World in 1000

Population: 310 million

Overall warm climate encouraged greater harvests equaling population growth

Civilizations were Western Europe, Byzantine Empire, Islamic states, Song China, Mayans

Norse and Polynesian exploration leads to establishment of settlement in North America and New Zealand.

Holy Roman Empire (800-1805)

Collection of largely German states in Central Europe, states presided over by Holy Roman Emperor (Otto III)

Initially part of Frankish empire, now loose confederation subject to will of the Emperor.Frequently at odds with the Catholic church over succession and investiture of bishops and cardinals

Feudal system weakened Emperor’s power

Feudal System and Serfdom

Feudalism: Post Roman relationship between King and Noble in which land is exchange for military service

Noble (vassal) was expected to use land revenues to equip himself and men at arms at the kings behest

Serfdom: form of slavery in which peasants are legally bound to lands governed by nobles

Frequently abused when royal power was weak. Nobles conducted themselves independent of royal authority.

Both systems endorsed and abused by church

Vasselage not hereditary, son had to renew

The Age of the Vikings (8th to 11th centuries)

Norse raiders from Scandinavia forced by over population to go “raiding”

Viking raids reached as far as Paris and Mediterranean. Practiced looting and slavery. Also served as mercenaries for Byzantine Empire.

Established colonies along Volga and Dneiper rivers. Found Kievan Rus state

995: Eric the red establishes colonies in Iceland and Greenland.

1003: Leif Erikson found short lived colony in Vinland (North America)

Credited with introducing legislative assembly, trial by jury

Kievan Rus (880’s-1240)

Medieval state established by Norse traders in modern day Russia

Established dominance over local slavic peoples incorporated city of Kiev as capitol

Reached high point during reigns of Vladimir and Yaroslav

Adopted Greek orthodox Christianity after “audition tour”

Drop in trade and internal conflicts lead to decline in 12th century

State destroyed during Mongol conquests

Norse Settlements of North America

982: Exiled Erik the Red establishes colony attempts to “attract” settlers by naming it Greenland

Settlement eventually grew to 5,000 benefiting from overall warm period

1002: Leif Erikson explores North American coast, makes landfall on Baffin Island. Establishes temporary settlement in modern-day Labrador

From Northmen to Normans

911: French King Charles (the Simple) grants Duchy of Normandy to Norse war leader Rollo

Norse settle in and intermarry with local population. Adopt French language and culture

1013: Alliance forms between King Ethelred II of England and Duke Richard II of Normandy

1052: King Edward the Confessor supposedly recognizes Duke William of Normandy (bastard) as heir.

Norman Invasion and Conquest of Britain

1066: Death of English King Edward the Confessor leads to between Harold Godwinson (England), Harold Hadroda (Norway), and William of Normandy (bastard)

25 September 1066: Viking army destroyed and killed Hadrada at battle of Stanford Bridge. Meanwhile William corsses England channel and lands at Revarsey.

English army force marches south, meets Normans near town of Hastings

October 14th 1066: at hard fought battle of Hastings, Godwinson is killed and English army destroyed at battle of Hastings

Christmas Day 1066: William is crowned William I of England

Legacy of Norman Conquest of England

William orders construction of White Tower of London as fortification and residence

First comprehensive survey of English people and property ordered under, Domesday Book

Preconquest of Old English language merges Norman French

Anglosaxon centralization of government continues, eventually replacing continental feudal system

Conflicting claims over territory and vassalage leads to Anglo-French rivalry that will continue until mid 19th century

Norman conquests include Sicily, southern Italy. Become much in demand as mercenaries. Form backbone of first crusade

Great Schism (1054)

Caused by gradual divergence of Greek and Latin Christianity

Differences include language, the divine nature of Christ, the worshipping of icons, celibacy for priests, the authority of the Emperor.

1054: Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX and Pope Leo XI issue simultaneous writs of excommunication on the other

Despite attempts at reconciliation, rift remains

Investiture Controversy

Dispute between religious and secular powers over the authority to appoint (invest)Bishops and Abbots

1075: Pope Gregory VII declares that papal power was universal and superceded all secular authorities

Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV Appoints Bishop of Milan, Pope responds with excommunication

1077: Facing rebellion at home, Henry prays for three days in the snow outside the Papal residence at Canossa

Henry II and Thomas Becket

Henry II (1133-1189): Powerful English King whos domain included England, Wales, Ireland, Normandy, Brittany, Aquitane, and Anjou.

1163: Henry attempts to establish authority over English church. Appoints close advisor Thomas Becket Arch the Great bishop of Canterbury.

Becket instead opposes Henry and flees into exile from 1164-1170.

Becket returns to England but is murdered by four knights on December 29 th.

Facing excommunication, Henry endures public scouring and penance. Becket’s tomb becomes popular pilgrimage spot until 16th century.

Byzantine Empire (324-1453)

Founded by Roman Emperor Constantine the Great.

Roman in organization but Greek in culture.

Would continue to claim descent from Roman Empire.

Prospers through control of Asia-Black Sea-European trade.

Greek church often conflicted with Roman church.

Islam and the Arabs

632: Prophet Mohammed dies, rule passed to Umayyad Caliphs.

632-711: Umayyad launch series of conquests that spreads Arab control over Middle East, North Africa and Spain.

661: Dispute over succession leads to splitting of Muslim world into Sunni and Shia factions. Sunni believe the followers should pick leader, Shia believe it should be passed down through family.

750: Abbasid Caliphate is established in Baghdad. Umayyad Caliphate is forced to flee to Spain.

909: Shia Fatimid takes control of Egypt and most northern Africa.

11th century: Seljuk Turks come out of central Asia and convert to Islam, sweep over much of Middle East, become major threat to Byzantine Empire and Western Christendom.

Golden Age of Islam (8th-13th centuries)

Called by historians the first “universal civilization”.

Known as “Islamic Golden Age” for its cultural, literary and scientific achievements.

Arab scholars preserved, studied, and expanded on ancient Persian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Chinese, Indian texts.

800s BCE: Arab adopt Chinese use of paper.

Religious tolerance attracts Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars to Damascus, Baghdad, Alexandria.

Universities founded in Morocco, Egypt and Syria.

Islamic mathematicians credited with developing algebra, trigonometry, decimal system, Arabic numbers.

10th century: Arab scholars translate and publish Persian Book of Thousand and One Nights. Also introduce philosophical and science-fiction genres.

Christian crusades and Turkish and Mongol invasions bring an end to Arab learning.

Islamic Agricultural Revolution (8th-13th centuries)

Period of technological and economic reforms within Arab domains.

Credited with disseminating new crops from Asia/ India through Middle East and Mediterranean.

Includes sorghum, rice, citrus fruit, mangoes, cotton, bananas, sugar cane, and wheat.

Period also sees wide-spread adoption of crop rotation, water mills, dams, etc.

Abbasid Caliphate provides incentives to scientific farming, environmental reforms, and privatization of farmlands.

Assassins (1090-1295)

Persian word given to followers of Nizari branch of Shia Islam.

Term derives from followers supposed ingestion of Hashish (Hashshashin) during religious services.

1090: Hassan-i-Sabbath breaks away from Fatimid Caliphate and establishes stronghold in mountain fortress of Alamut (Iran).

Followers become expert at covert warfare, infiltration, and murder.

Assassins become terror of both Islamic and Christian kingdoms.

1295: Cult attempts to intimidate Mongols advancing into Middle East. Alamut destroyed, cult all but wiped out.

Current Aga Khan traces descent to Assassins.

Seljuk Turks (1037-1194)

Central Asian tribe that migrated south and west beginning 9th century.

1037: Empire founded by Tugrul Beg and named to honor dynasty founder Seljuk.

1071: Alp Arslan expands Turkish empire into Persia. Converts to Sunni Islam and conquers Armenia and Georgia. Threatens Byzantine Empire province of Anatolia.

Battle of Manzikert (1071)

Fought between Seljuk Turks under Alp Arslan and Byzantine army under Emperor Romanos IV.

Heavily- armored Byzantines out-maneuvered by Turks, drawn into Anatolian mountains, further restricting mobility.

Romano’s reserve forces desert the emperor, who is captured by Arslan.

Seljuks overrun most of Asia Minor. Byzantine Empire enters period of decline.

The Call for Crusade (1095-1272)

1071: Turkish victory at Battle of Manzikert persuades Byzantine Emperor Alexis I to appeal to Catholic West for help.

Roman Pope Urban II regards appeal as opportunity to reunify Roman and Eastern churches and assert Papal authority in the West.

Also seen as opportunity as an outlet to belligerent and opportunistic western warriors.

1092: Convenes Council of Clermont and calls for crusade against infidels. Pope promises remission of sins and opportunity to participate in “just war”. Supposedly concludes with Deus lo Volt! (God wills it)

First Crusades

1096: “Peoples Crusade” led by Peter the Hermit sets out for Holy land. Consisting of 40,000 peasants but few warriors, crusade makes it as far as Asia Minor when they were captured and sold into slavery by Turks. They ask to be sent to Holy Land and when they get there they’re killed and the rest were sold into slavery.

Crusader call favorably received by lesser sons of Western nobility. First crusade travel by land and sea to Holy Land. Defeat lightly armed local Muslims using knights.

1099: Capture Jerusalem and subject it to violent sack. Estimated 40k killed. Establish kingdom of Jerusalem. Through this, they introduce feudalism to the Middle East

The Military Orders

Groups of warrior/monks charged with defending the Holy land and protecting Christian pilgrims

1119: Knights Templar formed. Name comes from headquarters supposedly on site of Solomon’s temple.

Knights Hospitaliers also provided care for sick and injured.

Members expected to turn over all wealth and property and take vow of poverty.

Military orders establish banking system in Holy Land.

Establishes reputation as fierce warriors. Become mounted shock force for Christian crusaders.

To become a knight you must give up everything (land, money, etc)

The Second Crusade fails and the rise of Saladin

1147: Call for second crusade in response to Turkish conquest of county of Edessa.

Crusade led by Louis VII (France) and Conrad III (Germany)

Turks adopt to Crusader tactics, use horse archers to counter mounted knights.

1871 first german united state

Crusaders torn by internal dissention. Attempt to besiege city of Damascus, but defeated by Turkish troops.

Second Crusade destroys relations between Christians and Turks, discredits Pope, but does liberate city of Lisbon and Moors. One of which was just taken on the way there.

Saladin and the Third Crusade

Saladin: Kurdish Muslim who becomes Sultan of Egypt and Syria in 1174.

Attempts to live in peace with Crusaders but is provoked into war.

1187: destroys main crusader army at battle of Hattin. Recaptures Jerusalem, which brings on third crusade.

