History 12 (V) Progress and Uncertainty: 1963 - 1991...

History 12 (V) Progress and Uncertainty: 1963 - 1991 End of the Cold War Key p.1

History 12 (V) Progress and Uncertainty: 1963 - 1991 End of the Cold War Key Analyse the end of the Cold War with reference to:

US/USSR relationship

the decline of communism n Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union

Describe the relationship between the US and the USSR in terms of:

détente

partial nuclear test ban treaty

SALT I

Helsinki Accords

SALT II Create a timeline of events associated with the decline of communism in Eastern Europe, including:

Prague Spring and the Brezhnev Doctrine

Solidarity and Lech Walesa

fall of communism in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania

dismantling of the Berlin Wall

dissolution of Yugoslavia Analyse the dissolution of the Soviet Union, with reference to:

economic conditions in the USSR and the US

role of mass media

ethnic nationalism

leadership (Reagan, Gorbachev)

glasnost and perestroika

renewed arms race and Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)


Most people argue that while the Cuban Missile Crisis was a turning point in the Cold War, and that the Soviet Union was on the defensive after it, the Cold War went on. After the Cuban Missile Crisis, there was a period of reduced tensions, the period we call détente, but tensions built up again after Reagan became president. 1 Review the origins of the Cold War: Truman Doctrine:

The US would support people who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure. As part of its policy of containment, the west created NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

Its counterpart in the east was the Warsaw Pact. A brief timeline of the Cold War:

1945 end of WWII

1949

Berlin Blockade

1962

Cuban Missile Crisis

1972

Nixon visits China

1975 Helsinki Accord

1979

Soviets invade Afghanistan

1989 1991

Collapse of the Berlin Wall Collapse of the Soviet Union

1 Open School Module 3, History 12 p.127


Read GF pp.276-282 US/Soviet Relations After 1963 1. What was Mutually Assured Destruction? - A state where it was felt that neither the US nor the Soviet Union would start a war, as it was given that neither nation would survive the war. This was felt by some to create a sort of security. 2. Describe the Partial Test Ban Treaty and comment on its effectiveness. - Following the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the USSR and the US agreed to limit nuclear testing in the atmosphere, under water and in outer space, yet the superpowers continued to stockpile nuclear weapons. By 1969 the USA’s superiority was at an end, and the new American goal became sufficiency. In the 1970s the Americans began to seek innovation in nuclear technology. 3. What was the goal of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty? - Signed in 1968, it agreed to limit the countries with nuclear technology to those currently (1970) in possession of it - France and China did not sign the agreement. 4. Who was president of the US and who was premier of the Soviet Union while the first step towards détente was taken? - John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev


5. Who was president of the US and who was the Soviet Leader during the first Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I)? - Nixon and Brezhnev - 1972 6. What did SALT I consist of? - It limited the number of anti-ballistic missile sites and interceptors the two superpowers could possess. Since ABMs were designed to intercept and destroy incoming missiles before they hit their targets, equality in ABMs was hoped to limit the possibility of either side gambling on a first strike.

1950s and 1960s saw technological innovations which would result in a nuclear holocaust if used

1957: Soviets first with ICBMs and Sputnik

1958: US developed U-2 spy plane with ability to fly surveillance missions without being detected by radar - when Gary Powers’ plane shot down over Siberia it became clear that US had been monitoring missile sites

Soviets ahead in space race, but behind in arms race. 7. Who was president of the US and who was leader of the USSR during the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II)? - Ford and Brezhnev at the start (1974), Carter and Brezhnev when an agreement in principle was made.


8. What was SALT II designed to do? - Instead of placing a freeze on nuclear weapons, it was designed to limit the number of strategic missiles each side could possess.


9. Why did it fail? - It was unpopular among US senators and, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, the Senate refused to ratify the treaty. Both sides did live up to the spirit of the agreement until 1985, however.

How successful were arms-control agreements in the 1970s? - They failed to prevent the development of a world with the two superpowers determined to be able to strike first and intimidate their opponents.

10. How did the US defence budget change from 1980 to 1985? What action did President Reagan take? - It rose from $197 billion to $296 billion, an increase of 51%. Reagan claimed that the Soviets had achieved military superiority rather than equality, so he put all arms-control negotiations on hold and concentrated on a nuclear defence strategy.


