alexander marched south covering 240 miles in two weeks appearing before the walls of Thebes with large Macedonian army. He let the Greeks know that it was not too late for them to change their minds, but the Thebans confident in their position called for all the Greeks who wished to set Greece free to join them against the Macedonians. They were not aware that the Athenians and the Peloponnesians, stunned by the speed of the Macedonian king, quickly reconsidered their options and were now awaiting the outcome of the battle before they make their next move.Alexander's general Perdiccas attacked the gates, broke into the city, and Alexander moved with the rest of the army behind him to prevent the Thebans from cutting him off. The Macedonians stormed the city, killing everyone in sight, women and children included. 6,000 Thebans citizens died and 30,000 more were sold as slaves. The city where Alexander's father was kept as hostage for three years, was plundered, sacked, burned, and razed to the ground, just like Philip acted with Methone, Olynthus, and the rest of the Greek cities in Chalcidice. Only the temples and the house of the poet Pindar were spared from distraction. This was example to the rest of Greece and Athens and the other Greek city-states quickly rethought their quest for freedom. Greece remained under Macedonian rule.The Battle of GranicusWith the conquered territories firmly in Macedonian control, Alexander completed the final preparations for the invasion of Asia. The 22 year-old king appointed Philip's experienced general Antipater as regent in his absence to preside over the affairs of Macedonia and Greece, left him a significant force of 13,500 Macedonian soldiers to watch Greece, Thrace, Illyria, and protect Macedonia, and set out for the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) in the spring of 334 BC.As his ship approached the Asia Minor's coast, he threw his spear from abroad and stuck it in the ground. He stepped onto the shore, pulled the weapon from the soil, and declared that the whole of Asia would be won by the Macedonian spear. In the army there were 25,000 Macedonians, 7,600 Greeks, and 7,000 Thracians and Illyrians, but the chief officers were all Macedonians, and Macedonians also commanded the foreign troops. Alexander's second in command was Philip's general Parmenio, the other important commanders being Perdiccas, Craterus, Coenus, Meleager, Antigonus, and Parmenio's son Philotas. The army soon encountered the forces of King Darius III. There were 40,000 Persians and Greeks (20,000 each) waiting for them at the crossing of the river Granicus, near the ancient city of Troy. These Greeks had joined the Persians in the years following the defeat of the Greek army by Philip II at Chaeronea. It is important to note the number of Greeks on the both sides. The Greeks in the Macedonian train were mobilized by the Macedonians, and historians Peter Green and Ulrich Wilcken speak of them as hostages that would ensure the good behavior of their countrymen left behind in Greece under the watch of Antipater's Macedonian garrisons. Not surprisingly, the Greeks in Alexander's army played insignificant role in the upcoming battles, only to be discharged when convenient. But far greater number of Greeks joined the Persians brushing away the memory of the Persian invasion of Greece some 150 years ago. The ancient Greek historian Arrian cited the "old racial rivalry between the Greeks and Macedonians" that led to this hatred on both sides.

The Macedonians defeated the Persians and put them to flight and although the Greeks held their ground and fiercely fought, the battle ended in Macedonian victory. Almost the entire Greek force was annihilated. 18,000 Greeks perished on the banks of Granicus and the 2,000 survivors were sent to forced labor in Macedonia. The Macedonians lost only 120 men according to tradition.The Campaigns in Asia Minor

Alexander then led the army south across Asia Minor. Ironically, it is not the Persians but the Greek coastal cities which gave the greatest resistance to the Macedonians. The Greek commander Memnon and his men considerably slow down the advance of Alexander and many Macedonians died during the long and difficult sieges of the Greek cities of Halicarnassus, Miletus, Mylasa. But at the end the Macedonian army defeated the enemy and conquered the coast of Asia Minor. Alexander then turned northward to central Asia Minor, to the city of Gordium.