Crusade (1187-1192) fought between Saladin and Richard the Lionheart. Many battles and Sieges, but neither gains advantage over the other. Treaty is signed given Muslims control of Jerusalem, but allows Christian pilgrims to visit holy sites.

They give each other a lot of respect, an assassin tells Richard he’ll kill Saladin and Richard turns him over to Saladin to be killed. Richard is most respected in England but hated it, has a statue in front of parliament house but was only ever even in England just to loot taxes to pay for his crusade. Saladin credited by Christians like Aristotle, Plato, etc. Saladin gets ice for Richard from the mountain tops when he has a high fever.

King John and the Magna Carta

1199: Richard I dies while on campaign. Succeeded by his brother John (Lackland (nickname because he had no title or land attached to him), Softsword)

1207: Dispute with church over investiture triggers papal interdict (suspension of ALL church services, no christenings, no funerals everyone who dies goes to hell all children born are not christians) in England. He signs England over to the church and is then under the power of the pope.

1215: Faced with rebellion from his nobles, John signs the Magna Carta, guaranteeing individual rights, recognizing due process and accepting that the king was subject to the rule of law. Spends the rest of his rule trying to nullify it.

Magna Carta lists series of rights and liberties of free man, says what the king cannot do. Really the rights were only given to all nobles, protecting nobility. Historically it is good because it sets standard for new laws/rules. That’s why there is only one English King john, because he sucked.

The Fourth Crusade and the Byzantine Empire

1198: Pope Innocent III calls for new crusade to free the Holy Land. Almost no response.

1201: Army of 34,000 men (including 4500 knights) from France and Germany agree to take to Crusader cause. Contract Venice to ships and transportation.

1202: Unable to pay Venetians, Crusaders agree to attack competing Byzantine Empire

1204: Constantinople falls to Crusaders and is subjected to brutal sack. Reorganized as Latin states, but retaken by Greeks in 1261.

Crusade excommunicated by Pope. Rift between Greek and Latinchurches made permanent. Once powerful Byzantine empire fatally weakened.

Legacy of the Crusades

Church’s influence over international politics begins to wane.

Trade contacts between Europe and Asia briefly reestablished. Post-Crusade efforts to reopen trade would influence 15th century voyages of exploration.

Arab advancements in mathematics, optics and engineering influence European science.

Similar crusades take place in Spain, Baltic.

First crusade begins tradition of organization of violence against Jews in Europe.

Mesoamerica in the 11th century

Major civilizations include the Toltec and Mixtec (central America) and Wari culture (South America)

North America dominated by Mississippian cultures.

Famous for “mound cities” such as Cahokia.

Capable of developing sophisticated economic/social structures and culture, but lacked knowledge of ironworking and wheel technology.

Hinduism (1700 BCE)

South Asian (Indian) religion based on diverse collection of traditions and origin tales.

Classical Hindi religion divided into Sruti (revealed) and Smriti (remembered) texts. Oral culture versus written culture. Best known Smriti is Rig Veda.

Word Hindu is actually Persian term for follower of Indian tradition.

Features pantheon of deities with both human and animal characteristics. Individual deities often embrace multiple aspects depending on tradition.

Religion reflects diverse interwoven nature of Indian society and history. Also influences establishment caste system.

Chalukya Empire (973-1189)

Dominated southern and western India.

Practiced Hinduism, but largely rejected caste system.

Civil unrest and rivalry with neighboring Chola empire lead to Chalukya’s decline and fall.

India under the Cholas

Chola: southern Indian dynasty who ruled from 300 BCE to 1279 CE.

Particularly known for their use of the sea for trade, communication, and conquest.

Reaches peak from 1010-1200 with territories including part of Sri Lanka, Burma, and Malay Peninsula.

Credited with furthering trade and knowledge exchange from Asia through Indian Ocean to Western world.

Buddhism (6th century BCE)

Religion/philosophy based on the life and teachings of 6th century BCE Prince Siddharta Gautama.

Central tenets include the endurance of suffering and the search for self enlightenment (Nirvana)

Includes belief of rebirth where indivual soul may be reincarnated several times before achieving enlightenment.

Followers required to embrace Four Noble Truths and follow Eightfold Path.

Major sub divisions of Buddhism include Theravada (south) and Mahayana (north)

Heian Japan (794-1185)

Named after the Imperial capitol city (modern day Kyoto)

Considered the last division of classical era in Japanese history.

Buddhism and Taoism introduced into Japan. Competes with and merges with indigenous Shinto religion.

Particularly known for its contributions to art and literature.

Imperial Court slowly loses control of government. Becomes puppet of Fujiwara clan (damiyo). They have themselves named the teachers of the emperors sons. They do this to become the power behind the throne.

Damiyo run provinces as their own little kingdoms for emperor. (They aid him by doing this)

Japanese Literature (990-1021)

990: The Pillow Book is published by Imperial consort Sei Shonagon.

Works consists of personal experiences and observances of life at the Japanese Court.

1021: World’s first novel, The Tale of Genji is published by Murasaka Shikibu.

Story centers of life of handsome Prince Genji’s romances and search for true love.

Shinto (2000 BCE-800 CE)

Refers to collection of legends, traditions and folk tales indigenous to Japan.

Begins with twin deities Izanagi and Izanami creating Japanese islands.

Features existence of Kami (spirits) that influence man and nature

Would be partially supplanted by Buddhism but not wholly replaced.

Does not require belief in Shinto to perform rites or rituals or to receive blessings.

Would remain major religion in Japan until present-day.

Decline of Imperial Rule and the rise of the Damiyo

1000: Increasing ineffectiveness of Imperial Court to maintain power leads to economy based on exchange of rice.

Power begins to be exercised by provincial lords (Damiyo) who controlled rice production.

Through marriage or regency appointments, Fujiwara clan is able to control imperial throne and emperors.

Fujiwara no Michinaga (966-1027) becomes grandfather to three emperors, father or grandfather to thirteen empresses or consorts.

Emperor Go-Sanjo (1068-1073) attempts to rule without Fujiwara advice, didn’t have the infrastructure to withstand

1158: Fujiwara clan loses power during struggle with rival Taira clan, which establishes first samurai dominated government.

Emperors and heirs can be replaced, by controlling the heirs you control the government.

Gempei War (1180-1185)

Fought between Taira and Minamoto clans.

Taira draw support from the control of the Imperial Court, while the Minamoto Yoritomo builds power base in Kamakura province.

April 25, 1185: Naval battle of Dano-Ura sees destruction of Taira clan at end of war. Emperor Antoku (7 years old) commits suicide by drowning rather than be taken prisoner. One of the few naval battles during its time. Every year on this day their ancestors go to a shrine and remember them.

Yoritomo assumes title of shogun (general) and relegates Imperial Court to de facto status. He is assumed by the court as a barbarian, and he assumes them as stuck-up and not real men.

Rules through military-style dictatorship called Bafaku (Tent government) and establishes feudal-style relationships with Damiyos. The Damiyo still serve the emperor but are answerable to the shogun. The shogun is only first amongst equals, he is still Damiyo. If he is weak or lazy or inefficient the other Damiyo will see it as their chance to seize power.

Damiyo serve at emperors wim, but the Damiyo control the land, so they can pretty much do what they want, the emperor-Damiyo relationship is mostly cosmetic.

Religion in China (600-479 BCE)

Laozi (600-400 BCE) Chinese philosopher who stressed harmony with nature and self-enlightment. Wrote Tao Te Ching (the classic way to truth) and is regarded as the founder of Daoism.

Confucius (551-479 BCE) Thinker and social philosopher during the spring and autumn period.

Emphasized harmony within society and importance of the individual’s obligations to parents, clan, family, and emperor. Needs of the individual come second to the needs of society.

Writes Analects (with his students?), which becomes the template for the “perfect” Chinese society. Becomes required study for generations of scholars and administrators.

The Mandate of Heaven

Chinese philosophy of rule dating from the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BCE)

Based on the tenet that the rule to rule derives from Heaven, which show their approval through good fortune for the nation.

As there is only one heaven, there can be one ruler. The ruler is expected to exercise wisdom and virtue.

The right to rule need not be limited to one dynasty and rebellion be justified by success.

The Mandate can not only legitimize a ruler, it can also legitimize his removal. Things like earthquakes and typhoons were seen as signs from the gods deeming the current ruler unfit. Mild winters and good harvests meant the Mandate was in the graces of the gods. The emperor is the Mandate, the emperor is the winner among everyone and this is so because it was believed that the gods helped him to win.

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

First ruler, emperor Taizu, with capitol at Kaifeng.

Ended internal strife of Ten Kingdoms period. He brings them together by force.

Rule divided into Northern (960-1127) and Southern (1127-1279) Periods.

Best known for social and scientific advancements.

Song Dynasty

Chinese military consolidated under trusted commanders answerable directly to the throne

Border units limited to three-year tours with commanders chosen by Bureau of Military Affairs

First Dynasty to establish standing navy featuring paddle-driven warships

Military control of provinces gives way to civilian merit-based bureaucracy

First to nationalize education

Examination System

Orignially established in 605 CE during Sui Dynasty

Consisted of various levels of examinations ranging from the local to Imperial court

Theoretically, exams open to all Chinese males regardless of class and birth. 10 hours of studying a day to move on to provincial court.

Curriculum limited to study and knowledge of Confucian philosophy and ethics. If there was a famine you would have to answer in relation to how Confucius would answer.

Degree of success in exams could lead to position in civil service or even Imperial court advisor. People would commit suicide because of the shame from failing.

If you were southern Chinese you didn’t speak Mandarin so to have to translate Analects in a language you don’t understand you just can’t do it. It was not unheard of for brilliant students to rise all the way to the top (such as counseling the emperor).

Song Dynasty Technology

Bi Sheng (990-1051) develops system of moveable type and printing. However, complexities of Chinese language (7000+ characters) and use of clay blocks makes system impracticable. System never really catches on because there are too many characters and clay blocks were too weak.

960: Song government introduces first paper currency. Economy flourishes, Chinese mercantile firmly established. Replaces metal, coins, etc. provides centralized government control of economy because they are who is allowed to print money. Fiat economy, the money is worth what they say it is, they can use this currency to jump start trade, technology, etc. leads to overall prosperity of economy.

Song military adopts gunpowder-based weapons. Gives brief, but major advantage over enemies.

1086: Scholar Su Song builds mechanical clock tower. They can now track time.

Network of canals speeds travel and commerce in central and south China. Connects major rivers and seas.

Introduction of improved rice grain leads to doubling of Chinese population to 100 million by 11 th century.

Decline of Song Power (1101-1127)

Jurchen tribes of eastern Manchuria unify and form Jin Dynasty.

1122: Emperor Huizong allys with Jin against tradition Khitan. Jin destroys Khitan, then turns and attacks Song.