11. What was President Reagan’s 1983 plan to win the nuclear arms race? - Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI, Star Wars): a plan to destroy Soviet satellites and missiles while in flight. It was contrary to the terms of SALT I and seemed to be intended to begin a new arms race.

12. How did the USSR respond? - From 1971 to 1984, defence spending in the Soviet Union grew by 5% per year. Estimates suggest that the Soviets spent as much as 13 to 17% of their GNP on defence, while for the Americans it was 5.5%. By 1985 the amount of money spent on defence was causing serious domestic economic problems. When Reagan proposed the zero option, which would prohibit the Americans from deploying missiles in Europe if the Soviets dismantled their SS-20s there, the Soviets refused because they were afraid that the French and British missiles would give NATO an advantage. 13. What was the goal of START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks)? - Proposed by Reagan in November 1981, this was an effort to reduce the number of ballistic missiles as well as nuclear warheads. The agreement would require the Soviets to destroy 2/3 of their missiles, while the US would destroy ½ theirs. No progress was made in these talks until Gorbachev came to power in 1985. Note that at the time the text was written, it was believed that this plan had been abandoned. However, when George W. Bush was elected in 2000 he announced that he would bring back the initiative. After the attack on the World Trade Centre on September 11, 2001, the Democrats in the American Congress dropped their objections to Star Wars.


The Decline of Communism Twelve years after the Hungarian Revolution, rebellion flared up in Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia had always been somewhat of an exception among East European communist states. COMECON is the East European Council for Mutual Economic Assistance - actually designed to ensure that the economies of the Eastern Europe were run, not to the benefit of the people of those countries, but to benefit the Soviet Union. At COMECON trade shows it was well known that Czech products were far superior to the products of other east European countries.1 Read GF pp.200-208 Prague Spring 14. List four reforms initiated by Alexander Dubcek that upset the Soviet Union. - censorship of the press, radio and TV were abolished - non-communist organizations (which might develop into political parties) were allowed - citizens were allowed to travel abroad - freedom of speech was established - freedom of the press was established - the communist party lost its monopoly on appointing government officials 15. What was the slogan in Czechoslovakia which highlighted these reforms? - “Socialism with a human face.” 16. What support did Dubcek continue to give to the Soviet Union? - Czechoslovakia would remain in the Warsaw Pact 17. Why did the Czechs not put up more resistance to the Soviet invasion? - they learned from the Hungarian Revolution in 1956 that the Russians would use whatever force was necessary

18. What was the chief difference between the Brezhnev Doctrine and the Truman Doctrine? - There was little difference between them, except that the Truman Doctrine established an American sphere of influence and the Brezhnev Doctrine established a Soviet sphere of influence. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8097395595228365029#


http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8097395595228365029


The Helsinki Accord (GF p.208) 19. Describe the Helsinki Accord (1975). - It stated that the frontiers of eastern Europe were “inviolable” except by agreement (in accordance with international law); called for non-intervention in the internal affairs of other nations; restricted the right to military manoeuvres; called for cooperation in economics, science and technology; and bound the signatories to human rights. 20. What was the relationship between the Helsinki Accord and the Brezhnev Doctrine? - The Helsinki Accord established the doctrine of non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations, while the Brezhnev Doctrine asserted the Soviet Union’s right to interfere. Poland and Solidarity (GF pp.203-205) Poland, before World War I, was not an independent country, but rather had been divided amongst the Russian, Austrian, and German Empires during the eighteenth century. When all three of these empires collapsed in 1918, Poland became independent. Almost immediately, it attacked the Soviet Union, still in the chaos of revolution, and attempted to enlarge itself. The Poles were defeated in the Russian counter-attack, and settled in to being a somewhat smaller country than they had hoped. By the 1930s, Poland was controlled by an authoritarian government that many argue was as undemocratic as the Nazi government in Germany. Certainly it was anti-Semitic. In 1945 the Red Army occupied Poland and Stalin insisted on there being a pro-Soviet government in Poland. In part, this was a desire to export Communist revolution, but even more important in Stalin’s eyes, was the need to gain security for the Soviet Union from the possibility of renewed German aggression. This security was to be obtained by building a buffer zone of friendly states between the USSR and eastern Europe. 21. The anti-Soviet movement in Poland in 1956 grew out of what economic issue? - Labour unrest in Poznan. 22. Who were the Polish and Soviet leaders involved? - Nikita Khrushchev for the USSR and Wladyslaw Gomulka for Poland 23. Why was each willing to compromise? - Khrushchev was willing to compromise because he felt war was ill-advised, and Gomulka was willing to compromise because he knew that Poland would lose any military conflict 24. What was the compromise they worked out? - Khrushchev conceded the end of Soviet military control, allowed some individual liberties to be restored, and allowed an informal alliance between the Polish State and the Catholic Church. Gomulka conceded that Poland would remain loyal to Soviet foreign policy.


