History II. From Interwar to Modern World

8/9/2019 History II. From Interwar to Modern World

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IES COMPLUTENSE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORYJorge-Elas de la Pea y Montes de Oca

1stCSE YEAR UNIT 1. PREHISTORY

111History 4th

CSE

Block II: Units 7-13

From the Interwar

period to modern world


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History 4thCSE

UNIT 7:The Interwar Period


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4thCSE YEAR UNIT 7. THE INTERWAR PERIOD

1

UNIT 7: THE INTERWAR PERIOD

1. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

1.1. Causes of the revolution

The Russian Revolutionwas the result of several elements that characterised the early-20thcentury Russia:

Political causes.o The tsar Nicholas II(1896-1917) held an autocratic regime where he had all the

power and government.

o There was a revolution in 1905 after the Russian defeat in the Russo-JapaneseWar that made the Tsar summon a Parliament (Duma), which was not reallyrespected by the sovereign.

o The participation of Russiain the First World War, which was quite unpopular

and left many casualties.

Economic causes.o The rural areas were completely backward.

Most of the peasants (80%) were serfs until 1865.

90% of the lands belonged to the Russian noblemen (Boyars).

o Industry grew in Russia in the main cities, but it was mostly funded with foreign

investments, which made Russia have many debts.o The Sovietswere created after the Revolution of 1905, where the workers had

representatives in the factories.

Ideological causes.o New social movements grew to criticise the political situation in Russia.

The Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) was founded in 1905after the revolution:

It was a liberal party that meant to establish a parliamentary

monarchy in Russia.

It was mostly composed of middle-class people.

The Russian Social Labour Democratic Party was born in 1883following Marxist ideas:

It just had followers in the industrial cities.


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It was divided into two major branches that finally split up in

1912:

o Mensheviks. They wanted to create a liberal regime that would

be the transition to socialism.

Their main leaders were Martovand Bernstein. They were expelled from the Russian Social

Labour Democratic Partyin 1912.o Bolsheviks.

They were more radical and wanted to dictatorshipof the proletariat.

They wanted an immediate revolution.

Their main leader was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov,Lenin.

They promised to quit WWI.

Anarchismspread through the use of violence and terrorism against mainpeople of the regime (such as the tsar Alexander IIin 1881).

1.2. Revolutions of 1917 and Civil War

Russias participation in WWI was quite anti-popular; hence the opposition against that

war grew among population, which caused two major revolutions in 1917.

1.2.1. February Revolution A general strike took place in Russia between 23 and 27 February 1917 (8-12 March in

western calendar).

o Peasants, army and bourgeoisie joined to create the Petrograd Soviet ofWorkers' and Soldiers' Deputies to fight against the tsarist power.

Nicholas IIabdicated on 2 March in favour of his brother Michael, who subsequentlyabdicated on 3 March.

The Russian Republicwas thus established and the Dumatook the political control inRussia.

o Prince Lvov led the provisional government, who was substituted in July byKerensky.

o Freedom of speech was allowed.

o Russian went on fighting in WWI.

o The redistribution of land was promised.

Lenins supporters understood that this revolution was a step towards the finalrevolution and prepared for a further uprising.

1.2.2. October Revolution. The Bolshevik Revolution Once Lenin came back from his exile in Switzerland, Trotsky created the

Revolutionary Military Council of the Republicto prepare the definitive revolution. The 2ndConference of the Sovietswas held in October and the Bolshevikspromised

some actions:

o Withdrawal from WWI.

o Nationalisation of the lands.

The Bolsheviks received many supports and the president Kerensky could not face apossible revolution.

On 25 October (7 November) the Sovietscontrolled St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kiev:


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o The Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace of St. Petersburg, which wasguarded by the Cossacks, Womens battalion, and cadets. It is considered the

outbreak of the October Revolution.

A new Revolutionary governmentwas formed by the Bolshevik leaders:o Lenin, Peoples Commissar (President).o Stalin, Peoples Commissar of Nationalities.o Trotsky, Peoples Commissar for Foreign Affairs and Head of the Army.o Rikov, Peoples Commissar for Internal Affairs.o Lunacharsky, Peoples Commissar for Enlightenment.

The Duma was dissolved and the Red Army seized the control in Russia. All the newspapers were closed down but Pravda and Izvestia, which were the

supporters of the Bolsheviks.

Many decrees were passed by the new revolutionary government in order to establish the

foundations of the new regime:

o Bolsheviks made Russia withdraw from WWI.

In March 1918 they signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany,

where the new government acknowledged the independence of many


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regions of the former Russian Empire, such as Finland, the Baltic

republics, Poland, Ukraine, and Transcaucasia.

o All the lands were nationalised and would be controlled by the Soviets of

Peasants.

o Banks were nationalised.

o

Ecclesiastical schools were nationalised.o Search and seizure was legalised.

o Right to strike was abolished.

o Decree of nationalities (July 1918):

The former Russian Empire became a federal state.

It involved the creation of the Russian Socialist Federative SovietRepublic (RSFSR), whose name was changed in 1922 into Union ofSoviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

The Bolshevik government also persecuted its opponents, such as the Romanov family

(the Imperial family), who were executed in July 1918 in Yekaterinburg.

1.2.3. Civil War (1918-1921) After this revolution a Civil Warbroke out between the Bolsheviks (Red Army) and the

Mensheviks(White Army).o The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was understood as treason by a large group of

Russians.

o The white faction, or Mensheviks, had some support in the west of Russia andby international powers.

It was more moderate and it was represented by liberals, conservatives

and moderate socialists.

o The red faction, or Bolsheviks, had more discipline and the support of peasants. Lenincompelled to purge the soviets of possible Mensheviks. The Chekawas created in order to persecute dissidents.

The war was not balanced and Leninmanaged to control all Russiain 1921, so a newtype of government was established.

1.3. Lenins government(1917-1924)

After the Civil War,Leninbegan a new government which went bankrupt. Hence the

principles of War Communism were followed:


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o All the industrial goods were nationalised so that the State were the only

producer.

o Everybody should work for the state.

o There would not be any international trade since they wanted to get autarchy.

In 1922 the economic policy changed into the New Economic Policy(NEP), which wasin use until 1927.

o Some economic freedom was given to the peasants.

o Small companies could be private.

o Some foreign investments were allowed.

o They allowed some international exchanges.

o

The nationalised companies would be self-managed by the workers.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was created in 1922 and it wascomposed of some autonomous republics:

o Russia.o Ukraine.o Belarus.o Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan).o Uzbekistan (1924).o Turkmenistan (1924).o Tajikistan (1929).


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The Constitution of the USSRwas passed on 6 June 1923:o Only the Communist Party of the Soviet Unionwas legal.o

The legislative power was held by the Supreme Soviet.o The executive power was held by the Presidium and Council of Peoples

Commissars, who were in charge of controlling the Head of the State.o The capital was fixed in Moscow.o Each republic of the USSRwould have some autonomy.

1.4. Stalins government(1924-1953)

Once Lenin died in 1924, he was succeeded by Joseph Stalin, who had fought withTrotskyto get the government.


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Stalin established a totalitarian regime until his death in 1953. It is the so-calledStalinism.

o There was a total centralisation of the state.

o Russians suffered ideological manipulation by Stalin.o All the enemies of Stalin were purged. Hence he created gulags (forced labour

camps) to confine and execute them. In economic terms he implemented the Five-year Plans:

o They favoured the heavy industry.

o They created the Kolkhoz(agrarian cooperatives) and the Sovkhoz(state-ownedfarms) for peasants.

o Private property was completely prohibited.

o The State should own the wealth and would lead its redistribution.

o These plans made the USSRa very important economic and military power.

2. THE ROARING TWENTIES

The Roaring Twenties is the way this decade is known since many economic andpolitical changes were accomplished.