1127: Jin sack Kaifeng. Emperor dies in captivity.

Emperor Gaozong withdraws south of Yangtze River and establishes Southern Song dynasty. New capitol established at city of Hangzhou. Dynasty revives and succeeds in halting Jin expansion using gunpowder weapons.

Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) is established in northern China. Captiol city Beijing, but soon faces new threat from Mongols.

Mongols

Nomadic peoples of Northern Central asia possibly related to the Xiongnu peoples (Great Wall).

Culture and society centered around horse.

Economy based on herding, trade, and raiding.

Also related to Jurchen and Kitian.

Established loose confederation of tribes governed by Kuriltai (tribal elders/council)

From Temujin to Ghengis Khan

Born in 1160’s, son of tribal chieftan killed by Tartar tribe. Harsh childhood, brief period as captive. He was a slave.

Builds allegiances with local tribes. Establishes reputation for cruel terror and military prowess. If you did him wrong at some point, he would eventually come back to get you. Those who enslaved him, any taller than an axel cart were beheaded. The tribe who killed his father was wiped out. He never forgets an enemy or a friend.

All but exterminates Tartar and Taichi’ut tribes (cart axle). Defeats friend and rival Jamuka. Jamuka ran away when he saw his army defeated. Two of his generals turned him over to Temujin believing it was in their best interest. Jamuka is saved because they are blood brothers, he saved Temujin’s wife’s honor and Temujin respects this. Jamuka realizes as they are both alive there will always be turmoil because they both want to lead so he wants to be put down without bloodshed. Temujin grants his wish and breaks his back.

Ignored traditional tribal and clan loyalties in favor of permanent military organizations. Wants his warriors to quit thinking in terms of clans and tribes, but as Mongols. He is creating the Mongol state by doing this, by uniting all into one.

1206: Temujin is elected Universal Ruler (Ghengis Khan) of all Mongols.

He observes all traditions which maintains his control of power.

Mongol Conquests begin

1206-1215: Mongols conquer Xia Kingdom

Ghengis Khan organizes nomadic tribes into standing military units up to 10,000 man Tuman. Promotions primarily merit-based.

Mixed generosity and atrocity to enhance Mongol military reputation.

Mongols invade eastern Asian nation of Khwarizm. Millions killed.

1223: Mongol expansion reach Persia, Ukraine, Crimea.

1227: Ghengis Khan dies of natural causes. Son Ogedei named successor.

Westward Mongol Conquests

1237: Mongols overrun Kingdoms of Georgia and Armenia. Invade and destroy Kievan Rus. Moscow and Novgorod submit.

1241: Mongols confront and destroy medieval Polish army. Advance continues into Hungary.

Mongol advance halts upon word of death of Ogedei Khan and new election.

European and Central Asian domains ruled by Golden Horde until 1500’s.

If you stop conquering then the Mongols will fall apart and just become Nomadic again so that’s why they’re always just taking shit over.

Mongols invade Middle East

1251: Mongols under command Hulagu (Ghengis Khan’s grandson) invade Persia, exterminate Assassin cult.

1258: Mongols destroy Baghdad and bring down Abbasid Caliphate. Millenia-old irrigation system devastated. Land quickly reverted to desert.

Crusader states form hasty treaty with Egyptian Mamluks.

1260: Mamluks halt Mongol advance at battle of Ain Jalut.

Mongols establish Il-Khanate in Persia. Convert to Islam. Would rule religion until 1353.

Mongol invasions credited with ending Arab and Seljuk Turkish empires. Prolong existence of Crusader and Byzantine states.

Mongols Conquer China

1234: Mongols complete destruction of Kin Dynasty, turn on Song.

1260 Kublai claims title of Great Khan. Refusal of brothers Kaidu and Hulegu to recognize claim leads to end of united Mongol Empire.

1271: Conquest of Song Dynasty completed. Kublai proclaims Yuan Dynasty. Adopts Chinese government and attire, but retains Mongols in overall control. Capitol established in Beijing.

Yuan conquests include Korea and Indochina. Attempt two invasions of Japan.

Yuan authorize extensive program of road and canal construction.

The Mongol Legacy “Pax Mongolica”

Mongol rule leads to a period of security and stability in Central Asia. The “Silk Road” of trade routes is reestablished and commerce between Europe and Asia resumes.

Silk, spices, paper, and gunpowder reaches Europe. Islamic science and technology spreads throughout Asia.

Roman Catholic missions established in Yuan Dynasty China and India.

Increased trade also allows spread of bubonic plague from Asia to Europe.

Disintegration of centralized Mongol state and outbreak of Black Death leads to collapse of overland trade, but would inspire search for sea route.

The Mongol Postscript: Tamerlane (1336-1405)

Warlord of Mongol Descent who conducted campaigns of conquest from his capitol of Samarkand.

Controversial figure who portrayed himself as faithful Muslim and devoted Mongol, but who attacked both. Grew up in the city unlike Ghengis Khan and so he likes palaces fine clothes etc.

Self-styled intellectual and philosopher who was famous for gruesome atrocities (skull pyramids) said to have built a 50000 stack of skulls. Had a great deal of respect for science and philosophy. While he raided and killed people in cities he would save all the scientists and philosophers and have discussions with them.

Realm stretches from India to Middle East.

Credited with reviving Central Asian culture at expense of neighbors.

“Tamerlane’s curse” – placed upon anyone who would violate his tomb. Said they would get a plague worse than him. The Russians opened it June 20th 1941 and two days later Nazi Germany invaded the soviet union for the first time which started a war that killed 22 million Russians. The body was returned two days before the victory at Stalingrad.

Japan during the Kamakura Shogunate (1185-1333)

Also referred to as “feudal Japan”

Authority exercised through military-style Bafuku (tent government) with emperor as powerless figurehead

1199: Minamoto Yoritomo dies and Shogunate comes under regency administered by Hojo clan

Pure land and Zen Buddhist movements established and gain popularity amongst peasants and warriors (samurai)

1221: Emperor Go-Toba attempts rebellion against Shogun but is defeated.

Daimyo

(Large land-owner) Provincial warlords ruling Japan from 12th-19th centuries.

Started around the 9th century as the nobles military heirlings to do their work for them while they were in court at the side of the emperor. After a long enough time they just eventually started to run the provinces. They run them through their own power with an occasional nod to the emperor.

Originally warriors administering provinces for Imperial Court. Later, ruling provinces in their own right.

Zen Buddhism

Sect of Buddhism introduced in Japan around 8th century.

Emphasis placed on meditation and individual experience over subordination to learned doctrine and instruction.

Popular amongst samurai for its austerity and search for clarity.

Mongol invasions of Japan (1274, 1280)

1274: After several attempts by Mongols to force Japanese submission. Yuan fleet of 800 ships and 23000 men (Majority Chinese and Korean) land on southern island of Kyushu

Samurai warfare was very ritualized but Mongols came in with different style. Because of this samurai warfare becomes more standardized.

Japanese frustrated by Mongol mass tactics and gunpowder weapons. However, ferocity of Japanese prevent Mongols from landing entire force.

Large typhoon scatters Mongol fleet and forces withdrawal of expedition.

Hojo Regency orders mobilization of all samurai and prepares for second invasion.

1280: Mongols return and attempt landing at Hakata Bay. However, coastal defenses and stiff Japanese resistance repel invaders.

Second typhoon destroys Mongol fleet killing est. 120,000.

Invasions seen as defining moment in Japanese history. Samurai gain in stature while Hojo authority is undetermined.

From Hojo to Ashikaga (1336-1573)

1331: Last Hojo regent falls and Emperor Go-Daigo begins brief period of direct rule.

1336: Shogun power reestablished under new class, the Ashikaga. However, all shoguns must be of Minamoto blood.

Bafuku retained, but centralized government is replaced by series of alliances between shogun and Daimyo.

Dispute between Hosokawa and Yamana clans escalates into eleven-year Onin war. Kyoto devastated.

Inability of Ashikaga to maintain order and peace encourages other clashes between Daimyo. Eventually leads to “Warring States” period.

Samurai

Meaning “one who serves,” warriors accepted by Daimyo.

Originally specialists in mounted archery, would become infantry by Mongol invaders.

Only individuals authorized to carry two swords (Daisho).

Those who weren’t accepted into service = Ronin. Even if t hey attained weapons etc. they were considered as nothing in Japanese society (beggers).

Later, would gain authority of summary capitol judgement. Meaning a samurai had the right to kill anyone who committed a crime. In reality, if the samurai takes the wrong person’s head (one valuable to the Daimyo) he would have to take his own life in return.

Traditional pay for samurai one koku (180 liters) or rice. Often would be granted land in lieu of rice. When the Daimyo didn’t have enough rice to give to all the samurai they needed they granted them land instead.

Samurai’s are hired swords, they are not the knights the West thinks they are. They are supposed to serve who they are under until death. They are known to turn their backs when they receive a better deal.

Samurai Weapons

Katana: Single-edged curved sword between 23-27 inches long.

Developed using “folding steel” technique. Smiths would take a layer of steel and fold it back upon itself. Katana’s could resembles hundreds of thousands of layers of folding, result = very light but very strong sword.

Wakazashi: 20 inches long short sword paired with Katana. Considered “honor sword”, is never removed.

Samurai also expected to be expert with pole-arm (naginata) mounted archery (Yabusame) and later Westrern Arquebus.

Enemies of the Samurai

Ronin: (wave-men) warriors not bound in services. Often survived through banditry or as mercenaries.

Ikko-Ichi: (single-minded) loosely organized mobs of disaffected peasants, priests, and Ronin. Siezed control of Kaga and Mikawa provinces in 15th century.

Sohei: Warrior monks of Pure Land Sect. Formed private armies and warred against other temples and Bafuku. 40 years of survival

Sengoku (Warring States) 1467-1573

Period of civil and political unrest brought on by increase of trade and declining power of Shogun.

Features conflicts between Daimyo for land, wealth, and prestige.

Begins with Onin war (1467-1477) as factions struggle over control of Shogunal heir.

One-on-one samurai duels give way to set-piece, large-scale battles.

First use of professionally-trained peasant infantry (Ashigaru).

Also involves uprisings by clashes with Sohei and Ikko-ichi.

Post-1500’s contract with Europeans bring introduction of firearms.

The ashigaru are equipped with muskets as soon as Japan discovers how to manufacture their own. This is dangerous because they can now kill the samurai at a distance.

Ninja

Modern-day term given to legendary of spies and assassins. Thought to have been created in the last two centuries.

Most likely based on Daimyo employment of covert agents during 15th-17th centuries.

Supposedly used weapons taken from common usage such as Kusarigama.

Most “knowledge” from popular culture. Extremely scanty historical evidence to suggest existence.