25. What was the role of General Jaruzelski in the events in Poland in 1981? - He was Prime Minister and Defence Minister and head of the Polish Communist Party. He was unwilling to grant any power to Solidarity, so talks between Solidarity and the government broke down. A period of repression followed. 26. What was Lech Walesa’s role? - He was head of Solidarity, the union of Polish labour unions that was protesting communist control. 27. What organization provided resistance to the communist rule in Poland throughout the communist period? - The Roman Catholic Church 28. What was the significance for Poland of the election of John Paul II as Pope in 1978? - He was a Pole and the first Slavic person ever to become Pope. His election increased Polish national pride. 29. What part did the shipyards at Gdansk play in the development of Solidarity? - They Gdansk shipyards were the centre o the pro-Solidarity strikes in 1980 that led to the Gdansk Accord, in which the government granted the workers a variety of civil rights (right to strike, right to have independent unions, right to better working conditions, right to radio broadcasts of Mass, right to greater freedom of speech, right to less political control). 30. Why did Solidarity represent a threat to the Soviet system? - Solidarity made it obvious that the Polish Communist Party did not represent the aspirations of the Polish people. 31. Why did the Soviet Union not invade Poland and crush Solidarity? - The Soviet government had learned from the Hungarian Revolution that crushing protest movements in eastern Europe with military force made the Soviet Communist movement unpopular throughout the world.


The End of Communism in Europe In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. There was nothing in his background to tell people that he was about to launch the most extraordinary series of policies one could imagine, policies that made him a hero to much of the world, but which led to the destruction of the Soviet Union as it collapsed from within. In essence, he came to the conclusion that the Soviet Union, as it had been structured, was a failure. He set about to reform the political and economic structures of the Soviet Union to equip the country to survive in the modern world. He called the restructuring perestroika, and the policy of openness through which it was to be achieved, glasnost. He failed, most people believe, because he trusted the Communist Party and tried to work within the party, giving it a major role in the new Soviet Union he imagined. The Communist Party, in return, betrayed him. In the 1980s, the pace of change in eastern Europe increased year by year.1 Read MHMW pp.146-149, GF pp.295-311 Summarize the changes that took place in Eastern Europe from 1980 to 1990 under the headings: Poland: Januzelski East Germany: Erich Honecher the collapse of the Berlin Wall Hungary Czechoslovakia: Vaclav Havel the Velvet Revolution Romania Yugoslavia: the dissolution

Poland: Januzelski - April 1989: Solidarity leaders signed an accord with the Polish government that restored the legal status of Solidarity and free and open elections - when the elections took place, the communists were defeated - Januzelski resigned as leader of the Polish Communist Party, the new prime minister was the Solidarity official Tadeusz Mazowiecki



East Germany: Erich Honecker the collapse of the Berlin Wall

- East Germans were leaving through Hungary to Austria then to West Germany - when East Germany tried to tighten restrictions, East Germans left via Prague - as the numbers of people leaving increased, so did demands for reduced travel restrictions and democratic reform - hardline Erich Honecker was replaced with more moderate Egon Krenz - finally in November 1989 the entire East German cabinet resigned and the Politburo announced a reorganization - November 1989 the Berlin Wall was opened Hungary - after the 1989 announcement that non-conformist political parties would be permitted, communist control eroded steadily - the communists even discussed changing their party’s name to one suggesting that they were liberal open to change, since other parties were gaining support - the communist party formally disbanded itself, and promised to follow democratic procedures Czechoslovakia: Vaclav Havel

