Historical Steel and Timber Structures

8/11/2019 Historical Steel and Timber Structures

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HISTORICAL STEEL AND TIMBER STRUCTURES

EIFFEL TOWER

It has been called a technological masterpiece in

building-construction history. Built in commemorationof the French Revolution, the Eiffel Tower is one of theworld's premier tourist attractions. It has beencompared to the Great Pyramid of Giza and St. Peter'sBasilica in Rome. Nothing remotely like it has everbeen constructed. The tower is located on the LeftBank of the Seine River, at the northwestern extremeof the Parc du Champ de Mars, a park in front of thecole Militaire that used to be a military parade ground.

The tower was built for the Paris World's Fair in 1889. Whenthe French Government was

organizing this event, a competition was held for designs fora suitable monument. Over 100 designs were submitted,and the World's Fair Committee selected the conception ofa 984 foot (300 meter) open-lattice wrought iron tower. Thisdesign was the creation of Alexendre-Gustave Eiffel. Hewas a renown French civil engineer who specialized inmetal construction. His previous works included an ironbridge at Bordeaux, the 540 foot (162 meter) Garabitviaduct, the moveable dome at the observatory in Nice, and

the framework of the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor.Eiffel startled the world with the construction of the tower. Incontrast to such older monuments, Eiffel's tower wascompleted in a matter of months with a small labor force.Eiffel made use of advanced knowledge of the behavior ofmetal arch and metal truss form under loading, includingwind forces. His results started a revolution in civilengineering and architectural design. With the completion ofthe tower, Eiffel earned the nickname, "magician of iron."The tower was almost torn down on several occasions anddespite long and continuous protests, the tower vindicated

itself aesthetically. With the advent of radio and television,the Eiffel Tower gained even greater importance as atransmission tower. For many years, it was the tallest man-made structure on earth.

This tower's dimensions are remarkable. The currentheight of the tower is 1069 feet (320.75 meters), whichis about the equivalent of a 105-story building. It is still

the tallest structure in Paris by a very wide margin. Itssize is very deceiving since there are no otherstructures close to it. The levels accessible to thepublic are at heights of 189 feet (57.63 meters), or 19stories; 380 feet (115.73 meters), or 38 stories; and896 feet (273 meters), or 89 stories.

The construction

Factory at Levallois-Perret

The assembly of the supports began on July 1, 1887and was completed twenty-two months later.All the elements were prepared in Eiffels factory located atLevallois-Perret on the outskirts of Paris. Each of the 18,000pieces used to construct the Tower were specificallydesigned and calculated, traced out to an accuracy of atenth of a millimetre and then put together forming newpieces around five metres each. A team of constructors,

who had worked on the great metal viaduct projects, wereresponsible for the 150 to 300 workers on site assemblingthis gigantic erector set.

All the metal pieces of the tower are held together byrivets, a well-refined method of construction at the timethe Tower was constructed.First the pieces were assembled in the factory using bolts,later to be replaced one by one with thermally assembledrivets, which contracted during cooling thus ensuring a verytight fit. A team of four men was needed for each rivetassembled: one to heat it up, another to hold it in place, athird to shape the head and a fourth to beat it with asledgehammer. Only a third of the 2,500,000 rivets used inthe construction of the Tower were inserted directly on site.

The rivet workers


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The uprights rest on concrete foundations installed afew metres below ground-level on top of a layer ofcompacted gravel.Each corner edge rests on its own supporting block,applying to it a pressure of 3 to 4 kilograms per squarecentimetre, and each block is joined to the others by walls.On the Seine side of the construction, the builders usedwatertight metal caissons and injected compressed air, sothat they were able to work below the level of the water.

The tower was assembled using wooden scaffoldingand small steam cranes mounted onto the tower itself.The assembly of the first level was achieved by the use oftwelve temporary wooden scaffolds, 30 metres high, andfour larger scaffolds of 40 metres each.

A gigantic meccano set

Construction of a pillar

Fondations of the Eiffel Tower

"Sand boxes" and hydraulic jacks - replaced after use bypermanent wedges - allowed the metal girders to bepositioned to an accuracy of one millimetre.

On December 7, 1887, the joining of the major girders up tothe first level was completed. The pieces were hauled up bysteam cranes, which themselves climbed up the Tower asthey went along using the runners to be used for the

Tower's lifts.

It only took five months to build the foundations andtwenty-one to finish assembling the metal pieces of theTower.


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http://www.toureiffel.paris/en/everything-about-the-

tower/themed-files/69.html

http://www.engineering.com/Library/ArticlesPage/tabid/85/ArticleID/62/Eiffel-Tower.aspx

CRYSTAL PALACE

The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and plate-glass building originally erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the

Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square

feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to display examples of the latest technology developed in the Industrial Revolution.

Designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, the Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128

feet (39 m).[1] Because of the recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, which allowed for large sheets of


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cheap but strong glass, it was at the time the largest amount of glass ever seen in a building and astonished visitors with

its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights, thus a "Crystal Palace".

CONSTRUCTION

Fox, Henderson took possession of the site in July 1850 and erected wooden hoardings which, with typical Victorian

efficiency, were constructed using the timber that later became the floorboards of the finished building. More than 5000

navvies worked on the building during its construction, with up to 2000 on site at one time during the peak building

phase. More than 1,000 iron columns supported 2,224 trellis girders and 30 miles of guttering, comprising 4,000 tonnes

of iron in all.

First, stakes were driven into the ground to roughly mark out the positions for the cast iron columns; these points were

then set precisely by theodolite measurements. Then the concrete foundations were poured, and the base plates for the

columns were set into them. Once the foundations were in place, the erection of the modules proceeded rapidly.

Connector brackets were attached to the top of each column before erection, and these were then hoisted into position.

Since the project took place before the development of powered cranes, the raising of the columns was done manually

using shears (or shear-legs), a simple crane mechanism. These consisted of two strong poles, which were set several

metres apart at the base and then lashed together at the top to form a triangle; this was stabilized and kept vertical by

guy ropes fixed to the apex, stretched taut and tied to stakes driven into the ground some distance away. Using pulleysand ropes hung from the apex of the shear, the navvies hoisted the columns, girders and other parts into place.

As soon as two adjacent columns had been erected, a girder was hoisted into place between them and bolted onto the

connectors. The columns were erected in opposite pairs, then two more girders were connected to form a self-

supporting squarethis was the basic frame of each module. The shears would then be moved along and an adjoining

bay constructed. When a reasonable number of bays had been completed, the columns for the upper floor were erected

(longer shear-legs were used for this, but the operation was essentially the same as for the ground floor). Once the

ground floor structure was complete, the final assembly of the upper floor followed rapidly.

For the glazing, Paxton used larger versions of machines he had originally devised for the Great Stove at Chatsworth,

installing on-site production line systems, powered by steam engines, that dressed and finished the building parts. These

included a machine that mechanically grooved the wooden window sash bars, and a painting machine that automatically

dipped the parts in paint and then passed them through a series of rotating brushes to remove the excess.

A tree enclosed within the Crystal Palace.

The last major components to be put into place were the sixteen semi-circular ribs of the vaulted transept, which were

also the only major structural parts that were made of wood. These were raised into position as eight pairs, and all were

fixed into place within a week. Thanks to the simplicity of Paxton's design and the combined efficiency of the building

contractor and their suppliers, the entire structure was assembled with extraordinary speedthe team of 80 glaziers

could fix more than 18,000 panes of sheet glass in a weekand the building was complete and ready to receive exhibitsin just five months.

When completed, The Crystal Palace provided an unrivaled space for exhibits, since it was essentially a self-supporting

shell standing on slim iron columns, with no internal structural walls whatsoever. Because it was covered almost entirely

in glass, it also needed no artificial lighting during the day, thereby reducing the Exhibition's running costs.


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Full-size elm trees growing in the park were enclosed within the central exhibition hall near the 27-foot (8 m) tall Crystal

Fountain. Sparrows became a nuisance; shooting was obviously out of the question in a glass building. Queen Victoria

mentioned this problem to the Duke of Wellington, who offered the famous solution, "Sparrowhawks, Ma'am".

Paxton was acclaimed worldwide for his achievement, and was knighted by Queen Victoria in recognition of his work.

The project was engineered by Sir William Cubitt; Paxton's construction partner was the ironwork contractor Sir Charles

Fox's Fox and Henderson, whose director Charles Fox was also knighted for his contribution. The 900,000 square feet

(84,000 m) of glass was provided by the Chance Brothers glassworks in Smethwick, Birmingham. They were the only

glassworks capable of fulfilling such a large order and had to bring in labour from France to meet it in time.The final

dimensions were 1,848 feet (563 m) long by 456 feet (139 m) wide. The building was 135 feet (41 m) high, with 772,784

square feet (71,794.0 m2) on the ground floor alone.

CHRYSLER BUILDING

ARCHITECT: WILLIAM VAN ALEN

LOCATION: 405 LEXINGTON AVENUE AT 42ND STREET

DATE: 1928-1930

STYLE: ART DECO

CONSTRUCTION

77 floors, 319.5m (1048 feet) high, 29961 tons of steel, 3,826,000 bricks, near 5000 windows. Cost: $ 20,000,000

The building is clad in white brick and dark gray brickwork is used as horizontal decoration to enhance the window rows.