Battle for Kwanakajima (1153-1164)

Series of five battle fought between Daimyo Takeda Shingen and Uesuji Kenshin for control of Kwanakajima River.

Fourth battle best known for one-on-one fight between lords.

Struggle ultimately a draw, but remains legendary in Japanese history.

Is said that Takeda fended off 7 blows from Uesuji’s katana when he broke his line into his headquarters.

Respect: Shingen is running out of salt and Kenshin sends him more saying “wars are fought with swords not salt”

Oda Nobunaga 1534-1582

Began as samurai who overthrew his lord (Gekokujo)

Defeated rivals by equipping Ashigaru with western muskets.

1571: Defeated and destroyed Ikko-ichi and Sohei in separate campaigns. Eventually exercised control over one-third of Japan.

Encouraged development of manufacture and trade. Patronized tea ceremony and Kabuki theater.

1582: Betrayed by lieutenant forced to commit seppuku (so he wouldn’t have the shame of defeat, seppuku=suicide). Lieutenant let him have safe passage through his lands then turned his back on him and attacked.

Toyotomi Hideoyoshi (1536-1598)

Peasant-born and is an orphan, began career as Nobunaga’s sandal carrier. Eventually become a general.

Reunited Oda clan after death of Nobunaga. Completed conquest of Japan and ended Segoku Period in 1590.

Unable to assume shogun, Hideoyoshi was instead named Kampaku (regent) to child shogun. He unites Japan for the first time in 100 years, named monkey because of how ugly he was all his life.

Hideyoshi in charge (1588-1598)

1588: Orders “sword hunt” confiscating all swords held by non-samurai.

Establishes rigid division of Japanese society into Noble, Samurai, Peasant, and Merchant classes. Forbids samurai from owning land. There is to be no elevation from one class to another despite his own case.

Patronizes tea ceremony.

1592: Assumes title of Taiko (retired regent) but desires legacy-establishing accomplishment. Uniting Japan isn’t enough because it was the plan laid out by Nobunaga and all he did was carry it out. Launches invasion of Asia.

Japanese invasions of Korea

First began in 1592. Approximately 200,000 Japanese involved.

Japanese succeed in capturing Korean capitol, but attract the intervention of the Ming Dynasty. The Japanese were not natural mariners. They’re navy consisted of any merchant ships they had armed with samurai. Samurai couldn’t get near turtle ships because near the mouth of the dragon on the ships there was a flamethrower and spikes on top of the ship so no one could board it.

Japanese sea communications subjected to constant harassment by Korean “turtle ships”

Japanese withdraw in 1593.

Second invasion launched in 1597. Ended with Hideoyoshi’s death in 1598.

Tokugawa Iyeasu (1543-1616)

Son of Daimyo, served Oda Nobunaga, allied to Toyotomi Hideoyoshi.

Named one of five Regents to watch over Toyotomi’s son. Instead, power struggle ensues after Hideoyoshi’s death.

Builds alliance with other eastern Daimyo. Secures support of child shogun. They were split into east and west factions.

October 21, 1600: Battle of Sekigahara ends in Tokugawa victory. Tokugawa not of Minamoto descent, gets around this by being adopted into the Minamoto clan (honors the tradition). Wins the battle by having one of the generals switch sides in the middle of the battle (bribes him).

1603: formally named shogun. Clan would remain in power until 1868.

END OF TEST 1 NOTES

The life and legend of Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645)

Famous swordsman and duelist. Supposedly won 60 duels starting from age 13.

Mastered variety of weapons. Notorious for using “tricks” in gaining the advantage. Didn’t want to serve under a Daimyo. One trick he would use would be to set a time to fight and then he would show up late which would enrage his adversary which would cause a greater chance of a mistake. He fought an opponent with a stick once as well which meant he thought he wasn’t on his level. He agreed to fight a man on an island in a lake and just left him there because he thought he was below his level.

Twice fought against Tokugawa forces and lost yet lived.

Studied Zen Buddhism. Incorporated it into his fighting style. He doesn’t really see killing a guy as proving a point, just keeping his reputation in tact.

1643: Begins writing Go Rin No Sho (Book of Five Rings) on weapons, strategy, philosophy.

Regarded as quintessential samurai but spent most of his life not in service.

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

Replaced Yuan Dynasty. Last dynasty ruled by native Han. (native Chinese)

Founded by peasant-born Zhu Yuanzhang who led rebel Red Turban movement. Defeated Yuan and took the name Hongwu (vastly martial aka great general) Emperor and began Ming (brilliant) Dynasty. Ming dynasty known for its military prowess and ability. Unify all of China.

1368 he took over and began the Son appointed by the gods.

Ming Reforms

Emperor Hongwu instituted land reforms and encouraged peasant ownership of land.

Reduced the number and role of eunuchs at Court. Expanded size of military to million-plus.

Hated scholars and philosophers. Only scholar he ever liked was one who impressed him by manning up (walked up and criticized him which thought would lead to his death so he brought a coffin)

Ruthlessly suppressed dissent and criticism. Especially suspicious of scholars and merchants.

Developed comprehensive legal code.

To be a eunuch you have to be castrated. Reason being is because there main job was to protect the imperial wives (queen/s)

Zhang He (1371-1435)

Ming Dynasty mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral.

Persian by birth, practiced Islam, castrated and entered Imperial service as eunuch.

1405: Selected by Yongle Emperor to undertake voyages of exploration and diplomacy.

Would undertake seven known voyages, sailing to Indonesia, Middle East, India, and the eastern coast of Africa.

Ming “Treasure Ships”

Primary ships of Zheng He’s voyages.

416 feet long by 170 feet wide, ships featured multiple masts, watertight compartments and displaced 1500-2000 tons.

Expeditions consisted of 62 treasure ships and 190 smaller support ships.

Largest wooden ships ever built.

Voyages end

1435: Zhang He dies while on seventh boyage and is buried at sea.

New Emperor Zhengtong (8 years old) is persuaded by traditionalist faction to end voyages and sever all contact with the outside world. Eunuch’s tell him these voyages are a waste of time, (making contact with inferior people, why do that?) Not Chinese = barbarian

China enters period of self-isolation. Lasts until 19th century.

European Transition

Avignon Papacy

1305: French-born Pope Clement V relocates Papacy from Rome to Avignon. Forms close alliance with French King Philip IV and assumes appearance of secular wealth.

1378: Pope Gregory XI returns papacy to Rome. French Cardinals remain at Avignon and elect separate Pope. Each excommunicate the other.

1415: Schism finally ends with election of Martin V at Council of Constance.

Papacy seen as political and secular, undermining confidence and creditability with faithful. People now openly question “Is this really what God wants?”

The Hundred Years War Phase I (1337-1389)

Who gets the french throne, Edward III or Phillip IV (this is what started the war)

Was really 124 years long

Salic law says descent cant be traced through the female so his claim is bullshit.

Taking advantage of turmoil in France, English King Edward III asserts his claim.

Really into battle because it shows class levels. Knights lead in society and they are supposed to lead on the battlefield.

26 August 1346: English win crushing victory over the French at the Battle of Crecy. French outnumbered them something like 3 to 1.

Battle seen as beginning of end of medieval warfare.

1356: French again defeated at Battle of Poitiers. French King John II taken prisoner. John dies in captivity because the French nation is so poor it cannot afford to pay his ransom.

1360: Treaty of Bretigny temporarily ends war with Britain controlling half of France.

1361-1389: France resurges and recaptures some territory before truce declared.

Black Death (1348-1350)

Microbes on the fleas on the rats that transmitted the plague

Name given to series of plagues spreading throughout Western and southern Europe

Plague originates in Asia. Spreads via trade routes to Italy, France

Most common form, Bubonic plague

Estimated 45-50% of European population perished during plague. Estimated death toll world-wide 75-200 million

Political, Economic, and Social Impact of Plague

Attempts by superstitious peasants to defeat plague lead to attempts to wipe out cats, Jews, witches

Church temporarily discredited. Local cults of self-flagellants form

Trade collapses. Lack of workers trigger crop failures and runaway infiltration prices

Plague becomes backdrop for literary classics such as Decameron and Divine Comedy

Although scenes of greatest fatalities, towns gain new importance in medieval society

Decimation of peasant class leads to high demand for laborers and of social rules and strictures

Outbreaks of plague reoccur until late 18th century

Hundred Years War: Phase II

1415: English King Henry V renews claim on French throne. Invades country

Fields were very muddy, when horses couldn’t move and knights fell off in 80 pounds of armor it was a little heard for them to move. English claim they will cut the three middle fingers of all bowmen they capture because those are the fingers they use to pull the bowstring back. This eventually turned into the middle finger.

25 October 1415: Henry inflicts catastrophic defeat on French Battle of Agincourt

1420: Henry recognized as heir to French throne, but dies in 1422

1428: Jeanne d’Arc (Joan of Arc) inspires French to victory at Orleans and shifts war back in French favor. Joan later captured and executed by English

1453: French win Battle of Castillon, last engagement of war. Also first use of artillery

Wars end with France in control of all nation except Calais

France united, England in civil war

Wars of the Roses (1455-1485)

Struggle for power between the English Royal Houses of York (white rose) and Lancaster (red rose)

Triggering events include loss of Hundred Years War and increasing mental instability of King Henry VI (Lancaster)

1461: York gains upper hand, names Edward the IV King.

1483: Edward’s dies, leaving throne to 12-year old son. Brother Richard named Regent

The two brothers were supposedly kept in a tower to be safe then they were never seen again. Supposedly their uncle killed them so he could take the throne.

Edward V’s sudden death allows uncle to be named King Richard III

Revolt by English nobles leads to 1485 Battle of Bosworth Field

Richard is killed and Henry Tudor becomes King Henry VII, their rose was pink (mix of both houses)

Rise of the Italian City-States

Includes Genoa, Milan, Siena, Pisa, Florence, and Venice

Because of relative isolation created by terrain, cities were generally able to escape conquest and develop independently.