the Velvet Revolution - when people demonstrated demanding change in October 1989, police were sent in to subdue them - Vaclav Havel, a writer became a powerful symbol of opposition after having been jailed for his views - by November 25 1989, the communist party leadership succumbed to demands and resigned their positions - when elections were finally held in December, Havel became the new president - it was in effect a non-violent revolution, hence the term Velvet Revolution http://www.prague-life.com/prague/velvet-revolution Romania - Nicolae Ceausescu had ruled Romania with an iron fist since 1965 - In December of 1989 protests occurred because of the arrest of Reverend Toekes, an ethnic Hungarian - when Ceausescu met the protestors with tanks, mowing down thousands of civilians, people rebelled - Ceausescu and his wife were seized in a coup and executed Yugoslavia: the dissolution - when Tito died in 1980 his control over the disparate ethnic groups disappeared - a growth in nationalism occurred at the same time - in 1988 ethnic protests and nationalist demonstrations spread across Yugoslavia - in the early 1990s, regions began to declare their independence:

http://www.prague-life.com/prague/velvet-revolution


- Slovenia, then Croatia - Macedonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina - Serbia, Montenegro

- http://www.historycentral.com/Europe/CivilWarYugo.html Civil war broke out in Yugoslavia. As the Communist regime fell, Yugoslavia was divided up into Serbia,

Bosnia-Hergezovenia, Macedonia, Croatia and Slovenia. Fighting soon broke out inside these areas, as

Serbs attempted to gain control of the entire territory. The Serbs instituted a policy of "ethnic" cleansing,

whose goal was to force non-Serbs out of all areas that the Serbs conquered.

http://www.answers.com/topic/yugoslav-wars The civil wars ended with much of the former Yugoslavia reduced to poverty, massive economic

disruption and persistent instability across the territories where the worst fighting occurred. The wars

were the bloodiest conflicts on European soil since the end of World War II. They were also the first

conflicts since World War II to have been formally judged genocidal in character and many key

individual participants were subsequently charged with war crimes. The International Criminal Tribunal

for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by the United Nations to prosecute these crimes.

32. Name two former communist countries of Eastern Europe that collapsed from within after 1988. - Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia 33. Which one of these fell apart peacefully? - Czechoslovakia 34. Which former communist country became part of its non-communist neighbour? - East Germany 35. In which country did a former opposition labour leader become president? - Poland 36. In which eastern European country did the former communist party win the first democratic election and form the government, only to be defeated a year later? - Bulgaria 37. Which country has a government that relies on a party representing the country’s Turkish minority? - Bulgaria The Collapse of the Soviet Union Read MHMW pp.144-145 38. Name the US president with whom Gorbachev met three times. - Ronald Reagan


39. What was Gorbachev’s policy of reorganizing the Soviet government called? - perestroika 40. What was the name for the policy of openness by which the reorganization was to have taken place? - glasnost 41. What are the two chief reasons given for the failure of this policy? - He trusted the Communist Party, the Soviet people were very angry on discovering they had been lied to by their government Whether or not Gorbachev was a success or a failure as a national leader is open to debate. Note that he failed to save the Soviet Union, but he did bring about the largest peaceful change in history.

The collapse of a superpower was an unprecedented event. Virtually no one expected it, and no one was prepared for it. The US intelligence services, which had been studying the Soviet Union intensely for decades, were taken by surprise. North American and European businesses were, at first, slow to understand that there were real opportunities for them in Eastern Europe.1 Read GF pp.306-310

42. What was the immediate result of Gorbachev’s abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine in Eastern Europe? - Communist Parties throughout eastern Europe lost power and the ideas of market economy and political pluralism took hold. 43. What disadvantages did the people of eastern Europe experience after the collapse of communism? - Rising unemployment and higher prices for consumer goods. 44. What role did Helmut Kohl play in bringing about the reunification of Germany? - He was chancellor of West Germany at the time of reunification. When both the Soviet Union and France showed concern about the possibility of a united Germany once again seeking to control Europe, he offered an aid package to the Soviet Union as well as aid to the former East Germany. This calmed Soviet fears and made the Soviets more comfortable with the united Germany being in NATO. France was much more comfortable with a united Germany within NATO than outside it. The Poles, naturally, were none too pleased with German unification, as they could not be certain Germany would be content with her eastern frontier. For them also, German membership in NATO seemed to provide a measure of control.