Gordium was a home of the famous so-called Gordian Knot. Alexander knew the legend that said that the man who could untie the ancient knot was destined to rule the entire world. To that date nobody had succeeded in raveling the knot. But the young Macedonian king simply slashed it with his sword and unravelling its ends. Set 201 Write a note on the economic conditions of India during the reign of Chandra Gupta Maurya?Solution:. For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace.Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire.In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan Empire itself.

02 What were the socio economic changes under the Mauryas?Solution:

The requirements of resources for the Mauryan State were very high. The taxes realised from the region of Magadha and adjoining areas were not enough to meet this demand. Therefore, attempts were made to control resources in other parts of the country as well. For example, Kalinga, the Karnataka plateau and Western India where Asokan inscriptions are found, were such areas. To regulate certain types of economic activities in such far off regions, the Mauryas worked out different strategies. This depended on the nature of resources the particular region offered.

The conquest of Kalinga, for instance, offered control of an agriculturally rich area as well as the control of important trade routes that passed through it to the mineral rich areas of South India. Thus the main motive behind acquiring such regions as Karnataka seems to have been that they were rich in gold and other precious materials.What about those areas where Mauryan inscriptions are not found? It has been recently argued by Romila Thapar that it is difficult to gauge the political or economic control of the Mauryas in such regions. Northern Deccan, the Punjab and Sind and Rajasthan may be cited as examples of such areas. What is the extent of their influence on the economies of the areas where their presence is indicated? Here it may be suggested that no large scale restructuring was done even in these areas. The main interest of the Mauryas was the exploitation of resources of these areas and they depended on influential sections of population in these areas for doing this. It may be pointed out that most regions outside the Ganges Valley were at different levels of economic development in this period. Because of this uneven development, radical change and restructuring of all these regions was very difficult.The Arthasastra and the inscriptions of Asoka tell us about the tribes (atavikas, aranyacafas) that inhabited the various parts of the empire. They often separated the more developed areas from the less developed areas. Kautilya's advice to the State was to win them over to a settled agrarian life. He devotes a full chapter to how tribes could be systematically broken up and several methods, fair or unfair, were deployed to do this. This was necessary in order that groups of five to ten families could settle down permanently for bringing more land under cultivation. Asoka's attitude towards the tribes was paternalistic, but he too warns them that in case they failed to conform or disobeyed orders of the Maharnatras, stern action would be taken against them. Controlling of the forest tribes was important from two points of view:i) First, it was necessary for new agrarian settlements to be secure as disturbances from tribes would interrupt their economic development.

ii) Secondly, trade routes often bordered or passed through tribal regions and these had to be made secure.It is difficult to have an exact idea of how many tribal groups were thus converted to peasants, but, that the process was encouraged by the State is significant to take note of. Archaeological evidence for many parts of India shows habitation sites that were not fully developed as urban centres during this period. The case of the innumerable megalith sites, especially those dated to the third century B.C. or so, in many parts of the Deccan and South India, indicate simple farming or pastoral communities with only a limited knowledge of craft production.It was impossible to totally change the cultural pattern of a vast country like India in the third century B.C. but at the same time Mauryan rule did initiate some major changes in the material and socio.-economic setting which bore fruits in the subsequent centuries.Some of these changes may be briefly highlighted. In many areas .of the Mauryan empire such as north and west Bengal, Kaliqga, the Deccan, and also in the neighbouring south, the beginning of early historical cultural pattern dated to only Mauryan or post-Mauryan periods. This means that, impressive human settlements like towns and cities in which different social groups lived, use of coins, use of scripts, use of sophisticated objects on a significant scale-all began in these regions only from the Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods. This change in material culture implies that there were not only changes in technology and material life in general but also in social organisations and in ideas. Society started becoming organised in a much more complex manner, resulting in separation between social groups and ultimately in the institution of the State. The fact that we find local states appearing in many of the regions after the Mauryas suggests that the process of major socio-economic change associated with the production of surplus in society began in many parts of India through contact with the important regions of the Magadhan Empire.03 How did the Kushans establish their empire?04 What was the significance of the Pallava administration?Solution:

Kingship was attributed to define origin. The kings claimed their descent from the God Brahma. It has hereditary. Yet, on one occasion a king was elected. Most of the kings were accomplished scholars. Mahendravarman I wrote the famous burlesque, Masttavilasa Prahsana. Many of the vaishnava alvars and saiva nayanars flourished during their rule.