During this period the countries that took part in WWI developed in two ways:o Democracies. France, Great Britain, and the USAcontinued their democratic

political systems. Germany proclaimed the so-called Weimar Republic whichwas the first democratic experience in that country until the arrival of Hitler.

o Authoritarian regimes. Many countries established dictatorships whereeverything was controlled by the State. It happened in the USSRwith Stalin, inItalywith Mussolinior in Spainby Miguel Primo de Rivera. Germanyalsoestablished a totalitarian regime after the victory of the Nazisin the elections of

1932.


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During the 1920s there was also economic prosperity which involved development of

industry and increase in consumption, which was eased by advertising and credit.

3. THE CRASH OF 1929 AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION

After WWI the European economy collapsed and the USA became the main worldssupplier.

o Many European states had many debts, which could just be paid for once the

German war reparations were received.o The USA gave long-term loans so that Europe may recover.o There was some recovery after 1922, which involved increase in consumption

and investment in stocks and shares. There are several causes that explain the Crash of 1929:

o Overproduction. The production increased a lot since Europe importedAmerican goods in WWI.

However, after its end the demand decreased, although the production did

not. Prices and profits halted in 1926, but the production went on.

o Low prices of agricultural products. Many farmers went bankrupt and couldnot buy anything.

o Speculation. Profits had been really high between 1921 and 1926. Many people bought shares since it could not be invested in industry

since there was overproduction.

The quote of shares was did not match their actual worth. Loans were easy to get. Hence, more shares were bought.

The Crash of 1929came after the decrease of sales of shares in October 1929.o

People were panicked since they could not buy any share in the New York StockExchange.o On Black Thursday (24 October) shares were massively sold in that

marketplace.o On Black Tuesday (29 October) the sale of shares was complete and economy

collapsed: More than 5,000 banks had to close due to those loans they had

previously granted and they could not get back. Moreover, many people

withdrew their savings from the banks. Industry was severely affected since demand decreased and they had lots

of stocks; hence prices decreased.

Many people went unemployed and many farmers were completelyunable to pay back their loans.

The most affected countries by the Crash were the USA, Germany, and

Japan.


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Unemployment in the USA

0

2

4

6

8

10

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1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

Millions

Unemployed There were different solutions in order to ease the crisis:

o Most of the states followed the economic theories by John Keynes, whodefended the state intervention to stimulate investment, employment, and

consumption.o Deflation, it was tried by the president Herbert Hooverby lowering the prices

to stimulate consumption but it did not work out.o Return of investments in Europe to bring money back to the USA. None the

less it made the crisis spread in Europe.


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o New Deal. It was designed by the president Franklin Delano Roosevelt, whoimplemented some measures to stimulate economy:

The payment of debts was delayed. Development public works in order to reduce unemployment. Reduction of government expenses.

Creation of the American Agricultural Agency (AAA). It limitedagricultural production so that prices may be higher and farmers couldhave a better standard of living.

Enacting of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), which wouldregulate production and prices of industrial goods.

Enacting of humanitarian laws such as the Social Security, reduction of

working hours, minimum wage, unemployment benefit... The State would control savings in banks, whose interest rates would be

lower. This programme was quite beneficial and reduced unemployment in some

years.

4. TOTALITARIAN REGIMES: FASCISM AND NAZISM

4.1. Totalitarianism

During the 1920s and 1930s many regimes were totalitarian.

The most well-known totalitarian regimes were Italian Fascism, German Nazism, andSoviet Stalinism, whose characteristics were quite similar:

o Authoritarian systems. The State shall be controlled by populist andcharismatic leaders, such as Mussolini, Hitleror Stalin.

There is not any political pluralism or civil rights. The only official

political party eliminates opposition through violence and repression by

paramilitary forces or political police.

o Economic and social control. Everything is controlled by the State, which willbe anti-capitalist and anti-communist in Germany and Italy.

Public-work programmes were used in order to reduce unemployment.

Propaganda is essential to make the nationals believe in the political

system.

Repressive measures were implemented to persecute all those who

opposed the regime.

o Ideological inequality and fanaticism. Some members of the society are

believed to be superior due to religious or racial reasons. Symbols, uniforms, slogans, and songs are used to unite all the supporters

of the regime.

o Hyper-nationalism and militarism. The nation is essential above all and thatexplains why it has the right to military expansion, which can just be got through

weapons and wars.

These countries needed to expand in order to access raw materials.

4.2. Italian Fascism

Fascismwas established in Italybetween 1922 and 1943.

The Italian fascist leader was Benito Mussolini(1870-1945):


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o He joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1902 and led its newspaper, Avanti. Nonethe less, he was suspended in 1914 when he wanted to enter WWI.

o He founded a new political party in 1921, the Fascist National Party as well asa new newspaper:Il Popolo di Italia, where he published his political theories.

Italysuffered a major political crisis after WWI since they did not get as much as theyexpected. Besides there was a social and economic crisis.

o The Fasciststook advantage of this situation and controlled the rural areas. o Bit by bit merchants and Catholics began to support Fascism.

On 27 and 28 October 1922 Mussolinimarched on Romewith his 30,000 Blackshirtsin order to seize the power.

o As a result, the king Victor Emmanuel III gave Mussolinithe government on30 October 1922.

o The Grand Council of Fascism was created as a new government in Italy.o The King and the Parliament were respected, although Mussoliniwas appointed

as Duceand Dictator on 2 January 1925.


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Fascist economy:o Mussolinipromoted a capitalist economic model.o Despite criticising industry, he promoted the heavy industrial sector. o

He sought self-sufficiency and imports were limited.o Public works were developed under this regime.o Fascist trade unions were created to represent the workers and the others were

banned. Fascist society:

o Fascism counted on the Catholic support. Hence Mussolinisigned the LateranTreaty in 1929 with the Pope Pius XI:

Italyacknowledged the independence of the Vaticanas a sovereign state. Catholicism was the Italian official religion. Only religious marriages would be allowed.

o

Mussolinibecame more racist with Jews after his approaching to Hitler.o Everything was completely controlled by Mussolini and the Fascist NationalParty, who imposed censorship and propaganda.

International policy:o Mussolinibelieved in Imperialism. Hence he meant to create an Italian empire:

The rule over Libyawas consolidated. Mussoliniconquered and annexed Abyssinia(Ethiopia) in 1936.


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Albaniaand Somaliawas occupied in 1939.

o

Mussolinihad very strong ties with Romania, Austria, Hungary, and Bulgaria.o Due to international conflicts with France and Great Britain, Mussolini gotcloser to Hitlers Germany:

The Rome-Berlin Axiswas created on 1 November 1936. The Pact of Steelwas signed between Hitlerand Mussolinion 22 May

1939. Japan also joined this pact to fight against communism (Anti-Comintern Pact).

4.3. German Nazism

National Socialism or Nazismwas the German totalitarian regime between 1933 and1945.

The origins of this political ideology can be found in the creation of the GermanSocialist Workers Party by Anton Drexler in 1918, which meant to fight againstMarxism.

Adolf Hitlerjoined that political party in 1919 and got its presidency in 1921, when hechanged its name into National Socialist German Workers Party(NSDAP), which he

identified with a new symbol: the swastika.


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o His programme was hyper-nationalist (Pan-German), where Germans should get

their Lebensraum(Life-room). It was also racist (Anti-Semite), where Aryanswere superior.

o He promised the suppression of the Treaty of Versailles.o He also created several paramilitary forces for the Nazi Party:

SA (Sturmabteilung), which were the Assault Division, subsequently ledby Ernst Rhm. SS(Schutzstaffel), which were the Protection Corps or personal guard.

Hitler met other leaders such as Luddendorf, Rhm, Gring, and Rudolf Hess, whotook part in an attempted coup dtat they staged in Munichin 1923, the so-called Beer-Hall Putsch.

o Hitlerwas arrested and imprisoned in Landsberg: While he was in prison he wrote his political manifesto:Mein Kampf(My

Struggle).