Economy based on trade and commerce

Large populations suffered through plague, but recovered quickly

Became centers of education and culture

Humanism (14th-15th centuries)

Late 13th century philosophic movement that sought to separate human identity from religious dogma

Began amongst city-states of Northern Italy. Genoa and Venice

Sought to incorporate Greek classic directly into medieval society without “filter” of scholasticism. Particularly favored Epicurean philosophy (if it feels good do it, it was about enjoying life, the church said the only purpose of life was to praise god then die)

Although technically at odds with Christian church, many church leaders were humanists

Emphasized placed on development rather than technique

Petrarch (1304-1374)

Born Francesco Petrarcha. One-time priest, specialized in collecting ancient Latin manuscripts

Credited with coining term “Dark Ages”

1327: Chance encounter in church courtyard inspires Petrarch to begin writing poems to mysterious “Laura”

Later collected into Il Canonziere (song book). Emphasis on passion rather than romance, emotional rather than ideal, “courtly love”

Traditionally regarded as “Father of Humanism.” (how much more humanistic can you get rather than talking about love, never got the girl though) Credited in inspiring Italian Renaissance of 15 th century

English Humanist Thinkers

Roger Bacon: (1214-1294) English-born Franciscan priest who rejected Church-sanctioned scholastic ideal in favor of experimentation and experience. Suggested that the Bible was not above interpretation and criticism. Conducted important work in mathematics, science, and technology (microscopes, steam power). Died from seeing how long someone could last in icy water, he got in an icy lake caught cold and died

William of Occam (1288-1348) Famous for his “razor” dealt with application of direct reasoning to problems and pioneered nominalism

John Wycliffe (1320-1384) English lay preacher and church critic. Founded Lollard anti-cleric movement. Most famous for translating Latin Vulgate into English.

Condemned by church for supporting royal authority over papal. Declared heretic after death, remains ordered exhumed, convicted, burned.

Gutenberg’s “revolution”

Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468) German-born goldsmith and tradesmen

Movable type: System of printing that uses moveable components to reproduce documents. First developed in China in 11th century, probably came to Europe via trade routes

1439: Gutenberg develops printing press using metal type faces

1454-5: Gutenberg produces first printed bibles. Estimated 180 copies produced.

Printing technology spreads, greatly increasing spread of information and knowledge. Intrumental in Renaissance and Reformation

Fall of Constantinople (1453)

Since 4th crusade they were always in a decline

Fall of Byzantine Empire is last connection to the ancient glories of Rome

By early 15th century, Byzantine Empire is limited to city of Constantinople and colonies in Aegean and Black seas

Had 1 million people, now in 1453 it was a tenth of that

1451: Turkish Sultan Mehmed II begins preparations to besiege city. Appeal by Emperor Constantine IX for help from the west meets with indifference

1453: Turkish city of 200,000 launches first attacks on city defenders 7000 strong

Triple walls of city resist storming attempts, but prove vulnerable to Turkish cannon fire

May: Turkish warhips seize Golden Horn. Complete encirclement of city

May 29th 1453: City falls to Turks and is subjected to terrible sack

Eastern Europe now open to Turkish expansion, but flow to refugees to Italy bring ancient Greek works and books. Helps fuel renaissance

Fall of city and trade routes prompt Western Europe to seek ocean route to Asia

The origins of portugese exploration

1139: Portugal is freed from muslim occupation and establishes independence

Prince henry the navigator (1394-1460) majors major sponsor of voyages of exploration and conquest

Development of new methods of ship design and construction leads to development of ocean-going vessels like the caravel

1427: Portugal establishments on azores islands and continues to explore African coast

1460: Portugal establishes outposts in gulf of guinea. Trade in gold, ivory, sugar and slaves

Reaching the indies (1460-1497)

Spice islands: another name for east indies. Source for spices such as nutmeg, cloves, mace, pepper. Used for preserving and flavoring meat.

1488: bartolomeu dias passes cape of good hope and enters Indian ocean, but is forced by crew to turn back.

1497- vasco d agama reaches Indian coast and establishes trade outposts at Goa and Calicut

The Reconquista ends and the inquisition begins

1469: queen Isabella of castile and king Ferdinand of Aragon marry, unifying the two largest Christian kingdoms in Spain

1480: the Spanish inquisition targets Jews and Muslim converts to Christianity (converses) and try them as spies

Anto de fe “act of faith” public penance for condemned heretics and apostates

1492: reconquista ends with seizure of last moslem city in Spain, Granada

1492: crown orders all Jews to leave Spain

Christopher Columbus goes sailing

1485: Genoese-born Chrisoforo Columbo approaches Portuguese Crown asking for financing of voyage to Asia by sailing west. Rejected.

Believes that Japan is 2400 miles from Canary Islands.

Eventually financed by Spanish Crown

12 Oct. 1492: Reaches island he names San Christobal in West Indies

European colonization conquest of N. and S. America begins

Dividing the world: the treaty of tordesillas

Continuing exploration and colonization by both Portugal and Spain raises concerns of competing claims and conflicts of interest

Pope Alexander VI mediates negotiations

1494: treaty of tordesillas decrees all lands west and south of canary islands belongs to Spain, while eastern lands belong to Portugal

1506: Portugal successfully appeals to have line moved further west, placing brazil under their control

Treaty provisions ignored by rest of Europe

The age of the conquistador (15th-18th centuries)

Conquistador: term given to Spanish soldiers who explored, discovered and conquered Americas for the Spanish crown

Inspired by reconquista. Motivated by personal ambition, wealth, religious zeal

Often privately funded and organized

Advantages included: steel weapons, muskets, horses, war dogs

The fall of Mesoamerica

1519: Herman Cortes leads expedition of 530 soldiers on Aztec empire. Forms alliance with Tlaxcala people.

After bloody series of battles, Cortes takes control of Aztec capitol and conquers populace.

1532: Francisco Pizzaro leads expedition into South America against Incan Empire

Takes advantage of local dynastic struggle and civil unrest

Despite filling three 22x17 ft rooms with gold and silver, Pizzaro has emperor Atahualpa garroted

The real conqueror: disease

European diseases introduced by explorers and conquistadors: Cholera, Typhus, smallpox, Bubonic Plague, Typhoid, measles, chicken pox, malaria

Indigenous populations had no resistance to diseases. Estimates of population loss range from 50-80% in century following first contact

The Columbian exchange

From Europe to America

Bees,cats,cattle,sheep,chickens,goats,geese,horses,rabbits,pigs

Almonds,apples,apricots,bananas,beets,cabbage,carrots,coffee,citrus,garlic,hemp,lettuce,mango,oats,olives,onions,peach,pears,rye,sugarcane,tea,wheat,watermelon

From America to Europe

Alpaca, guinea pigs, turkeys

Avocado, cahews,chili peppers, cocoa, cotton, papaya, peanut, pecan, pineapple, potato, pumpkin, rubber, strawberries, tobacco

Would trigger massive population expansion in Europe from 17th-until 19th centuries.

The Encomienda and bartolome de las casas

Encomienda: quasi-feudal system of land and labor management in which Spanish colonists are given land and specified number of natives as laborers

Frequently abused as natives were subject to exploitative, brutal treatment

Bartolome de las casas (1484-1566): Dominican priest who exposed the cruelties of the encomienda and attacked the enslavement of Christian natives

1552: de las casas publishes A short account of the destruction of the indes. Is instrumental in ending the encomienda

De las casas is himself criticized for advocating the importation of African slaves.

Atlantic slave trade (1502-1860’s)

Introduced to provide workers for plantations and mines

Primary source of captives West African. Often sold by Africans or Arabs

Main transporters English and Dutch

Est. 8-12 million forcibly transported along “triangle route” of Europe/Africa/Americas

Italian Renaissance

Regarded as opening phase of renaissance that sweeps across Europe

Centered in Northern Italian cities, although effects also felt in Rome

Based on rediscovery and interpretation of ancient Greek and Latin works

Championed and patronized by wealthy Italian nobles such as Lorenzo de Medici (the magnificent)

Primarily known for its cultural achievements

Impact of Renaissance (con’t)

Architecture: Movement towards grand, but open and light filled structures. Heavy use made of Greek columns and Roman arches

Renaissance music moved away from strictly religious themes and masses. First concertos and operas composed

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

Native of Florence, Italy. Sought patronage from Medici family

The Prince (written 1513, published 1532) describes various means of ruling a state and that the first goal of a ruler is to promote stability and security

Dedicated to Lorenzo de Medici, Machiavelli uses Cesare Borgia as model of “ideal prince”

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)

Born in Tuscany, patronized by Medici family

Specialized in sculptures like Pieta, David

Also painted frescoes of Sistine Chapel, designed dome of St. Peter’s Basilica

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Born illegitimate, worked in Rome, Bologna, and Venice. Spent his final days in Paris

Intensely curious, dabbled in medicine, engineering, painting, sculpture, optics, anatomy

Among most famous works, 1490’s fresco The Last Supper

Came up with ideas for things like helicopters airplanes submarines

Fillipo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)

Regarded as one of the foremost engineers and architects of the Renaissance

All his works located in Florence

Best known for his dome of Santa Maria del Fiore

Renaissance Warfare

Shift from feudal levies and mounted knights to professional infantrymen

Condottieri: Private mercenaries armies hired by rulers to fight for them

Firearms and cannon prompt development of new style of fortification: Trace Italienne (star fort)

This fort limits noble authority because it is the best type of defense which no one can afford but a king and this eventually brings Europe to a centralized state

Renaissance Popes

More concerned with securing political power then religious affairs

Papacy plagued by scandals: Nepotism, Bribery, Adultery, Abuse of power

Popes also great patrons of Renaissance artists and writers

Indulgences and the Papacy

Indulgence: Church certificate confirming full or partial remission of sins

In theory only to be issued after confession and penance

During middle ages, indulgences were sold in order to raise funds (St. Peter’s Basilica)

Sale of indulgences (real and fraudulent) became source of criticism both within and without church (Martin Luther)

Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498)

Domincan priest, became ruler of Florence after overthrow of Medici family

Ultra-conservative, opposed Renaissance, predicted end of the world and God’s judgment on city

1497: Ordered “Bonfire of the Vanities” confiscation and burning of mirrors, combs, chess pieces, artwork, cosmetics, dresses etc.

Quarreled with Pope Alexander VI

1498: Arrested, tortured, convicted of Hearsay. Executed by immolation (burned to death on the very bonfire he started)

Jan Hus and the Hussite Wars

Inspired by philosophies of John Wycliffe, Czech priest Jan Hus criticizes Catholic church for its corruption and opulence

1415: Hus is tricked into attending Council of Constance. Is convicted of heresy and sentenced to death by burning

1420-1431: Rebellion by followers of Hus (Hussites) in Bohemia resist five papal crusades before submitting

First European use of hand-held gunpowder weapons

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Born into German middle-class. Rejected career as lawyer in favor of the priesthood

Criticizes church for its opulence, sale of indulgences and involvement in secular politics

October 31st 1517: Nails list of 95 theses to door of Wurttemberg church. Also distributes Theses (in German) to populace

1521: Luther is summoned to Diet of Worms to be judged by Emperor Charles V. Luther refuses to recant and is condemned as a heretic

While in hiding, produces German version of bible and organizes new church

The Reformation spreads

1529: Luther formally calls for reformation and creation of new church. Is supported by humanists and some German nobles

New protestant denominations include Anabaptists, Calvinism, Anglicanism, and others

Anabaptists didn’t believe in baptizing newborns because they yet have the knowledge on whether they want to become a Christian or not

What they all share is that there is no central leader, no equivalent to a pope

It is not necessary to go through the Church to talk to God, only for advice and for help down your path

Struggles between Protestants and Catholics would trigger Thirty Years War (1618-1648) that devastated central Europe

King Henry VII of England

Ruled 1509-1547

Considered chasimatic and dynamic figure. Credited with establishing Royal Navy

Most famous for his six marriages and leading the English Reformation

He was never supposed to be king in first place, it was supposed to be his brother Arthur. At 17, Arthur dies, he inherits crown and wife

English Reformation (1531)

Triggered by Pope Clement VII’s refusal to grant Henry’s request for an annulment with Catherine of Aragon

King demands that Church of England recognize him as head of the church and supreme authority over both spiritual and secular matters. Church yields without comment

In response to 1538 excommunication, Henry moves to dissolve all monasteries in Britain. Proceeds from sales apply to Royal Debt.