The kings adopted high-sounding titles like maharajadhiraja, dharma-maharjadhiraja (great king of kings rulling in accordance with the dharma), agnistomavajpeya, asvamedha-yaji (he who has performed the agnithtoma-vajapeya and asvamedha sacrifices) They were assisted by ministers. History shows that the ministerial council played a great part in the state policy in the later period.A hierarchy of officials in provincial administration, the governor ofa province was assisted by district officers, who in turn worked in collaboration with automous local bodies. In local administration the meeting of assembles were frequent, and the administration the meeting of assemblies were frequent, and the assemblies were of many varieties and of many levels. Often special meetings were held. As the village levelthe assembly was the sabha which looked after almost all the matters of the village, along with endowments, irrigation, crime, maintaining census and other necessary records, Courts at villages level dealt with minor criminal cases. The judicial courts of the town and districts were presided over by government officials, climaxing with the king as the supreme arbiter of justice. The sabha worked in close association with the urar, and informal gathering of the entire village. Above this unit was a district administration. Finally, the head man of the villages was the link between the village assembly and the official administration.Theoretically the king owned the land. The status of a village depended on the prevalent land tenure. The fist variety was the village with inter-caste population where in the people paid taxes to the king. The second was the brahmadeya village in which the entire land was donated to a single Brahmin or a group of brahmins. A variation of this village was the agrahars grant which, was an entire village settlement of brahmins. Both these forms were exempt from royal taxes. In the devadana village the revenue was donated to a temple, and the temple authorities in turn provided employment for the villagers in the temple whenever possible. In the Pallava period the first two categories of villages were in vogue.

Apart from these major points relating to land there was a special category of land, the sripatti or tank land. The revenue from such a land was sent apart for the maintenance of the village tank. The tank itself was built by the efforts of the entire village. All shared the water stored in the tank. Very many inscriptions of the Pallavas refer to the up-keep of tanks.

There are two Points about taxes. The land revenue varied from one-sixth to one tenth of the produce of the land. This was paid to the State. The local taxes that were collected in a village were spent for the needs of the village. As land revenue was necessarily small, the State revenue was supplemented by additional taxes on draught cattle, marriage-parties, potters, makers of clarified butter, textile manufacturers, washermen and weavers. The major source of revenue was from land, since the revenue from mercantile activity was not fully exploited.

Regarding expenditure, most to the revenue want for the maintenance of army. The king preferred a standing army instead of feudal levie. The army primarily consisting of food soldiers and cavalry along with a sprinkling of elephants. Indeed the Pallavas developed a navy although the mercantile activity was not great. Two dockyards were built at Mahablipuram and Nagabatnam. This pioneeringh effort of the Pallavas reached its climax during the days of cholas. The navy served a double purpose. It was meant for defence and also assisted the maritime trade with sout-east Asia, particularly with the three kingdoms of Kambuja (Cambodia) Champa (Annam) and Shrivijaya (Malayan peninsula and Sumatra).

05 Compare and contrast the reign of Chandragupta with Samudragupta. Comment on which the best was according to your opinion.06 The Gupta age was a period of relative peace and prosperity. Comment.Solution:

India witnessed Peace and prosperity under the Gupta Empire. This period was marked by extensive achievements in science, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, technology, engineering, art, religion and philosophy. It came into being as a result of the destruction of the Kushana Empire.Origin of the Gupta EmpireThe origin of the Gupta dynasty still remains unclear. Though the records of the Sunga Dynasty and Satavahana dynasty mention many officials bearing the surname Gupta, their relationship with the imperial Guptas cannot be determined. Also, though there is specific proof of a primitive Gupta clan, there is no means of connecting the same to the rulers of the Gupta Empire. The history of the Gupta dynasty began with its founding by Sri-Gupta around 240 CE. The empire enclosed most of Northern India and Eastern Pakistan, parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan and what is now western India and Bangladesh.Rulers of the Gupta EmpireThe first three rulers of the Gupta dynasty are Maharaja Sri Gupta, his son Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha and his son Chandragupta. It was under the last ruler that the Gupta Empire went on to become firmly consolidated and went on to enhance the power of the dynasty. Following his coronation as king of Magadha in A.D. 319-320, Chandra Gupta took the title of `Maha Rajadhiraja`, Great King of Kings. He was followed by his son Samudragupta, in the year 335 AD. He planned to bring about the unification of India and make himself the head and thereby adopted the principle of Digvijaya.The main power point of the Gupta Kingdom was the Ganga heartland. This secured a friendly southern frontier for the Guptas, which was necessary to Samudra Gupta`s successor, Chandragupta II, when he led a movement against the Sakas in western India. It was during the reign of Chandragupta II that Gupta pre-eminence was at its peak.

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumara Gupta, who went on to set up a peaceful rule of forty years. The last years of his reign however saw the commencement of a long period of troubles due to the incursion of the Pushyamitra tribe. His son Skanda Gupta ascended the throne after fighting a bitter battle of succession with his brothers. The last known King of the Guptas was Vishnu Gupta, following whom the Gupta dynasty fell into dismay and eventually collapsed.Administration of the Gupta EmpireGupta administration bears a resemblance to that of the Mauryas in superficial terms. Though ultimate power in the kingdom still lay with the king, the focus was more on local administration and lesser control from the centre. There was well-organised administration and political unity in India under the Guptas. The vast empire was divided into provinces, which were under the control of the governors who were from the royal family. The standing army was laced with cavalry and horse archery. The Gupta judicial system was developed with a differentiation between civil and criminal laws.Economy of the Gupta Empire

The economy of the Gupta Empire had a systematised operating mechanism. Revenue from land came at a steady rate, and this was further added to by income from commercial activity. India had established trading relations with the islands of South-East Asia, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Thailand. The textile guilds had a huge domestic and foreign market. Spices, indigo, sandalwood, pearls, pepper, perfume, precious stones, herbs, and textiles were exported in large quantities. Inland trade was promoted by the political constancy that had been established here by the Guptas. The towns of Banaras, Sarnath, Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra, Mathura, Ujjain, Kanchi and Tamralipti were famous trading centres.Art and Architecture of the Gupta Empire

In terms of art, architecture and painting, and the other arts, the Gupta period is one of the most innovative periods of Indian history. The rock cut caves belonging to the Buddhist; Jain and Brahmanical sects are interesting aspects of Gupta architecture. The Ajanta caves, Sarnath Buddha, the panels of Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh and the Udayagiri Varaha Cave are remarkable accomplishments of the age. The Gupta era also heralded a new era in the history of temple architecture. Free standing structural temples were built in this period. Permanent materials like stone and brick were used in the construction of these temples for the first time. Grammar, astronomy, metaphysics, logic, mathematics, and medicine became greatly specialised during the reigning period of the Gupta kings. Sanskrit literature reached at its highest glory during this period which produced works like Mricchakatika by Sudraka, Panchatantra, along with Kalidasa, Bhasa and others. In mathematics, Aryabhatta brought the concept of `zero` or infinity.Decline of the Gupta Empire

Following the reign of Vishnu Gupta, the Gupta Empire finally came to an end. The process of disintegration had started before the advent of Vishnu Gupta to the throne. In fact the reign of Skanda Gupta can be said to have marked the commencement of the decline of the Gupta Empire. The unexpected invasion of north western India by the Huns posed a serious challenge to the authority of the Guptas. Disagreement within the imperial family was another major reason that shook the stability of the Gupta Empire. The constant wars of succession weakened the hold of the central authority over the feudatories. Frail administrative systems also led to a downfall of the Gupta Empire.

Gupta Empire went on to introduce a new epoch in the history of India. The decline of the Gupta Empire saw the shifting of power to the South, as the north was now broken up into a number of warring kingdoms.