45. What were the two great problems that came about in East Germany as a result of reunification? - Unemployment and a lower standard of living that the people in West Germany. Some critics have argued that the security of communism caused some workers not to work very hard, and that East Germans could not compete with West Germans in the workplace. The great British historian of civilizations, Arnold J. Toynbee, once stated that, with only two exceptions, all arms races had ended in wars. The two exceptions were arms races between two Greek city-states in the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. In our time, there has been a third exception to Toynbee’s rule: the Soviet Union collapsed, due at least in part to the cost of the arms race with the United States. The Soviet Union, at least in theory, had been a union of independent republics. Just as the Soviet Union maintained the pretence that the people of Eastern Europe wanted to be in socialist states allied to the Soviet Union, so they also maintained the myth that the member republics of the Soviet Union wanted to be part of that union. In essence, the Soviets simply denied the power of nationalism. Of course, many in the Ukraine hoped to see an independent Ukraine. Many also had not forgiven the Russians for their role in the famines in the Ukraine after the 1917 revolution, or for the brutality with which dissent had been crushed in the Ukraine in the 1930s and after. Many in Kazakhstan felt they would be happier in a republic of their own, a republic with an Islamic majority. The various republics had voluntarily (in theory) joined the Soviet Union in 1922, and there was no constitutional impediment to their leaving. Of course, in an earlier era, the secret police would simply have arrested anyone advocating independence for the member republics of the Soviet Union. But in the era of perestroika and glasnost, things were different. In 1991 Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed an organization called the Commonwealth of Independent States, and in the following year, most of the other republics joined it. The Baltic Republics: Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia, did not join. Since the end of communism, things have gone from bad to worse for many people in Russia. The health and welfare system collapsed, the economy collapsed, and Russia has suffered from a large number of very corrupt officials. Criminal gangs have enormous influence in some regions of Russia. Almost all the money lent to Russia by the World Bank or by the Western democracies since the end of communism ha been stolen by officials in Russia. So the Russians no longer have the money, have got nothing for it, and have no capacity to repay it. Read GF pp.310-312 46. How did the independence movement in Lithuania affect Gorbachev’s credibility? - Thirteen people were killed when Gorbachev sent in the Red Army to retain control over Lithuanians supporting the independence movement. Gorbachev claimed to be unaware of the army’s actions, raising doubts about his honesty as well as about his ability to control the army. 47. What economic perestroika was attempted in the Soviet Union?


- Gorbachev attempted to stabilize the Soviet currency by issuing new rubles and recalling the old ones, he allowed small business operations to be independent and sell some of their goods directly to customers. 48. What reforms did Gorbachev refuse to carry out under perestroika? - He refused to adopt an overall plan to convert the Soviet Union to a market economy in Five Hundred Days, as proposed by his economic advisor. 49. Why did it fail? - The Soviet people had no history of being in business and often didn’t know how to do it. There was a distrust of personal success. Currency reform led to mistrust of the banking system. Many bureaucrats seemingly sabotaged the changes quietly with regulations, and by buying up the products of independent factories so there was nothing for them to sell privately. 50. What glasnost was attempted in the Soviet Union? - Newspapers were allowed to criticize the government, specifically, its involvement in Afghanistan. Newspapers could discuss problems such as crime, prostitution, and alcoholism, that couldn’t be mentioned before. Nationalistic feelings and historical disputes among the member-states of the Soviet Union could be mentioned. 51. Why did it fail? - The new openness revived nationalist feelings among the member republics of the Soviet Union and led to demands for independence. The Attempted Coup in Russia, 1991 Throughout the history of the communist movement, communist parties have almost always gained power by illegal means. They gained power in Russia by revolution, in eastern Europe by the power of the Red Army after WWII, in China and Cuba by revolution, and in Vietnam by taking control of a populist civil war. So it was quite natural that they would think of regaining power in Russia by a coup d’état. Note that after Boris Yeltsin became the first democratically elected president of the Russian Republic, a power struggle ensued between Yeltsin and Gorbachev. Read GF pp.316-317 52. In what two ways did Yeltsin and Gorbachev make it easy for the coup to come about? - They quarrelled between themselves over their roles, and they both left Moscow at the same time. 53. List three tactical failures of the people organizing the coup. - Communications lines were not cut. - Opponents of the coup were not arrested. - Troops were not strategically placed.


54. What great historical event descended in part from the failure of this coup? - The collapse of the Soviet Union.

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