“New” Church of England remarkably similar to Catholic Church. Nevertheless, becomes first example of “nationalized religion”

Henry claimed to be Catholic till his last breath, he said he didn’t leave the Catholic Church but that it left him

Six wives of Henry VII

Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) Spanish princess originally married to Henry’s brother. Marriage annulled 1533. One daughter Mary I

Anne Boleyn (1507-1536) Was queen from 1533-1536. Produced one daughter (Elizabeth I) but no sons. Would be accused and convicted of adultery and executed. Not with an axe but a sword. Supposed adultery with a married man her brother her father

Jane Seymour (1508-1537) Was queen for one year, produced one son (Edward) but died of post-natal complications

Anne of Cleves (1515-1557) marriage annulled after less than five months.

Catherine Howard (1521-1542) married sixteen months before being convicted of treason then executed

Catherine Parr (1512-1548) Last of Henry’s wives. Reigned four years before King’s death

Scientific Revolution (15th-18th centuries)

Period of new discoveries and methodologies partially based on Greek texts

Employed empiric approach of observation and experiment

Would lead to heliocentricism, planetary movement and gravitation

Geocentric Model (2nd-15th centuries CE)

Proposed by Aristotle and Claudius Ptolemy, adopted by Catholic Church

Assumes that earth was at the center of the cosmos with all other bodies orbiting around it

By 15th century questions arise concerning movement of Mars, Venus

Model still used in modern astrology

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

Born in Pland, earned Doctorate degree in Canon law

Developed helio-centric (sun-centered) theory of solar system, contrary to Church’s geo-centric model

Feared persecution by church, withheld publication of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the revolution of the heavenly spheres) until after death

Criticized for suggesting that orbits were perfectly spherical

Follow-up to Copernicus

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Danish astronomer

Disagreed with helio-centric view and offered geo-centric model that incorporated elements of the Copernican model. Tutored Kepler

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) modified Copernican model by proposing all orbits were elliptical

Developed three rules of Planetary Motion. Lays groundwork for Newton and Scientific Revolution

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Born in Pisa, taught geometrics, astronomy and mechanics at University of Padua

Introduced methods of experiment and observation in answering questions on motion and gravity

1610: Developed improved model of telescopes and makes observations of cosmos. Discovered moons orbiting Jupiter

1632: Called before Pope to recant his own writings or risk trial by inquisition. Submits, sentenced to house arrest

Spent last 5 years in house arrest, his writings were banned by church

Early Enlightenment Thinkers

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) French mathematician, philosopher and physicist. Founded analytical philosophy

Championed deduction as correct means of deducing truth and definition of human identity. (Wax experiment) Coined phrase Cogito Ergo Sum(I think therefore I am) what defines a human is his ability to think/reason

Isaac Newton (1643-1727) English physicist, mathematician, and scientist. Co-created calculus

Developed three universal laws of motion and scientific method of theory/experiment/observation/proof

Also Christian scholar. Believed in God, but rejected Trinity and divinity of Christ (didn’t believe Christ was the son of god)

END OF TEST 2 NOTES 1400-1700

The Enlightenment (1637-1805)

Less an specific philosophy than a new means of approaching different philosophies and ways of thinking.

Distained tradition and precedent in favor of critical inquiry and scientific rationality. Fond of “natural” solutions

Begins in western and northern Europe but spreads across continent and Atlantic Ocean

Typical enlightenment scholar was middle-class, wealthy, educated, but saw Enlightenment as accessible to all. Maintained generally optimistic view of humans and humanity

Many scholars were critical of the Church and religion, but supported monarchial rule “Enlightened Despots”

Beginning and end dates debatable

Thomas Hobbes and Leviathan

Hobbes (1588-1679) Supporter of King Charles I

In Leviathan (1651) Hobbes theorizes that the state (leviathan) is comprised of individuals who exchange freedom for security

The authority of the sovereign must be absolute, but is guided by the welfare of the people

The state must exist lest society degenerate into anarchy. Man in his natural state leads lives that are “nasty, brutal, and short”

Establishes base of what will become social contract theory

The Glorious Revolution and John Locke

1688: Catholic King James II is deposed in bloodless “Glorious Revolution” Dutch Elector William III invited to co-rule along with wife Mary-Stuart

Locke (1632-1704): Supported revolution removal of James

William’s wife Mary is the sister of James. Parliament brings him in to be king because he is protestant

James goes into exile in France still claiming to be King, William reigns but does not rule

1689: Publishes Two Treatises on Government. Builds on social contract theory (picks up where Hobbes left off), but states that royal authority is subject to the will of the people, who have the right to remove government that is inefficient, corrupt, or tyrannical. The people can rule out their government

Establishes fundamental rights of “life, liberty, and property” Franklin copied this to the tee, replaced one part with pursuit of happiness

Major influence on American philosophers such as Addams, Franklin, Jefferson

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

Written by Locke. Attempted to address foundation of human knowledge and understanding

Thesis was all are born with a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) and that all ideas are based on experience. Rejects notion of social class and birth

Considered important work in empirical philosophy and fundamental human equality

Contradicted by Locke’s involvement in slave trade (investor) said he never meant to include Africans, that they aren’t human

Later English Philosophers

Adam Smith (1723-1790) Developed theory of capitalism and “Laissez-faire economics” in his Wealth of Nations (1776) He says its up to you to get unlimited amount of toys, best to have everyone act in their own self interest, everyone wants to be rich so let them, best thing government can do is keep out of it, he doesn’t address that people acting in their own self interest limit others because they cut them off

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) Political moderate who supported American Revolution, but opposed French Revolution. Considered father of conservatism

Thomas Paine (1731-1809): English-born writer who migrated to America and promoted Revolution through pamphlets like Common Sense and American Crisis

France, the Enlightenment, and the Philosophies

Philosophies: French intellectuals who supported enlightenment

Addressed wide variety of interests from art and literary criticism to political and economic progressivism

Generally supported royal authority and opposed feudal system and organized religion

Often met in public salons to debate issues of the day

1751-1772: Philosophies Denis Diderot and Jean Rond’Alembert edit 35-volume Le Encyclopedie, a comprehensive collection of information written by French Enlightenment thinkers

The Storming of the Bastille

High unemployment and food prices LEAVE Paris overrun with starving and jobless

July 11th: Louis fires popular Finance Minister Joseph Necker

Stories of King’s attempts to shut down National Assembly leads to street riots. Supported by Paris Guard

Bastille: Fortress/prison/armory located in middle of Paris

July 14th: Mob storms Bastille after several hours fighting. Liberates seven prisoners and thousands of muskets

July 17th: Louis XVI visits Paris and accedes to mob demands. Necker is restored and Louis dons the revolutionary cockade

Throughout the Revolution if Louis had held a strong hand to things, things would have been different. In public he says he supports the Revolution but behind the scenes he tries to resist it and his character isn’t strong enough to do this

The Revolution Continues

August 27th 1789: French National Assembly approves Declaration of the Rights of Man (no women). Includes guarantees of freedom of speech, press, religion, and property are included. Feudalism abolished

Thousands of French nobles flee the country and become émigrés

October 5th: Thousands of French women march on Versailles demanding lower of food prices and that the King return to Paris under protection of National Guards

The Catholic Church is systematically stripped of its protected status. Church lands are confiscated and auctioned

July 12th 1790: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed, placing the Church under government control and authority

The Revolution: Phase II

Political factions begin to form within assembly. The Jacobin Club gains wide-spread popularity throughout the nation

Louis XVI becomes increasingly resistant to further reforms and lessening of royal power

June 20th 1791: King and family attempt to flee France in Flight to Varennes. Caught, they are returned to Paris and placed under detention. Louis credibility shot because of this betrayal

August 27th 1791: Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and Prussian King Frederick Wilhelm II issue Declaration of Pillnitz, calling on the restoration of Louis XVI as absolute monarch or risk intervention

National Guards placed on war footing

The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

Inspired by France’s adoption of Declaration of Rights of Man, free blacks in colony of Haiti began demanding citizenship and right to vote

1791: 100,000 African slaves rise up in revolt. Seize 1/3 of the colony and kill some 4,000 Europeans

French troops sent to quell revolt are decimated by disease. Approx. 100,000 slaves and 24,000 Europeans perish

1801: Rebel leader Toussiant L’Overture declares Haiti independent

First example of successful slave revolt

French Revolutionary Army

1791: Threat of foreign invasion prompt development of Republican Army. Based on Royal Army, but weakened by loss of noble-born officer corps.

Troops highly motivated, but poorly equipped and trained

Army reorganized into demi-brigades of one Regular and two volunteer regiments

August 20th 1972: French Army confronts invading Prussians at Battle of Valmy. Prussians retreat after massive cannonade

Many opportunities for common-born soldiers to advance in rank and leadership based on ability

Missing Thursday and Wednesday

Napoleon’s Egyptian Campaign (1798)

Napoleon leads 45,000 man Armee l’Orient to Egypt for possible move on Brtish India

Accompanying Napoleon are 100 scientists, archeologists, linguists, and historians. Begins study of Egyptology

July 21st: Napoleon decisively defeats Mameluk army at Battle of Pyramids

French soldiers become rich “fishing for Mameluks”

Among French discoveries is the Rosetta Stone, which becomes the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs

Napoleon loved to read, brought his private library on campaign 100 book deeps, played cards in his spare time and won every time because he cheated blatantly he’d always give the money back cause it was only about winning, taught himself Arabic and read the Qur’an

The Battle of the Nile (August 1st 1798)

French fleet of 13 sail-of-the-line versus British fleet of 13 SOL’s commanded by Nelson

French ships caught at anchor with much of their crew ashore

British envelop French line and engage on both sides

Battle climaxes at 10pm with explosion of French flagship L’Orient

Two French ships sunk, nine captured. Napoleon and his army marooned in Egypt

Sailors of his flagship HMS Vanguard, souvenir coffin made from the wood of the French ships

Nelson’s “Band of Brothers” and Emma Hamilton

Term popularly given to ship captains serving under Nelson during Nile campaign

All of them except two would become Nelson’s rank

Would be taken into Nelson’s confidence and included in his tactical planning. All but two would reach flag rank

Term since applied to any group of close-knit soldiers

Emma Hamilton (1761-1815): Wife of 67-year old British envoy Sir William Hamilton. Becomes mistress of married Horatio Nelson. Would delve in Italian politics and ignore sea duties

Would return with Hamilton’s to England. Emma becomes pregnant and delivers a daughter, Horaitia.