The Nazi Partyhad its first representatives in the German Parliament in 1930 and it wonthe elections in 1932 with a massive popular support:

o On 30 January 1933 Hitler is appointed Chancellor by the PresidentHindenburg.

Once Hitler got the government he eliminated the rest of the politicalparties.

The Reichstag(German Parliament) was burnt by the Nazisin February1933, although they blamed Anarchists and Socialists for that fire in order

to persecute them.


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Once Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, Hitler was appointed as new Germanpresident, and was self-called Fhrer:

o On 30 August 1934 Hitlerproclaimed in Nuremberg the birth of the 3rdReich,the so-called Thousand-Year Reich.

o He created the Gestapo (contraction of GEheime STAatsPOlizei) as a secretpolitical police.

o He developed a programme to reindustrialise and to rearm Germany.

o The autonomy of the GermanLnder(autonomous states) was abolished.

Hitlermade a policy in order to eliminate all those possible enemies from his point ofview:

o Dissolution of the SAon the Night of the Long Knives (30 June 1934), when allits leaders were captured and executed.

o Persecution of the Jewsonce the Nuremberg Actswere passed (1935).


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On 9 November 1938, the so-called Night of Broken Glass(Krystallnacht), Jewswere massacred across Germany.

Concentration campswere created in order to confine and exterminateJews.

Nazi economy. Hitler developed the Four-Year Plans in order to fight crisis andunemployment:

o Salaries were regulated.

o Weapon industry was developed.

o Prices were controlled by the government.

o Control of external trade in order to get autarchy.

Nazi society. Everything was to be controlled by the Nazi Party.o

Propaganda became an essential means of the Nazi ideology, which wascontrolled by the Propaganda Ministryled by Joseph Goebbels.

The German society should beNazified. Only teachers with a Nazi licence could work.

There would be Nazi subjects in the educational system.

o Right to strike was abolished but there were some benefits to workers.

o The Catholic Churchwas also persecuted. Nazi expansionism. Hitlerwanted to concentrate all the Germans under his rule and he

began his Life-room programme:

o Changes within Germany. Some areas of Germany had been occupied orcontrolled by foreign powers after the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler could nottolerate this and began some campaigns to re-take over those German regions:


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Saarland was reincorporated in Germany in 1935 after a plebiscitewhich was affirmative with a 91% of the votes.

The region of Rhinelandwas remilitarised in 1936.o Austria. He wanted Austriato be a part of his Reichand promoted the so-called

Anschluss.

Hence, he ordered the assassination of its president Engelbert Dollfuss inJuly 1934, but Mussolinidid not let Hitler annex Austria. Western powers signed a treaty to protect Austrias independence. An internal revolution sponsored by Hitler deposed the Austrian

government on 12 March 1938, which allowed Hitler to annex Austria.o Czechoslovakia. In the Czech area of the Sudetesthere were around 3.5 million

Germans, who should ruled by a German power basing on Hitlers principles: On 29 September 1938 Germany, Italy, Great Britain, and France

reached the Munich Agreement, where Germany annexed the Sudetes(Sudetenland).

On 15 March 1939 Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and created the

Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, whilst Slovakiabecomes a Pro-Naziindependent nation.

o Poland. After the Treaty of Versailles, Polanddivided Germany into two partsand East Prussiaremained isolated. Hence, Hitlerwanted to control Danziginorder to unite both parts of Germany.

On 23 August 1939 the German Minister Von Ribbentropand the SovietMinister Molotov signed the Treaty of Non-Aggression betweenGermany and the USSR.

Germany and the USSR agreed on sharing Poland and EastEuropein the event of a war.

The USSRwould not attack Germanyif a war may break out.

Hitlercommanded the invasion of Polandon 1 September 1939, whichactually involved the outbreak of WWII.

The Soviets invaded Poland on 17 September following theprinciples of the treaty that had been previously signed with

Germany.


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111History 4thCSE

UNIT 8:The Second World War and its

consequences


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4thCSE YEAR UNIT 8. WWII AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

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UNIT 8: THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND ITSCONSEQUENCES

1. THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1.1.

Causes of the war

Germanyneeded revenge after their defeat in WWI and the humiliation of the Treaty ofVersailles.

The Great Depressionof the 1930s had made unemployment and poverty grow in theUSA and in Europe, especially in Germany, which had to pay war reparations until1932.

The growth of totalitarianism in Europe, such as Fascism in Italy and Nazism inGermany.

The annexations of the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and their military

agreements:o The Pact of Steel(1936) had involved an alliance between Germany, Italy, and

Japanfor a possible conflict.o Japanhad also invaded Manchuria in 1932 and became a major power in the

Far East.

o Italyhad occupied Abyssinia(1936) and Albania(1939).o Germany had annexed Austria (1938), Sudetenland (1938), and most of

Czechoslovakia(1939). Germanywas completely free in the east after the signing of the Treaty

of Non-Aggression with the USSR.o These counties needed many raw materials for their industries, which made them

invade many countries.

The League of Nationswas completely unable to put a stop to these aggressive policies.o Many of the former allies of WWI were afraid of the expansion of communism.

That is why they tolerated some Nazi annexations; it is the so-called

appeasement policy.o The League of Nationscould not prohibit its members from having economic or

diplomatic relations with those countries which acted aggressively.

o Some countries left the League of Nations since they wanted to pursueexpansionist policies, such as Japan(1933), Germany (1933), and Italy (1937).

o Others were expelled from the League of Nations when they attacked any

sovereign state, such as the USSR, once it invaded Finlandin 1939. On 1 September 1939 Germanyinvaded Danzigand the rest of Poland.o On 3 September, Great Britainand Francedeclared war on Germany.

1.2. Combatants

The nations that fought in the World War IIwere divided into two groups:o Axis Powers. It was composed of Germany, Italy, and Japan, as well as some

satellite states that were created in the last 1930s and WWII.

Germany was really ready for this war since they had prepared for threeyears:

The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) was essential in thedevelopment of the war.


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Germany developed the Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) in order tosurprise the enemy.

Japanhad a very powerful army whose Air Force was also basic. Italyhad a quite weak army that was usually assisted by the German.

o Allied powers. France and Great Britain led the allies, although many

countries joined them, such as the USSR, or the USA. France was quickly invaded by Hitler. Hence they had to develop the so-

called French Resistance to fight the Germans, whilst the other part ofthe country had a puppet government.

Great Britainsuffered many air raids. They thus strengthened the RoyalAir Force (RAF) to fight them. It also included the CommonwealthRealmssuch as Canadaor Australia.

Once the USSRand the USAjoined the allies, they could resist better theAxis attacks.

1.3. Characteristics of the war

The front of the war was worldwide, since it can be found in Europe, Africa, and thePacific Ocean.

o Sixty countries were involved in this war.

o More than 100 million soldiers fought in WWII.

o Around 800 million civilians suffered occupations and bombardments.

It was a quite long war, since Germany had managed to invade many areas at thebeginning of WWII which were quite difficult to re-conquer.

WWII can be considered the cruellest war in the history since many atrocities werecarried out, such as genocide, deportation, systematic torture, and the creation ofconcentration and extermination camps.

New and destructive weaponswere used in this war:o Planes.o Tanks.o Aircraft carriers.o Flying bombs (V-1, V-2).o Missiles.

o

Atomic bomb.


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1.4. Development of the war

1.4.1. First stage (1939-1941) This part of the war had many victories for the Axis Powers. Germanylaunched the Blitzkriegthat managed to invade many areas in very short time,

which was also eased by the neutrality of the USSR.o Polandwas invaded and pacified in just one month (September 1939).o In order to invade France, Germanyneeded the Swedish iron that was exported

through Norway. Denmarkand Norway were thus invaded by Hitler in February 1940.

o France was strongly protected by the Maginot Line. That is why Hitlerdecidedto attack it by invading the Netherlandsand Belgium.