The eccentric crescent-shaped steps of the spire (spire scaffolding) were made of stainless steel (or rather, similar

nirosta chrome-nickel steel) as a stylized sunburst motif, and underneath it steel gargoyles, depicting American eagles

(image), stare over the city. Sculptures modeled after Chrysler automobile radiator caps (image) decorate the lower

setbacks, along with ornaments of car wheels.

The three stories high, upwards tapering entrance lobby has a triangular form, with entrances from three sides,

Lexington Avenue, 42nd and 43rd Streets. The lobby is lavishly decorated with Red Moroccan marble walls, sienna-

coloured floor and onyx, blue marble and steel in Art Deco compositions. The ceiling murals, painted by Edward


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Trumbull, praise the modern-day technical progress -- and of course the building itself and its builders at work. The

lobby was refurbished in 1978 by JCS Design Assocs. and Joseph Pell Lombardi.

One of the first large buildings to use metal extensively on the exterior, the building's ornament makes reference to the

automobile, the quintessential symbol of the machine age. Metal hubcaps, gargoyles in the form of radiator caps, car

fenders and hood ornaments decorate shaft and setbacks of the white and black brick building. This aluminum trim

culminates in a beautiful, tapered stainless steel crown that supports the famous spire. A private lounge called the Cloud

Club and an observation area were located at the top of the building. A particularly beautiful example of the Art Deco

style, the lobby is clad in different marbles, onyx and amber. It is decorated with Egyptian motifs and a ceiling fresco by

Edward Trumbull entitled "Transport and Human Endeavor" that depicts buildings, airplanes, and scenes from the

Chrysler assembly line. The building was landmarked in 1978 and it is now owned by Massachusetts Mutual Life

Insurance Company.

http://www.nyc-architecture.com/MID/MID021.html

The Home Insurance Buildingis generally noted as the first tall building to be supported, both inside and outside,by a fireproof metal frame.

It was constructed in 1884 inChicago,Illinois,USA and was the first tall building to usestructural steel in its

frame,[3]

but the majority of its structure was composed ofcast andwrought iron.While theDitherington Flax Mill wasan earlier fireproof-metal-framed building, it was only five stories tall.

Due to the Chicago building's unique architecture and unique weight-bearing frame, it is considered the first

skyscraper in the world;]however, it was never the tallest building in the world or Chicago. It had 10 stories and rose

to a height of 138 ft (42 m ). In 1890, two additional floors were added to the original structure.

The architect wasWilliam Le Baron Jenney,an engineer. The building weighed only one-third as much as a stone

building would have; city officials were so concerned that they halted construction while they investigated its safety.

The Home Insurance Building is an example of theChicago School inarchitecture.The building led to the future in
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the skyscrapers. "In 1888, a Minneapolis architect namedLeroy Buffington was granted a patent on the idea of

building skeletal-frame tall buildings. He even proposed the construction of a 28-story 'stratosphere-scraper'a

notion mocked by the architectural press of the time as impractical and ludicrous. Nevertheless, Buffington brought

the potential of the iron skeletal frame to the attention of the national architectural and building communities.

Architects and engineers began using the idea, which in primitive form had been around for decades."

Structural analysis

A forensic analysis done during its demolition purported to show that the building was the first to carry both floors and

external walls entirely on its metal frame, but details and later scholarship have arguably disproved this, and it has been

asserted that the structure must have relied upon both metal and masonry elements to support its weight, and to hold it

up against wind. Although the Home Insurance Building made full use of steel framing technology, in this theory it was

not a pure steel-framed structure since it rested partly on granite piers at the base and on a rear brick wall.

RAND MCNALLY BUILDING

The Rand McNally Building (1889-1911), in Chicago, was designed by Burnham and Root. The first Z-bar steel columns,

invented by Charles L. Strobel, were used in this building; it was the first building of all-steel skeleton construction; and

was the first building to use all terra cotta facades on the street fronts.

The building was located at 160-174 Adams Street (on the south side between LaSalle and Wells) and also fronted 105-

119 on the backside (Quincy Street). It was erected in 1889 at a cost of $1 million. It had 10 stories, 16 stores, and 300

offices, but the main tenant was Rand, McNally & Co., printers and publishers, with 900 employees.