Scandal almost wrecks Nelson’s career

Leaves his wife so quick because he’s all about emotion and Emma is too

Napoleon Returns

Napoleon transforms warfare into a struggle between nations (gunpowder, napoleon, atomic bomb)

August 1799: While still in Egypt, Napoleon learns of new French defeats and declining fortunes. Abandons army and returns to Europe

November 9th: Napoleon enters into conspiracy to overthrow Directory and replace it with three-man Consulate led by Napoleon. Results ratified by popular vote 99.9%

Takes command of Army of Italy and defeats Austrians at Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800)

Systematically eases out other consul members. Assumes dictatorial powers as Consul for Life

The British Blockade and “Neutral’s Rights”

Blockade: Closure of French and allied ports by Royal Navy

Ships discovered entering or leaving blockaded port or carrying prohibited goods subject to confiscation

Blockade policy challenged by neutral nations such as Denmark and US. Claim “neutral’s right to trade.”

French privateers and frigates also prey on British and neutral shipping

The Battle of Copenhagen (April 1801)

Battle prompted by Denmark’s refusal to abide by British blockade rules and jointing the anti-British League of the Armed Neutrality

April 2nd: Nelson leads 12 sail-of-the-line against collection of Danish anchored warships, gun and land batteries

S named second-in-command of fleet sent for force Denmark’s submission

April 2nd: Nelson lead Negotiates Concordat of 1801, restoring Catholic Church to France, but placing church personnel under French authority

1:30 pm: Panic stricken British commander hoists command signal to withdraw. Nelson’s “turns a blind eye” and continues fighting

2:30 pm: Danes signal surrender

League of Armed Neutrality collapses British trade resumes

Considered Nelson’s hardest victory

Napoleon as Statesmen (1802-1805)

Negotiated the Concordat of 1801, restoring Catholicism as the major religion in France, but still subject to secular authority. Also extended full citizenship status to Jews

1802: Signed Treaty of Amiens, ending war with England

Reforms include centralized administration, national education, comprehensive tax code, first national bank

Developed law code (Code Napoleon) prohibiting preferential treatment due to birth and guaranteed freedom of religion

Sent troops to put down Haitian Revolution and sold Louisiana to United States

Lingering disputes over French annexation of Piedmont and British refusal to evacuate Malta would lead to resumption of war in May 1803

Napoleon establishes army camp at Boulogne in preparation of invasion of Britain

Creation of La Grande Armee

Principal French army formed from 1804-1808. Initially numbered 200,000 men

Organized into six corps, cavalry and guard. Also includes staff, engineers, supply and medical services

Corps: All-arms formation of between 12-40,000 men. Revived periodically

Day-to-day affairs managed by army chief of staff Alexandre Berthier

Maximum strength 550,000 in 1812

Enlightenment to water loo 1700-1815

French Infantry

Organized into 840-man regiments, napoleon was crazy with his math

Three types: Fusiliers (line) Voltigeur-means jumpers (skirmishers) and Grenadier- they don’t let anyone retreat, used when they need a real big push (elite)

All equipped with Model 1777 smooth-bore musket

Typical formations were line (firepower) column (melee) or mixed. Could also form into squares to defend against cavalry

8 men mess groups

Majority of recruits were conscripts, although opportunities for recognition and promotion were encouraged

Highly-motivated and trained, but considered poor marksman

French cavalry

Light Cavalry: Includes Chasseurs, Hussars scouts and protection against scouts, and Lancers. Used primarily for reconnaissance and pursuit

Braided their hair ended in gold coins, pants so tight had to butter legs

Dragoons: Medium cavalry that could fight mounted or on foot.

Heavy: Cuirassiers (armored breast plate)strong man bullet proof big man big horses) and Carbiniers. Usually kept in reserve until decisive moment

Regiments (800-1200 men) could be parceled out to corps, or concentrated into 6000-man cavalry reserve

Indifferent horsemanship, they knew what a wall of spikes was, knights wanted medal

Napoleon’s “Beautiful Daughters” Artillery

Organized into 6-8 gun batteries according to caliber

Rated by weight of shot, 4, 6, 8, and 12-pounder guns most common

Fired either solid shot (cannon balls) or grape (musket balls)

Deployed as either foot or horse artillery and assigned at division and corps levels. Foot walk ride horse ride

Also, artillery could be concentrated into Grand batteries of 100+ cannon

Particularly feared by Napoleon’s enemies

The Imperial Guard

Self-contained unit consisting of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and support services. Divided into Old (10 year service 6 campaign 5 promotions), Middle, and Young Guard

Members consisted of long-serving veterans with proven records of bravery. Often requires personal approval of Napoleon

Benefits included “high” pay, best food and priority in march and housing

Primarily French, but also included Dutch, Polish, and Italian units

Originally number 3000-men in 1804, would grow to 86,000 by 1812 Served as inspiration to rest of army, but also drained valuable soldiers from rest of army

Napoleon typically wore Chasseur-guard uniform

Support Services

Engineers (Genie) consisted of pontonniers (bridge builders) or sappers (dealt with enemy fortification)

Medical: Primitive by modern standards. French surgeon Jean Larrey develops “Flying ambulance” for quick evacuation of wounded. Traditional was to leave them till the end. Musket ball to the limbs = amputation

Communications: in addition to dispatch riders, use was also made of semaphore stations for rapid transmissions of coded signal

Logistics: French troops typically marched with four days rations, but were also expected to “live off the land”

1810: Napoleon holds competition for new ways to preserve food for troops in combat. Won by Nicholas Appert who develops predecessor of modern canned goods

Napoleon’s Lieutenants

Selected according to proven ability. Represented wide diversity of French political society

Nicholas Davout (1770-1823) From petty nobility, served in Egyptian and Italian campaigns. Superb tactition, one of the few commanders trusted with independent command

Joachim Murat (1767-1815) Son of an innkeeper. Present with Napoleon at “Whiff of grapeshot” served as Napoleon’s cavalry commander

Married Napoleon’s sister Caroline, later became King of Naples. Turned back on Napoleon wanted kingdom

Charles Talleyrand-Perigord. Aristocrat, priest, émigré, and directory member. “I survived” didn’t care who he betrayed

Distrusted by Napoleon, but was appointed Foreign Minister.(1807-1815) secret agent for Russia

Emperor of the French Dec. 2nd 1804

1804: Napoleon survives at least two assassination attempts by royalist sympathizers. Proposes establishing Imperial, rather than Monarchial regime. Styles himself “Emperor of the French” to avoid republican outrage

Arranges to have Pope Pius VII to oversee ceremony, but will crown himself followed by Josephine

Ceremony held on Dec. 2nd 1804 of Notre Dame Cathedral

Emperor Napoleon also distributes titles of nobility to various supports, officials, and generals

Already approved by plebiscite

The Third Coalition forms (1803-1806)

May 1803: Britain declares war on France. Reestablishes blockade

Kidnapping and execution of émigré French noble moves Sweden to join Britain

Napoleon’s coronation as Emperor move Austria and Russia to join coalition. Prussia remains aloof

Austrians plan combined offensive into France, but two week difference between Georgian calendar (Austria) and Julian (Russia) prompt delay

August: Napoleon redeploys La Grande Armee to Austrian frontier

French naval campaign of 1805

March 1805: French Admiral Pierre Villenueve sails 11 sail-of-the-line out of Toulon bound for West Indies. Is joined by 6 Spanish warships. Nelson pursues

Other French squadrons were unable to breakout. Villenueve returns to European waters

Villenueve engages British squadron off Cape Finisterre. Loses two Spanish ships, withdraws to Cadiz

Napoleon becomes frustrated with naval affairs. Turns attention toward Austria

Franco-Spanish in Cadiz now 33 ships, but torn by dissention and lack of confidence. Nelson assembles 27 warships outside of harbor

Oct. 20th: Informed that he was about to be relieved of command, Villenueve leaves port and seeks battle

The “Nelson Touch”

Term given to tactics developed by Nelson

Rejected traditional “line-of-battle” approach in favor of close-action “melee”

Proposed dividing fleet into three columns, isolating enemy elements and defeating them in detail

Shares plan with ship captains

Nelson went with wind, adversaries went against it

While on the attack they first two ships took heavy fire, only 2 front guns to reply

HMS Victory

Construction began 1759. Launched 1765, commissioned 1771

Rate at carrying 100 cannon on three enclosed decks

Highly sought after flagship

Oldest naval ship still in commission

Portsmen harbor, museum ship

Battle of Trafalgar 21 Oct. 1805

British approach Combined Fleet in light winds. Subjected of nearly an hour of enemy fire

1145: Nelson hoists famed signal “England expects every man to do his duty”

1200: Victory breaks French line, engages several enemy vessels. Nelson shot by sniper

Battle continues until dusk. French ship sunk, 22 French and Spanish ships captured

1630: Nelson dies of his wounds

Battle secures British naval superiority for next 100 years

Buried at st pauls because he didn’t want to sink through the ground

1806: Napoleon vs. Prussia

Aug 1806: Prussian King Wilhelm III declares war on France

French army moves into Saxony behind dense screen of light cavalry. Defy Prussian attempts to locate them

Napoleon deploys main force on town of Jena, while Davout’s III Corps circles around Prussian flank at Auerstadt

Oct, 14th: Napoleon defeats rearguard at Jena, while Davout defeats main Prussian army with half as many men

Prussian resistance collapses. Berlin falls Oct. 25th. Napoleon reaches eastern border by Nov. 7th

The Confederation of the Rhine (1806-1813)

Replaces earlier Holy Roman Empire. Consolidates 300+ states into 39

Member states were expected to contribute money and troops to Napoleon, but enjoyed considerable sovereignty

States also benefited from introduction of liberal rights of press, religion, assembly as well as education

Confederation collapses in 1813 but would inspire later German national movement

Napoleon’s Zenith: the Continental System and the Treaty of Tilsit

Continental System: French-led effort to exclude British trade from the European Continent

Announced in Berlin Decree of 1806. Milan Decree of 1807 added that neutral vessels who use British ports or paid British tariffs would be considered enemy shipping

Britain replies with Nov. 1807 Orders in Council prohibiting all trade with ports belonging to France or her allies