The German army entered France and occupied the Ardennes and Sedan,which let them reach Parison 10 May 1940.

The north of France was thus occupied by Hitler, whilst in the south itwas created a collaborationist state, the French State, which was led by

Marshall Ptainfrom Vichy (that is why it was called Vichy France). Franceofficially surrendered on 25 June 1940, so Great Britain was the

only country that fought against Germany.o At the end of June 1940 the British and French armies were completely

surrounded by the Germansin Dunkirk. 300,000 soldiers were taken by ship to Great Britain. The British Winston Churchillcalled up for a psychological war against

Germany, whilst the French Charles de Gaulle organised the FrenchResistance.

At that moment Italyjoined Germany in WWII.

Once Great Britainis the only important enemy that Hitler had, he began a campaignto end with the British power:

o The front was taken to the Balkans and north of Africa.

o Great Britain was massively bombed from the summer of 1940 onwards, but itwas not actually effective.

o Italy and Germany were defeated by Great Britain in the Siege of Tobruk

(April-November 1941).


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o Greece was invaded by the Axis Powers in April 1941 and they also occupiedYugoslavia.

Hitler began the Operation Barbarossa in June 1941 in order to invade the USSRsince he thought that Stalinwanted to break the Treaty of Non-Aggression.

o Stalinwas not ready for the war but the USSRmanaged to resist the German

attack and the main industries were moved to the other side of the UralMountains.

o At that moment the USSRjoined the Allied Powers.o Hitlerinvaded the USSRand occupied Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and Kievin

September 1941 and reached Moscow.

At this time Hitler controlled most of Europe:o Great Germany (annexed areas): Germany, Austria, Sudetenland, Bohemia

and Moravia.o Occupied areas: Eupen, Malmdy, Alsace, Lorraine, Luxembourg, Belgium,

the Netherlands, France, Denmark, and Norway.o Protectorates: Poland, part of the USSR.o Satellite states: Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania (officially annexed by

Italy), Yugoslavia, Slovakia, and Finland.o Allied countries: Italyand Japan.


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1.4.2. Second stage (1941-1945) During this period the Axis Powers opened more fronts, where they progressively lost. Creation of the Pacific Ocean Front (1941).

o Japanoccupied Indochina after defeating France.o Due to Hitlers attack of the USSR, Japan had also to invade Siberia.o

Japan extended the front once they attacked on Pearl Harbour, a majorAmerican military base on Hawaii, on 7 December 1941.

o The USA entered WWII by declaring war on Japan.o Japan seized the occasion to occupy Burma, the Philippines, Singapore, and

threatened India, and Australia. European and African fronts(1942-1945):

o The Axis Powersbegan to suffer major defeats: Hitlerunderstood that he should extend the war to the colonies. Hence,

he sent Rommelto Egypt. Rommel fought against the British army led by Montgomery at the

battle of El Alamein (23 October-11 November 1942).

The Germanswere defeated by the British.o The German defeat at El Alamein allowed the Allied Powers to cross the

Mediterranean Sea and occupy Sicilyon 9-10 July 1943. Mussoliniwas overthrown from power and Hitler invaded Italy.

The Italian Social Republic (Republic of Sal) was created byHitlerfor Mussolini.

The Allied Powersdisembarked at Anzioin January 1944 and eventuallyentered Romeon 25 April 1945.

o In the USSR, the German defeat came once they attacked Stalingrad(Volgograd) in spring of 1942.

The Sovietspractised the scorched-earth policy. After a long battle (until February 1943) it was the definitive Soviet

victory over the Germans, who had to retreat from the USSR.o After the German defeat in Stalingrad (USSR) the front moved westwards and

Germanybegan to be massively bombed.

Leningradwas liberated in January 1944.


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Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, and Yugoslaviawereliberated between September and October 1944.

o The most important allied campaign was the Operation Overlord, widelyknown as the Normandy Landings, which were prepared to be done on the D-Day (6 June 1944).

More than 160,000 allied troops landed Normandyon 6 June 1944 and atthe end of August they were more than 3 million. On 15 August there was another landing in Provence, which allowed the

final liberation of France. Pariswas eventually occupied by the allies on 26 August 1944.


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o After the liberation of Francethe front moved eastwards and crossed the Rhineon 1 April 1945.

Italy was eventually liberated from the Nazis and Mussolini wasexecuted on 28 April 1945.

Hitlercommitted suicide on 30 April 1945. The Soviet army managed to control Berlinon 7 May 1945, on the same

day when General Jodlsurrendered Germany.

The Pacific Front (1942-1945):o After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbourthey controlled the Pacific Ocean.o There was a Japanese operation to control New Guinea and the Solomon

Islands: The Australian and the American armies defended the area in the Battle

of the Coral Sea (May 1942) and the Battle of Midway (June 1942). The Americansdecided to occupy Guadalcanal Island to prevent any

Japanese invasion, which involved a very cruel battle between August

1942 and February 1943.


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o Japanbegan a defensive strategy after their defeat on Guadalcanal.o The USA managed to occupy New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and the

Philippinesbetween September 1944 and January 1945.o A very symbolic attack was launched on Okinawa and Iwo Jima (February-

March 1945), which were native Japanese lands.

o The Japanesereacted with kamikazesto destroy the Americanbases.o The US President Trumanallowed the use of the atomic bombto end with the

Japanese resistance:

The first atomic bombwas launched on Hiroshimaon 6 August 1945,but Japan did not surrender.

A second atomic bombwas launchedon Nagasakion 8 August 1945.


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o Japanfinally surrendered on 15 August 1945.

Peace was signed with the USA on 2 September 1945 on the USSMissouribetween the generals MacArthur and Umezu and the ministerShigemitsu.

1.5. Consequences of the war

WWII was the most destructive ever:

Demographic consequences:o Between 55 and 60 million people died during WWII, both civilians and soldiers.

The most affected nations were the USSR, Poland, Germany and theJews, who suffered genocide in the Nazi concentration and death camps,the so-called Holocaust.

USSR: 24 million.

China: 20 million.

Poland: 5.5 million.

Yugoslavia: 1.5 million.

France: 600,000. Great Britain: 320,000.


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USA: 300,000.

Germany: 8 million.

Japan: 3 million.

Italy: 600,000.

Jews: 6 million.

o

There were many forced migrations due to the occupations by foreign armies.Many refugees went to South and North America to escape from the war.

o Birthrate decreased notably.

o Many people left the cities and moved to the countryside, where there were not

air raids.

Casualties in WWII

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Millions

USSR

China

Poland

Yugoslavia

France

Great BritainUSA

Germany

Japan

Italy

Jews

Territorial consequences:o There were very few changes in West Europe, but it did not happen the same in

the east:

The USSR annexed some areas of Poland, some others of Finland, allEstonia, all Latvia, all Lithuania, part of Czechoslovakia, Bessarabia,and a part of Germany (some areas of East Prussia).

Germanywas divided into four sectors controlled by the four main alliedpowers: USSR, USA, Great Britain, and France.

Some German areas were ceded to Poland (Silesia, Pomerania,and some parts of East Prussia) and the east boundaries werefixed in the river Oder.

Berlin was also divided into four areas controlled by the fourallies.

Austria recovered its independence and was also occupied and dividedby the four main allied powers (Vienna too).

Italylost some territories:

Istriain favour of Yugoslavia. The Dodecanesein favour of Greece. It also abandoned the African colonies.

Japanwas occupied by the USAand lost its empire.


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Political consequences:o

The political systems of the Axis Powerswere dismantled.o The new superpowers were the USAand the USSR, which led a new world order

with two spheres of influence:

Western Blocled by the USA. Eastern Blocled by the USSR.

Social consequences:o Once some countries were invaded by the Axis Powers, two groups began to

exist:

Resistance fighters. Many people organised themselves to attack theNazis, such as the French Resistance(led by Charles de Gaulle) or the

Yugoslav Partisans(led byJosif Broz, Tito).