This building is where the Worlds Fair headquarters are located. If so, you will find this to be one of the most

magnificent structures in the world. The publishing and printing house of Rand, McNally & Co. started in 1856,

since which date the remaikable growth of its map and book-publishing business has necessitated several removals and

enlargements of qusrters. Every time it has shortly found itself cramped for room, until the recent removal into the new

building, 162 to 174 Adams St., which makes ample provisions for future expansion. This building is a model in size,

convenience and durability, and absolutely fire-proof. It has ten stories and a basement, with a frontage of 150 feet on
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Adams st , extending back 166 feet to Quincy st. The framework is entirely of steel, the two fronts are fire-proofed with

dark-red terra-cotta. in handsome designs, and the interior is fire-proofed with hard-burnt fire-clay, no part of the steel

being exposed. In the center of the building is left a court 6066 feet, having its outer walls faced with English white

enamelled bricks. Owing partly to its great size, and partly to the fact that it is the first steel building in Chicago, besides

being probably the largest and most complete building ever erected exclusively for the printing and publishing business,

it is exciting a great deal of interest. Burnham & Root were the architects. The following facts concerning it illustrate in a

striking manner the vastness and solidity of a modern commercial building. It contains 15 miles of steel-railway-65-

pound rails in the foundation, besides the 12-inch and 20-inch steel beams. There are 13 miles of 15-inch steel beamsand channels, 2 miles of ties and angles in the roof; 7 miles of tie rods ; 10 miles of Z steel in the columns ; 12 miles of

steam-pipe ; 350,000 rivets and bolt ; 7 acres of floors ; the boards of which would reach 250 miles were they laid end to

end. The foundations contain 1,060 tons of steel, while the beams, etc., will weigh 2,000 tons, and the columns 700 tons

making a total of 3,7 tons of steel in this giant structure. The oflices of the various departments of the Columbian

Exposition are accessible by elevator. Just now everybody from the Director General down is very busy, but that need

not prevent you from looking around. They will answer your questions civillyeverybody is civil in Chicago -but dont

ask too many at present.

The general offices of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway were located here on the 2nd and 3rd floors, as were

the headquarters of the Worlds Columbian Exposition, on the 4th and 5th. The Long Distance Telephone Company

(Quincy Street side) allowed patrons the ability to telephone New York City, a novelty at the time.

It was torn down in 1911 and the JW Marriott (City National Bank, Continental Bank Building, 208 South LaSalle),

building replaced it at 208 S. LaSalle in 1912. This building still stands.

http://chicagology.com/goldenage/goldenage006/

The Brooklyn Bridgeis abridge inNew York City and is one of the oldestsuspension bridges in the United States.Completed in 1883, it connects theboroughs ofManhattan andBrooklyn by spanning theEast River.It has a mainspan of 1,595.5 feet (486.3 m), and was the first steel-wire suspension bridge constructed.

Originally referred to as the New York and Brooklyn Bridgeand as the East River Bridge, it was dubbed theBrooklyn Bridge, a name from an earlier January 25, 1867, letter to the editor of theBrooklyn Daily Eagle,andformally so named by the city government in 1915. Since its opening, it has become an icon of New York City, andwas designated aNational Historic Landmark in 1964and aNational Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.

The Brooklyn Bridge was initially designed by German immigrant John Augustus Roebling, who had previouslydesigned and constructed shorter suspension bridges, such as Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct in Lackawaxen,Pennsylvania, Waco Suspension Bridge in Waco, Texas, and the John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge in CincinnatiOhio.
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While conducting surveys for the bridge project, Roebling sustained a crush injury to his foot when a ferry pinned itagainst a piling. After amputation of his crushed toes he developed a tetanus infection which left him incapacitatedand soon resulted in his death, not long after he had placed his 32-year-old son Washington Roebling in charge ofthe project.Washington Roebling also suffered a paralyzing injury as a result of decompression sickness shortlyafter the beginning of construction on January 3, 1870. This condition, first called "caisson disease" by the projectphysician Andrew Smith, afflicted many of the workers working within the caissons.[13][14] Roebling's debilitatingcondition left him unable to physically supervise the construction firsthand.

Roebling conducted the entire construction from his apartment with a view of the work, designing and redesigningcaissons and other equipment. He was aided by his wife Emily Warren Roebling who provided the critical written linkbetween her husband and the engineers on site. Under her husband's guidance, Emily studied higher mathematics,the calculations of catenary curves, the strengths of materials, bridge specifications, and the intricacies of cableconstruction. She spent the next 11 years assisting Washington Roebling, helping to supervise the bridge'sconstruction.

When iron probes underneath the caisson for the Manhattan tower found the bedrock to be even deeper thanexpected, Roebling halted construction due to the increased risk of decompression sickness. He later deemed theaggregate overlying the bedrock 30 feet (9 m) below it to be firm enough to support the tower base, and constructioncontinued.

The towers are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement. The granite blocks were quarried and shaped onVinalhaven Island, Maine, under a contract with the Bodwell Granite Company, and delivered from Maine to NewYork by schooner.

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