Will become centerpiece of French foreign policy and lead to invasion of Spain and Portugal

Treaty of Tilsit: Franco-Russian treaty signed in the wake of the latter’s defeat at the Battle of Friedland

Featured famous meeting between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander on the River Nieman

Effectively divides Europe between the two. Russia is given free reign in the Balkans and Scandinavia

Secret agreement calls for Russia to declare war on Britain by the end of 1807

Is often considered high point in Napoleon’s career

Breaking the Continental System

Baltic was a major supplier of “naval stores” to Britain

Sept. 2nd 1807” British forces lay siege of Copenhagen, seize Danish navy. Russia, Denmark declares war on Britain and Sweden

1808: Russia overruns Swedish Finland. Britain trade subjected to effective harassment by Danish oared galleys in maritime guerilla campaign

1809: Swedish king deposed. Britain authorizes large-scale smuggling trade in and out of Baltic

Royal Navy continues to protect trade in Baltic until 1812

The Peninsula War begins (1808)

March 1808: Napoleon forces Spanish King Charles IV and his son to abdicate. Ultimately replaces them with his brother Joseph

February 1808: French troops enter Spain, supposedly en route to Portugal. When French troops begin seizing Spanish cities and fortresses, country rises in revolt

Spanish regular troops routinely defeated. Populace forms guerilla bands that harass French communications and supplies

August 1808: French attempt to conquer Portugal stopped by British army commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley

Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852)

Born to English aristocracy. Entered military service in 1787 through purchase

Made reputation as the “Sepoy General” commanding troops in India for brother Richard

Participated in 1807 siege of Copenhagen

Aloof, aristocratic, disciplinarian, brilliant. Became Viscount Wellington after 1809 victory at Talavera

British Army

Numbered only 40,000 men in 1793. Eventually expanded to 250,000

Volunteer soldiers, while officers “purchased” their ranks

Infantry known for their battlefield discipline and as accurate marksmen

Cavalry regarded as of highest quality, but poorly led

Almost one-third of British soldiers were non-British

1809 War against Austria

April 1809: 195,000 Austrian troops invade Bavaria

Napoleon arrives from Spain and rallies French defense. Pushes into Austria

May 21-22: Napoleon suffers first major defeat at Battle of Aspern-Essling. Fails to secure crossing of the Danube. Loses 23,000 men

Battle of Wagram (July 5-6 1809)

Climactic battle of 1809 Austrian campaign. Also, largest battle of Napoleonic wars (so far) w/ 136k Austrians vs. 162k French

Also significant for presence of large numbers of French allied troops

Uncharacteristic straight-ahead tactics by Napoleon result in massive casualties

French losses: 37,000 - Austrian: 41,000

Austria sues for peace. Lost a quarter of their territory and a fifth of their population

Austrian Emperor also agrees to marriage between Napoleon and his daughter Marie-Louise

Napoleonic Europe 18010-1812

Napoleonic Empire grows larger, but rule becomes increasingly despotic

Conflict over French occupation of the Papal States leads to the confinement of Pope Pius VII 1808-1814

Napoleon’s placement of his brothers on the thrones of Spain, Holland, and Westphalia and Murat in Naples undermines his “liberal” image

The “Spanish Ulcer” continues to drain French resources and man power

Growing differences on enforcement of Continental System leads to increasing tensions between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander

Russia most dependent on European trade

Revolutions in the New World

1808: Rejecting installation of Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain, Spanish colonies overseas form self-governing juntas

Additional conflicts develop between Spanish landowners ((Peninsulares (Spanish born in Spain) - Creoles (Spanish born in the New World (2nd class)) and poor peasants (Mestizos and Mullatos)

1807: British attempt to take control of the Rio de la Plata ends in defeat

1812: Venezuela attempts independence, but is defeated by loyalist forces

1813: Creole Simon Bolivar leads successful recapture of Venezuela as Jose de San Martin leads independence movement in Argentina

1814: Restoration of King Ferdinand VII moves other juntas to form independence movements, appeal to Bolivar for leadership.

Movements secretly supported by Britain, in search of new markets

1829: Mexico gains independence. Only Puerto Rice and Cuba remain of Spanish Empire in the Americas

Anglo-American tensions and the War of 1812

Primary differences include infringement of British blockade on free trade, British impressments of American sailors and alleged support of native tribes resisting American expansion

British become American just by asking

War encouraged by American “War Hawks” as means to conquer Canada

June 18, 1812. Congress declares war on Great Britain

American warships score impressive one-on-one victories over British, but do not succeed in taking Canada

1813: British troops land in Maryland and burn Washington D.C. are unsuccessful

Dec. 27th 1814: Treaty of Ghent ends war. Maintains status quo

1812 Invasion of Russia

June 24th: Napoleon leads army of 690,000 French and Allied troops into Russia

Envisioned early decisive battle would persuade Tsar to negotiate peace terms. Army only carried 40 days of supplies

Russians practiced “scorched earth” policy to deny invaders forage and supplies. Army retreats eastward. Napoleon pursues

Battle of Borodino

September 7th 1812: Napoleon attacks Russian army fortified around town of Borodina. Surpasses Wagram in number of participants

Napoleon unusually lethargic, exercises little control over battle

French launch repeated frontal assaults on Russian positions. Heavy casualties on both sides

18,000 man French Imperial Guard never committed en masse

French lose 35k Russians 45k

Result of battle inconclusive

Winter Retreat

September 14th 1812: French troops enter Moscow. Find it stripped of supplies. Russian government remains defiant

Four-day fire destroys 75% of Moscow, persuades Napoleon against spending the winter there

October 18th: French begin retreat. Suffer tremendous losses from cold, disease, starvation, Cossack attacks

Only est. 40,000 troops survive combat, return to Poland December 12th.

Regarded as beginning of end on Napoleonic Empire

1813 Campaign in Germany

Napoleon rebuilds shattered army using 16 and 17-year old recruits (Marie-Lousies) but is facing 1.1 million Russian, Prussian, Swedish troops

Napoleon scores early victories, but weakness of cavalry prevents follow-up

Allies avoid confronting Napoleon, but rather attack his subordinates

June 21st: Wellington defeats French at Battle of Vitoria, gains control of Spain

August: Previously neutral Austria joins the Sixth Coalition, adding 300,000 more troops to combat

Napoleon falls back to city of Leipzig

“The Bravest of the Brave”

Name given to Marshal Michel Ney (1769-1815)

Also known as Le Rougeaud (the red-faced) for his complexion and temper

Courageous, but impulsive. Prized by Napoleon for his ability to inspire, but generally kept under tight leash

The Battle of Leipzig (October 16th-19th 1813)

Also known as the Battle of Nations. Largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars, with 600,000 troops participating

Napoleon surrounded on three sides, but is able to fend off each attack

Over 5,000 of Napoleon’s German troops desert during battle

October 19th: Napoleon attempts to retreat across Elster River, but loses 30,000 man rearguard when bridge unexpectedly blows up

Napoleon abandons Germany entirely and retreats to France

Decisive battle in the campaign that Napoleon loses, with it, he loses Germany

1814 Defense of France

Considered as Napoleon’s finest campaign against insurmountable odds

February 10th-16th: conducts six days campaign winning four battles against Austrians, Prussians, Russians

March 30th: Russian troops enter Paris

April 4th: Deputation of generals (including Ney) threaten to mutiny

April 6th: Napoleon abdicates. Is exiled to island of Elba

Restoration of the French Monarchy

May 3rd: New King Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) assumes title of King of France

Adopts several Revolutionary and Napoleonic concepts, issues constitution guaranteeing individual rights

King’s efforts at reconciliation undermined by attempts by returning Nobility to reclaim their lands and reassert feudalism

Calendar is reset to 1793, Napoleonic veterans replaced with Nobles, promised pensions denied

Congress of Vienna (September 1814-June 1815)

Conference intended to resolve issues resulting from the French Revolution, Napoleonic Empire and dissolution of Holy Roman Empire

Attended by over 200 delegates, but majority of decisions determined by “Big Four” GB, Au, Pr, Ru

Factions form: Russia/Prussia vs. England and Austria. Conference saved by France (Talleyrand)

Issues determined at Congress

Slavery condemned and Britain recognized as “Master of the Seas”

Russian gains Poland, Finland

Prussia given territories along Rhine, part of Saxony (2/5)

Confederation of the Rhine renamed German confederation, placed under Austrian control

Divine Right of Kings affirmed, liberalism and nationalism deemed “subversive”

Begins “Concert of Europe” and relative peace for almost a century

The “Hundred Days” (Le Cent Jours)

March 1st, 1815: after hearing reports of dissention in Vienna and dissatisfaction in France, Napoleon escapes from Elba with 1000 men

March 10th: Army sent to capture Napoleon joins him instead. Louis XVIII flees

March 19th: Napoleon enters Paris, beginning the Hundred Days

Government reorganized, army mobilized. General Grouchy promoted to Marshal

Allies respond

Seventh coalition formed. Troops hastily mobilized

Anglo-Dutch army under Wellington stationed in Netherlands

Prussian army commanded by Gebhard von Blucher stationed along Dutch border

French Army

190,000 troops, mixture of raw recruits and old veterans

Largest force Army of the North. Placed under direct command of Marshal Ney

Napoleon reportedly ill and lethargic

Prussian Army

Consisted of 116,000 men. Approx. one-third Landwehr or militia

Commanded by Blucher aka “Marshal Forward”

Fierce, aggressive, but also 72-years old and rumored to suffer from senility

Anglo-Dutch Army

Consisted of 93,000 men of which almost half were Dutch or German

Wellington commands but seconded by Prince of Orange

Dutch troops deemed of uncertain loyalty and ability

British troops mixture of inexperienced and veteran

Battle of Quarte-Bras and Ligny

June 15th 1815: Napoleon launches offensive into Netherlands intending to divide British from Prussians

June 16th: Fights simultaneous battles at Quatre-Bras (British) and Ligny (Prussians)

Wins both battle but countermarching of I Corps prevents either battle from being decisive

Allies fall back, but remain ready to fight

Climax of the Battle

1930: Napoleon commits Imperial Guard to attack on British center

Guard repelled by concentrated volley fire by British. Meanwhile, Prussian troops finally break through

2100: Wellington and Blucher meet. French army in full retreat

July 15: Napoleon surrenders on British on HMS . Is transported to island St. Helena

Napoleon’s Last Days (1815-1821)

Transported by British to the South Atlantic island of St. Helena

May 5th 1821: Napoleon Bonaparte dies. Official cause listed as stomach cancer

1840: Body is removed from St. Helena and transported to Paris. Reinterred in crypt in Les Invalides

Recent theories suggest that Napoleon had died from arsenic poisoning. Not supported by mainstream historians