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Collaborators. Some others decided to cooperate with the Nazis to helpthem carry out their plans.

o The people who had fought against Nazism became major leaders in their

countries.

Economic consequences:o

Many crop fields were destroyed.o Most of the infrastructures were bombed and destroyed.

o Economy had to be restructured from a warfare system into a peace economy.

o Europe got itself into debt and depended on the American or Soviet aid.

2. SEARCHING FOR PEACE

There were some manifestos and conferences that were held in order to fix the principles

that should be followed after the end of WWII:

The Atlantic Charter was signed in August 1941 between Churchill (Great BritainPrime Minister) and Franklin D. Roosevelt(President of the USA), where they did notacknowledge the German annexations in Europe.

o It also fixed some economic measures for the post-war period promoting global

cooperation.

The Tehran Conference was held between 28 November and 1 December 1943between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin (USSR).

o They agreed on opening a new front in west Europe and plan the future

Normandy landings. The Yalta Conferencewas one of the most important meetings before the end of the

war (4-11 February 1945).

o Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalinmet in that Soviet city.o

They agreed on dividing Germany once the war finished and which theboundaries of the new state of Poland should be whose eastern part would beannexed by the USSR.

o The USSRdecided to declare war on Japan.o They also agreed on the creation of the United Nations.

The last meeting took place in the Postdam Conference (28 July-1 August 1945).


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o The leaders that met were Truman (USA), Churchill and Atlee(Great Britain),and Stalin.

o They decided to establish the Nuremberg Tribunalsin order to judge the Nazileaders for genocide.

o After this conference it was visible the creation of two main world blocs: the

western (led by the USA), and the eastern (led by the USSR).

3. THE UNITED NATIONS

The United Nations (UN) is the most important international organisation and it wasfounded in 1945 after the World War II and replaced the League of Nations (it hadexisted since 1919).

The Atlantic Charter(August 1941) discussed about its possible creation. The United Nations Charter was eventually signed on 26 June 1945, which can be

considered the Constitution of the UN.

o It was the result of the discussions which were held in San Francisco between 25

April and 26 June 1945.

o Delegates of 50 nations took part in the United Nations Conference onInternational Organisation.

o Nowadays, most of the countries of the world belong to the UN (193 states in

2012).

o

Its main headquarter is located in New York City, although there are other seesfor specialised bodies.


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Its main goalsare listed in the Charter of the United Nations(26 June 1945):o To maintain peace and collective security.

o Promotion of economic and social progress.

o Defence of human rights.

o Respect for the free determination of people.

The UN has an internal organisation as follows:

o Secretariat. It is composed of one Secretary General, who is the internationalspokesman of the UN, and other secretaries.

The Secretary General is elected by the General Assembly every fiveyears.

He coordinates all the functions of the UN.

o

General Assembly. It is composed of all the member countries and debatesabout peace and security as well as formulating recommendations. Each state has one vote and 5 representatives maximum.

o Security Council. It is the most important organ of the UN. It is composed of 15 countries, out of which 5 are permanent and can veto

their decisions (USA, UK, France, Russia, and China).

The other 10 members are elected every two years in the General

Assembly.

It investigates situations of conflict.

It recommends measures to resolve international conflicts.

o International Court of Justice (different from the International Criminal

Court). It is composed of 15 magistrates chosen by the General Assembly and theSecurity Council for 9 years.


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It decides on disputes between members.

It is located in The Hague (The Netherlands).

o Economic and social Council. It is composed of 53 members chosen by theGeneral Assembly and it coordinates economic and social work to improve the

standard of living, cooperation for education, culture, development and respect of

human rights... It has specific agencies that are specialised in their areas: UNESCOis specialised in education, science, and culture. WHO is specialised in health. FAOis specialised in food and agriculture. UNICEF is specialised in children. ILO is about work in the world. UNHCR deals with refugees in the world.

o Other institutions are specialised organs of the UN, such as: International Monetary Fund (IMF). It is in charge of promoting

international trade. World Bank. It gives loans for development.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT). It means to reducecustoms duties in the world.

The United Nations passed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on 10December 1948, whose main rights are:

o Right to life.o Right of freedom of meeting, expression, association, thought, strike, press...o Acknowledgment of self determination of colonised peoples.o Condemnation of torture and slavery.

4. ART BETWEEN 1919 AND 1945

During the first half of the 20thcentury there was a major revolution in art since many

movements spread worldwide, whose concepts were completely different from previous

styles:

Architecture. It became much more functional and rational; hence it is called asFunctionalismor Rationalism.

o Form follows the function was the motto of these architects, who used minimaldecoration in geometrical styles, mostly vertical and horizontal lines.

o Reinforced concrete was used as a main building material for pillars and beams,

which would be in charge of withstanding the structure.

o It was very common the construction of skyscrapers, mostly in the USA.

o

The main representatives of this type of architecture were: The German Bauhaus, which was composed of several German

architects such as Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe. Theycombined architecture with decoration and furniture. Some examples are

the Fagus Factory or the Bauhaus Bui lding. Le Corbusierwas the father of rationalist architecture with very simple

buildings such as Vi ll e Saboyeor Unit dhabitation. Frank Lloyd Wright integrated buildings in nature and he followed

geometry in his buildings. His style is known as organic architecture,whose main example is the Fallingwater.


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Sculpture. New materials were used for sculpture, such as iron and steel where theysimplified shapes of just designed mobile sculptures. Some of the best representatives

are Constantin Brancusi or Henry Moore.

Painting. There were new movements that grew in this period:o Surrealism. It found inspiration in dreams with absurd and irrational elements.

One of the best followers of this movement was Salvador Dali.o Dadaism. This movement claimed for the destruction of art by using every-day

objects as art objects. Marcel Duchampwas its best representative.o Abstract movement. The authors of this style do not represent anything that can

be identified since the essential elements in their paintings are colour and shape.

Vasili Kandinsky, PietMondrian, Paul Klee, and Jackson Pollock are someof its main representatives.


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111History 4thCSE

UNIT 9:Spain in the early 20thcentury


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4thCSE YEAR UNIT 9. SPAIN IN THE EARLY 20thCENTURY

1

UNIT 9: SPAIN IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY

1. THE REIGN OF ALPHONSO XIII (1902-1931)

1.1. The reign of Alphonso XIII until WWI

Alphonso XIIIwas crowned in 1902 once he turns 16 years old.o He was really marked by the Crisis of 1898and he wanted to make very deep

reforms in Spain; it was the so-called Regenerationism.o He intervened in politics directly.

During the first part of his reign the peaceful alternation of political parties went on:

o Antonio Maurasucceeded Cnovas del Castilloin the Conservative Party.o Jos Canalejasbecame the leader of the Liberal Partyafter Sagasta.o The change of government was due to internal political crises, not owing to

peoples will.

o The elections were manipulated so that these parties went one ruling. Hence, the

other political parties did not have any chance to govern.

The conservative Antonio Mauraled the government between 1905 and 1909:


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o He promoted the naval industry as a consequence of the Crisis of 1898.

o Strike was also regulated.

o The Instituto Nacional de Previsin was created in 1908, which was anantecedent of the Seguridad Social.

o A new Electoral Lawwas passed in order to end manipulation and caciquismo.

o

The Tragic Weektook place at the end of July 1909 in Barcelona as a protestagainst the recruiting for the Moroccan War, which affected the Spanishprotectorate of the Rif and its local inhabitants.

The Spanish army was clashed by the Moroccans at Barranco del Lobo

on 27 July 1909.

The government wanted to raise 40,000 more soldiers for that war.

A major revolt rose up in Barcelona to protest for that recruiting since it

just affected lower-class people.

Many people took part in this revolt and the trade unions led it.

Some churches were burnt and barricades were erected on the

streets.

The government undertook a major repression of the revolt by sendingthe army.

The traditional pact of alternation between parties was broken.

After these revolts and their repression, in 1910 Pablo Iglesias, the leaderof the PSOEbecame the first elected socialist deputy.

The liberal Jos Canalejas got the government after the Tragic Week and led itbetween 1909 and 1912:o One of his most important acts was the Ley del Candado (December 1910),

which prohibited the arrival of new religious orders in Spain, which caused some

problems with the Vatican.

o Canalejasalso drafted the Ley de Mancomunidades(although it was eventuallypassed in 1913).

It planned an autonomous government for Catalonia: Mancomuni tat deCatalunya, which should be governed by Prat de la Riba.

This government was meant to be the solution for the peripheral

nationalism.

o

Canalejaswas assassinated by an Anarchist in 1912.


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After Canalejas assassination, the conservative Eduardo Dato governed until 1915,whose government was marked by WWI:

o Spain was neutral during WWI, although there were several tendencies:

Pro-Allies, they were mostly liberal.

Pro-German, they were mostly conservative.

o There was economic prosperity associated to the Spanish neutrality, which

allowed a major industrial growth.

Prices rose during WWI.

Spanish industry did not restructure after the end of WWI and that caused

an important recession.

1.2.

The Crisis of 1917 and its consequences

The Crisis of 1917 was one of the main problems Spain suffered in the 1910s andaffected many areas:

o Juntas de Defensa. Some officers of the army showed their disagreement withthe governments policy and demanded a renewal in Spanish politics. They

became a very influential institution in the Spanish political life.

These officers also demanded a higher salary.

The liberal government of Garca Prietowas immediately substituted bythe conservative Eduardo Dato.

o

Assembly of representatives. It was held in Barcelona between July andOctober. Francesc Camb, leader of Lliga Regionalista de Catalunya, hosted a

meeting of parliamentarians to protest against the suspension of the

sessions at the Cortes.

Those representatives belonged to the Catalanist parties and some

members of the opposition parties.

They demanded some political reforms, such as the reform of the

Constitution of 1876 and the creation of actual autonomous governments.

It was dissolved by the central government.

o General strikes. They took place between 13 and 18 August.

Workers were mobilised by the Anarchist Trade Union (CNT) and theSocialist Trade Union (UGT).


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4

They protested against how prices rose due to the industrial speculation

during WWI.

The regions that struck more were Madrid, Barcelona, Basque Country,

and Asturias.

The army stifled the revolts that were associated to the strikes

The leaders were imprisoned, such as Andrs Saborit, Francisco LargoCaballero, Julin Besteiro, and Daniel Anguiano. A government of national concentration was formed in order to face this

crisis.

After these crises there were governments of national concentration until 1923.

Once WWI ended the Spanish industry did not restructure, which caused a strong

recession as well as strikes.

o

Social problems were aggravated due to the Russian Revolutionin 1917, whichcaused a split within the PSOE and founded the PCE (Parti do Comunista deEspaa) in 1921.

o Employers and trade unions had continuous problems, especially caused by the

Anarchists.

During the Moroccan Warthe Disaster of Annual(July 1921) shocked all Spain:o General Silvestreled some troops that went from Melilla to Alhucemas.o The Moroccan leader Abd el Krim ambushed the Spanish troops and killed

10,000 soldiers and captured other 4,000.

o That defeat involved that the fortress of Monte Arruit could be occupied by theMoroccans, who killed 7,000 soldiers.

o

After those two major defeats, Melilla was about to be taken over by theMoroccans.

o Major protests rose in Spain to protest against the government, the army, and the

Crown.

o An official investigation was carried out and the final report was published in

1923. It is the so-called Picasso Report. Many military officers and the Kinghimself seemed to have some links with the disaster in Morocco.


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1.3. Miguel Primo de Riveras dictatorship (1923-1930)

Miguel Primo de Riverastaged a coup dtat in Barcelona on 13 September 1923 andimposed a dictatorship:

o He decreed the suspension of the Constitution of 1876.

o Primo de Rivera had a very strong popular support.o

He was known as the Iron Surgeonthe regenerationists proposed. The regime of Primo de Riveracan be divided into two periods:

o Military Directory(September 1923-December 1925): Primo de Rivera was assisted by other generals who tried to find the

solutions of Spain.

The Moroccan War ended thanks to some military campaigns withFrench assistance that followed the Alhucemas Landing (8 September1925).

They allowed the surrender and capture of Abd el Krim. A young officer stood out during this war, Franco.

His government restored public order by persecuting terrorists.


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Political parties were banned and one official party was created in 1924:

Unin Patri tica. Trade unions were substituted by equal committees of employers and

employees.

A sort of Parliament was created: Asamblea Nacional Consul tiva.

The Mancomunidad de Cataluawas suppressed. Censorship was imposed and freedom of press was abolished.

o Civil Directory(December 1925-January 1930):

In December 1925 Primo de Rivera introduced some civil ministers inhis new government, such as Jos Calvo Sotelo or the Count ofGuadalhorce.

Public works were promoted by the government:

The Count of Guadalhorceimplemented a hydraulic programmewhich allowed the construction of reservoirs and the creation of

the Cuencas H idrogrficas.

Many roads were also built in this period.

The State intervened a lot in economic matters:

There was an important industrial development.

Some national monopolieswere created, such as CAMPSA (forpetroleum), Telefnica (for telephone), or Tabacalera (fortobacco).

There were International Exhibitions in Spain in 1929: Barcelona held the International Exhibition in the area of

Ciudadela. Seville held the Ibero-American Exhibition, where the Latin

American nations met in the so-calledParque de Mara LuisaandPlaza de Espaa.

Primo de Riverasuffered some military opposition: The first attack on his regime was visible in the coup dtat that

took place on 24 June 1926; hence it is called Sanjuanada.


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The Artillery Corps was dissolved in 1929 after showing their

disagreement with Primo de Riveras policies.

Primo de Riveraresigned after the Crash of 1929 in January 1930.o He exiled in Paris, where he died on 17 March 1930.

1.4. The end of the reign of Alphonso XIII

Once Primo de Riveraresigned, Alphonso XIIIformed a new government led by theGeneral Berenguer, the so-called Dictablanda:o Berenguergoverned as if nothing had happened in the last years and restored the

Constitution of 1876. That is the so-called Berenguer M istake.o Many parties signed the San Sebastin Pact in August 1930, where they were

committed to end with the monarchy:

It was signed by socialists, republicans, and catalanists.

Some intellectuals also joined this pact, such as Miguel de Unamuno,Jos Ortega y Gasset, and Gregorio Maran.

They agreed on ending with the monarchy through elections or coups

dtat.

o

There was an important attempted republican coup dtat in Jaca on 12 December1930, which was led by the officers Galnand Garca Hernndez, who wereexecuted on 14 December.

Alphonso XIIIformed a new government led by the Admiral Aznarin February 1931,who called municipal elections for 12 April 1931 in order to get more support for the

king.

o There was a massive republican victory in the cities, whilst there was a victory of

the monarchist candidates in the countryside, where most of the elections were

manipulated.

o Alphonso XIII decided to abdicate to avoid a civil war and the Spanish 2ndRepublicwas proclaimed on 14 April 1931.


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2. THE SECOND REPUBLIC

2.1. Provisional government

Once Alphonso XIII abdicated and the 2nd Republic was proclaimed a provisionalgovernment was established to rule Spain, which was composed of several tendencies:

o Former monarchists:

Niceto Alcal-Zamora(Derecha Liberal Republicana).

Miguel Maura(Derecha Liberal Republicana).o Traditional republicans:

Manuel Azaa(Accin Republicana). Alejandro Lerroux(Partido Reformista Radical). Diego Martnez Barrio (Partido Reformista Radical). lvaro de Albornoz(Partido Republicano Radical Socialista). Marcelino Domingo (Partido Republicano Radical Socialista).

o Socialists:

Francisco Largo Caballero (PSOE). Indalecio Prieto (PSOE).

Fernando de los Ros(PSOE).o Regionalists:


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Nicolau DOlwer(Acci Republicana de Catalunya). Santiago Casares Quiroga (Organizacin Republicana Gallega

Autnoma).

This government was presided over by Niceto Alcal-Zamora. During this period there were major problems in Spain:

o Religious problems: Many convents and churches were burnt by the masses.

The Archbishop of Toledo, Cardinal Segura, and the bishop of Vitoria,Mgica, were expelled from Spain due to their critics to the republic.

o Regionalist problems: Francesc Maci proclaimed the Estat Catalon 14 April 1931, where

the Catalan autonomy was established until the approval of the Catalan

statute by the Cortes. New elections were called to elect a Constituent Parliament, where the left-wing parties

won and had many representatives thanks to the new electoral law. They were held in

June 1931.


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2.2. The Constitution of 1931

On 9 December 1931 the Constitution of the 2ndRepublic was passed, which was very

advanced:

o It based on many ideas that had been drafted in the Constitution of the Weimar

Republic (Germany). It was pacifist and idealistic.

It acknowledged individual rights as in Germany, such as equality before

the law.

o The Parliament just had one house.

o A Tribunal de Garantas Constitucionales was created in order to make theConstitution be respected.

o The President of the Republic would be elected by the Cortesfor 6 years, but hiscompetences were quite weak.

o Universal suffrage was acknowledged in this Constitution, female included.

o There was freedom of expression and association.

o

It acknowledged the autonomy of some regions.o It did not establish any official religion and recognised divorce.

o A new Spanish flag was adopted consisting on three coloured stripes: red, blue,

and purple, whose coat of arms substituted the royal crown by a walled crown.

2.3. Left-wing government or Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)

The Reformist Biennium was governed by the left-parties, although the Parliamentelected Niceto Alcal-Zamora as President of the Republic, who belonged to therepublican right-wing parties.

The government was presided over by Manuel Azaa, who made a coalition with otherleft-wing parties.


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Many reforms were promoted by the new government:

o Army. Those members of the army who did not swear allegiance to the Republic

could retire.

The Military Academy of Zaragoza was closed down (it was led by

Francoat that time, who felt humiliated).


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The number of officers in the army was drastically reduced as well as

their political power.

o Church. The Jesuitswere expelled from Spain. Cemeteries were secularised and controlled by the State.

The Catholic Church would not be funded by the State. Religious orders could not teach any more.

The Divorce Actwas passed by the Cortes. Civil marriage was legalised.

o Agrarian reform: The salary of the farmers was increased.

The Agrarian Reform Act (Ley de Reforma Agraria) was passed inSeptember 1932.

The lands of the nobles were seized and controlled by the State.

Those lands would be shared up among farmers.

The Instituto de Reforma Agraria was created in order toimplement all the measures to accomplish the reform:

o It was quite slow to carry this out.

o Many protests arose among farmers, who were instigated

by the Trade Unions UGT and CNT.

o Education. 10,000 National schools were created, which allowed spreading education

across the country.

Thousands of teaching jobs were also promoted.

Some campaigns to spread culture were promoted, such as the M isionesPedaggicas, which performed plays or showed films in rural areas.Federico Garca Lorcas

La Barraca was really active in this

programme.

o Labour reforms. New laws were enacted so that employers should negotiate conditions

and wages with the Trade Unions.

The working week was limited up to 40 hours.

o Regionalism. Some statutes of autonomy were passed or projected: Catalonia:

There was a massive growth of a new political party, EsquerraRepubl icana de Catalunya, which was led by Francesc Maci.

The Catalan Generalitat was given provisional powers until the

Catalan statute was passed in 1932 after the coup dtat bySanjurjo.

Basque Country: Most of the Basque political life was controlled by the Basque

Nationalist Party (PNV). The Statute of Estella was drafted in 1932 demanded their

autonomy and union with Navarre. However it was not passed by

the Cortes. Galicia:

The autonomous feeling was led by Santiago Casares Quiroga,who did not like federalism.

The main problem was to fix the Galician capital.


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Some problems arose during the Reformist Biennium since there was a strong opposition

from some groups:

o General Sanjurjo led a coup dtat on 18 August 1932 in Seville, which wascompletely unsuccessful. He was forced to exile in Lisbon.

o Monarchistsalso opposed the new regime.o

Far-right parties: Jos Antonio Primo de Riveracreated Falange Espaolaas a copy of

the Italian Fascist Party.

Ramiro Ledesmafounded the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista(JONS).

o Anarchists: FAI (Federacin Anarquista Ibrica) proposed revolutions in Spain

through strikes.

There was a major rebellion at Casas Viejas (Cdiz, January 1933),which was put down by the Guardia Civil.

These crises and revolts caused a government crisis and Azaadecided to call for newlegislative elections for a new government.

2.4. Right-wing government or Conservative Biennium (1933-1936)

The elections were held in November 1933 and were won by the CEDA (ConfederacinEspaola de Derechas Autnomas), led by Jos Mara Gil-Robles.

o This coalition of right-wing parties promised economic reforms as well as

amnesty for the authors of the coup dtat.

o Gil-Roblesdid not get the presidency of the government due to the opposition ofthe left-wing parties.


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The government was first led by Alejandro Lerroux, leader of the Radical Party.o There were some negotiations in order to sign a Concordatwith the Holy See.o Some lands that were seized to the nobility basing on the Agrarian reform were

given back.

There were three major revolutions that took place in October 1934 due to the

appointment of three ministers who belonged to the CEDA.o Catalan Revolution.

Francesc Macidied and was substituted by Llus Companys, who wasquite more radical.

On 6 October Companys proclaimed the Catalan State within theSpanish Federal Republic.

This revolt failed since Companys was neither supported by the

Anarcho-syndicalists nor by the right-wing Catalanists.o Socialist Revolution.


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It began on 5 October but it was not well prepared.

It was just successful in Madrid.o Miners Revolution.

This revolution was the most important one and began on 6 October.

It took place in the Basque Country and in Asturias, where it was

extremely radical. In Asturias the Trade Unions UGT and CNT formed an alliance to put

the bourgeois Republic into an end.

Oviedowas mostly destroyed during these revolts. Money was suppressed and there were anti-clerical attacks.

The revolution was stifled with the intervention of the army:

o General Yagelanded in Gijn.o General Ochoaattacked from the west.o General Solchagaentered Asturiasfrom the east.o General Bosch Balmesattacked from the south.o All the operations were led from Madrid by the General

Franco. The situation was controlled back on 18 October.

There were major consequences due to these revolutions:

o There were more tensions between the ministers that belonged to the CEDAandthe ones who belonged to the Radical Party.

o The Catalan Statutewas temporally suspended.o An Agrarian Counter-reformationwas implemented.

Some members of the Radical Partywere blamed for corruption, which caused anothermajor crisis:

o Some Dutch businessmen, Strauss and Perle, wanted to introduce in Spain anew type of fraudulent roulette for San Sebastian Casino by bribing some

Radical ministers.

o

It was a major scandal which was known as Straperlo.


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Due to that corruption scandal the Corteswere dissolved and new elections should beheld on 16 February 1936.

2.5. The Popular Front and the end of the 2ndRepublic (1936)

For these elections the left-wing parties made a coalition following the French model ofPopular Front.

o It was composed of I zquierda Republi cana, Unin Republicana, PSOE, andPCE (Par ti do Comunista de Espaa).

o Its main goal was to seize the government thanks to the electoral law, which

benefited coalitions.o It was quite heterogeneous because of all the forces that composed it, which

caused some divisions.

The right-wing parties reacted late with the creation of the Bloque Nacional. The Popular Front won the elections and Manuel Azaa was elected as the new

President of the Republic.o The government was presided over by Manuel Portela Valladares, but he was

substituted by Santiago Casares Quiroga.o The socialists had different positions in this coalition:

Indalecio Prietodefended the cooperation with the government. Francisco Largo Caballerodefended a revolution.


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o The officers who were not reliable for the new government were removed and

were given peripheral destinations: Francowas sent to the Canary Islands. Molawas taken to Navarre. Godedwas in charge of the Balearic Islands.

o

The Agrarian Reform was radicalised and the misappropriation of lands byfarmers were legalised. During this period there were many problems of public order:

o Many churches were burnt.o There were continuous fights between Falangistas and communists. It was the

so-called Tragic Spring of 1936.o Some left-wing or right-wing leaders were murdered:

Lieutenant Castillo, belonging to the Guardia de Asalto, was murderedby far-right activists on 12 July.

Members of the Guardia de Asaltoreacted on 13 July by murdering JosCalvo Sotelo, leader of the right-wing bloc.

o These disorders accelerated the coup dtat that was being prepared: The coup was finally staged in Melillaon 17 July. It spread to the Peninsula on 18 July; it was the beginning of the Civil

Warsince the coup dtat did not succeed everywhere.3. THE CIVIL WAR (1936-1939)

3.1. Authors of the coup dtat

There were some forced which opposed the Popular Front and supported the coupdtat:

o Monarchists.o Traditionalists(Carlists):

They were very well organised.

They constituted the Junta Carli sta de Guerra. All the Traditionalists were led by the General Mola from Pamplona.


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o Falange Espaola y de las JONS.o Devout Catholics.o Part of the Army, which was grouped in the UME (Un in M il i tar Espaola).

Some of its members were Mola, Queipo de Llano, Franco, Goded, andSanjurjo.

It was prepared by the General Molain March 1936:o There should be four fronts that should rebel and march on Madrid.

o In Madrid there would be a spontaneous uprising of the population against the

Popular Front. It was the so-called Fifth Column.o Their initial goal was to seize the Popular Front from the government, not to

attack the Republic and to establish a republican dictatorship, where theConstitution would be temporally suspended.

After the coup dtat Azaa contacted the Marquis of Carvajal (sent by Goded) toavoid a war.

o Azaapromised a new government without communists.o Moladid not accept his proposals since he understood it was already too late.o The republicans thought that this coup dtat could be easily controlled as in

1932, but they were wrong.

3.2. Initial geography of the Civil War

The National or Rebel sidecontrolled some parts of Spain:o They rebelled in Melillaand in the Protectorate of Morocco.o The Canary Islandswere controlled by Franco, who flew to Morocco on 19

July.

o Old Castile. It was a traditional conservative area, although there were someinitial difficulties in Salamanca and Valladolid.

o Navarrewas a major Carlist area.o lava, where even the PNVsupported the rebellion.o Oviedowas an enclave which was controlled by the Nationals, although the rest

of Asturias was republican (save Gijn, where there was rebel group whichresisted until November 1936).

o

Galiciawas a quite conservative area.o Aragnwas controlled save Teruel.


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o Balearic Islandssupported the coup dtat, save Minorca.o Most of Andalusia supported the left-wing parties but it was not controlled by

the republicans:

Sevillewas the only place where the officers and the population did notagree on the coup dtat. It was Queipo de Llanowho took control over

the city. Queipo de Llanomanaged to take over Cordovaand Cdiz. Granadawas also an enclave of the Nationals. Some Civil Guards took refuge in the Sanctuary of Virgen de la Cabeza

(Andjar), where they resisted until November 1936.

o They counted on the African soldiers, who were used to fighting, as well as the

Castilian agrarian areas.

The Republican sidecontrolled some other areas:o

New Castile, where Madridsuffered an attempted coup dtat by the GeneralFanjulwhich was quickly put down.

o Catalonia, where Barcelona was controlled by Anarchist militias, whichpromoted the collectivisation of the means of production.

o Levant(Valenciaand Murcia).o Minorca.o Andalusia was mostly supporter of the Republic with some exceptions which

were previously seen.

o Cantabrian coast, which was essential due to its industry. The only exceptionswere Oviedoand lava.

o Teruel.o

The republicans controlled the resources of the State, the industry and most of

the army.

3.3. Development of the war

The first stage was the Guerra de Columnas(July-November 1936).o The initial goal of the Nationals is to occupy Madridquickly and they reached

Somosierraon 22 July.o Most of the capitals of Andalusiawere taken over by the Nationalsthanks to the

Anarchist inefficacy.

o

Franco wanted to link the centre with the south:


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His army marched by the Portuguese boundary and occupied

Extremadura, where there was a major repression in Badajoz. Talavera de la Reina was occupied by the Nationals on 1 September

and allowed assisting Toledodue to symbolic reasons. It was eventuallytaken over on 26 September.

The Republicans had better defences as Franco were approachingMadrid, where the Nationalsreached on November 1936 and settled atCiudad Universitari aand a fierce combat began in the capital.

o In the north Irnwas taken over by the Nationalsbut the rest remained loyal tothe Republic.

o The Republicanstried to occupy Ibizaand Majorcabut it was unsuccessful. Between November 1936 and March 1937 all the efforts were in the Battle of Madrid:

o The Nationalsdid as much as they could in order not to do a frontal attack onMadridsince they could not occupy it. They stayed at Ciudad Universitaria.

o There was a National offensive by the Jarama in order to cut thecommunications with Levant.

The Battle of Jaramawas fought between 6 and 18 February. The Nationals were worn down by the Republicans. The battle ended since both sides were exhausted.

o The Battle of Guadalajarawas done by the Nationals and the Italians. There were major Republican air raids which achieved to stop Franco. The area was left by the Nationals.

o Meanwhile, Mlaga was captured in January 1937 by the Italian troops whohelped the Nationals.

The Campaign of the North (April-October 1937) was essential for the futuredevelopment of the war:

o Franco decided to attack more areas which were easier than Madrid to beoccupied.

Meanwhile,Mola died in an air accident and he was substituted in thenorth by the General Varela.

The Air Forceand Artillerywere basic in this stage of the war. In the Basque Country there were severe air raids by the German

Condor Legion, such as in Guernica(26 April).

Bilbaowas finally taken over by the Nationalson 19 June.


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Santanderwas easily conquered due to the fact that the members of thePopular Frontdeserted.

Asturiaswas more difficult to occupy, where there was some resistancein Infiesto and Gijn. The entire region was finally taken over by theNationals in October.

o

The conquest of the north was essential since the Nationals took control overiron and coal.

o The Republicansmade some offensives to distract the Nationalsfrom the north: They forced a major battle around Brunete(Madrid) in July 1937 so that

the Nationals left Madrid, but they counter-attacked and theRepublicansretreated.

Another distractive battle was in Belchite (Zaragoza) in summer andautumn 1937. Francodid not send the army of the north since he neededit there. The Republicansalso attacked Zaragoza.

None of these manoeuvres were useful at all.

The next stage was the combat around Teruel and the National arrival in theMediterranean Sea (November 1937-June 1938):

o The Republicanswanted to get more territories inland and occupied Teruel inNovember, which was finally re-taken over by Franco in February 1938.

o After this victory, the Nationalsmoved by the river Ebro and captured Lrida(4April 1938) and managed to reach the Mediterranean Sea at Vinaroz on 14April, which divided the Republicanarea into two.

o The movement towards the south was slow but Castelln was eventuallyoccupied in June.


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The Battle of the Ebro(24 July-16 November 1938) was the last great battle of the war:o The Republicansreorganised their army and crossed the river Ebroin Gandesa

in six different points.

o The Nationalsdid not expect this attack and managed to stop the Republicanson 31 July, who resisted on the nearby mountains.

o The Nationals eventually defeated the Republicans on 16 November, whosemoral was very low now.

o There were 100,000 casualties in this battle.

o

The end of this battle allowed the Nationals to enter Tarragonaon 15 January1939 and reached and occupied Barcelonaon 26 Janua

History II. From Interwar to Modern World

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