Time period Indian context Western context

3300-1750 b.C

Indus valley civilization: evidence of wide streets , proper navigation system, public baths, defined administrative setup with a single head and group of people assisting in his works

3200 B.C. Cycladic civilization in Greece: archaeological evidence points to sporadic Neolithic settlements on Antiparos, melos, mykonos, naxos, and other Cycladic islands at least as early as the sixth millennium B.C. Inhabitants turned to fishing, shipbuilding, and exporting of their mineral resources, as trade flourished between the Cyclades, Minoan Crete, Helladic Greece and the coast of Asia minor.The richest man was the guiding/heading the civilization.3200 B.C. Norte Chico civilization begins in Peru: the degree of centralized authority is difficult to ascertain, but architectural construction patterns are indicative of an elite that, at least in certain places at certain times, wielded considerable powerIn exploring the basis of possible government, has suggests three broad bases of power for early complex societies:• Economic,• Ideology, and• Physical.He finds the first two present in ancient Norte Chico

3100 B.C.First dynasty of Egypt: the creation of a bureaucracy in the old kingdom was a key factor in the inception of the Egyptian civilization. The king was the supreme head of state. Next to him, the most powerful officer in the hierarchy was the vizier, the executive head of the bureaucracy. The position of vizier was filled by a prince or a person of exceptional ability. His title is translated as "superintendent of all works of the king".

2350 B.C. Akkadian empire: each Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the others and protective of its independence. At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of sumer is one of almost constant warfare.

1500-500 B.C.

Local villagers participated in the collective decision making. Sabha's (gatherings)Were the popular platforms through which the common people had a direct say and control over the local affairs. The village was always a more or less self dependent unit. It generated its own resources, had its own functionaries and its own functional domain. Village and state functions were supplementary and rarely conflicted; the state performed only those functions which the village could not perform itself.

1600 B.C: Mycenaean Greece: each Mycenaean kingdom was governed from the palace, which exercised control over most, if not all, industries within its realm. The palatial territory was divided into several sub-regions, each headed by its provincial center. Each province was further divided in smaller districts, the da-mo. A number of palaces and fortifications appear to be part of a wider kingdom. The state was ruled by a king, the wanax , whose role was religious and perhaps also military and judicial. The wanax oversaw virtually all aspects of palatial life, from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of goods, craftsmen and troops.

800 B.C: Rise of Greek city-states: the Greeks had a lot of different kinds of governments, because there were many different city-states in ancient Greece, and they each had their own government. For the most part, Greece began by having monarchies, then oligarchies, then tyrannies and then democracies, but at each period there were plenty of city-states using a different system, and there were many city-states which never did become democracies or tyrannies at all.

653 B.C: Rise of Persian empire: the Persian administrative system was far more efficient and humane. The empire was divided into twenty provinces, or satrapies, each ruled by a governor called a satrap. To check the satraps, a secretary and a military official representing the "great king, king of kings" were installed in every province. Also, special inspectors, "the eyes and ears of the king," traveled throughout the realm.

500 B.C. – 320 A.D. ( also known as Classical Indian age or Post Mauryan Period)

This time featured great till in the Indian history. It featured kingdoms of The Western Satraps,kushans, The Satavahana Empire etc.

Their government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories:

• Rajan, the hereditary rulers• Rajas, petty princes who stuck coins in their own names• Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and

maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family• Mahabhojas• Mahasenapati (civil administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a janapada under

Pulumavi IV)• Mahatalavara ("great watchman")

The royal princes (kumaras) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces

200–249.A.D : Chinese Han dynasty: In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a 600-bushel salary-rank or higher. Theoretically, there were no limits to his power. However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (Tingyi 廷議 )—where ministers were convened to reach majority consensus on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions. If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.

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Time period Indian context Western context

500 B.C. – 320 A.D. ( also known as Classical Indian age or Post Mauryan Period)

250–900 A.D.: Classic period of Mayan civilization : The Maya political system never integrated the entire Maya cultural area into a single state or empire. Rather, throughout its history, the Maya area contained a varying mix of political complexity that included both states and chiefdoms.

320- 540 A.D.( Gupta)

Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Raja, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesh and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulike and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.

272 AD – 22 May 337 AD : Constantine was a ruler of major historical importance, and he has always been a controversial figure., of this period . The fluctuations in Constantine's reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. He had made major changes in the administrative setup. Needless to say, bureaucratic growth darker side. Throughout this period there is abundant evidence Of What our generation has learned to call "Parkinson's Law." Bureaucracy proliferates. New functionaries appear to spy upon the existing hierarchies ; yet Constantine never solved the problem of communication with his subjects.

Medieval Period

Things began to change in the early medieval period, with the arrival of invaders and their foreign concept of governance. Shershah suri divided the revenue administration and police administration between patwari and muqaddam. The mughals introduced middlemen – called zagirdars – to collect revenue from the villager for the state. This introduction of zagirdari system created new power centers at the local level and weakened the selfgoverning Panchayat system of the village community. This also adversely affected the village Economy due to loss of financial autonomy of the village panchayats. But despite the weakening influence of the zagirdari system, village panchayats continued to play significant role even during the Mughal era.

Vikings : The Viking society was divided into the three socio-economic classes of Thralls, Karls and Jarls. This is described vividly in the Eddic poem of Rigsthula, which also explains that it was the God Ríg - father of mankind also known as Heimdallr - who created the three classes. Archaeology has confirmed this social structure. Thralls were the lowest ranking class and were slaves. Karls were free peasants. The Jarls were the aristocracy of the Viking society. They were wealthy and owned large estates with huge longhouses, horses and many thralls.

Russia -989 A.D.: the grand dukes of the mosow annexed the Ukraine and other lands to create Russian empire. Its model of Empire involved a partnership between church and the state, with the church in a sub- ordinate position. Czar ruled a totalitarian state which, like that in china , was readily adapted to communist rule.

1526-1707 A.D. Municipal Administration vested in kotwal , who was the city governor possessing powers and duties of the chief of city police , magistrate and perfect of municipal administration.

Mongol Empire: The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis, called Yassa, meaning "order" or "decree". A particular canon of this code was that those of rank shared much of the same hardship as the common man. The empire was governed by a non-democratic, parliamentary-style central assembly, called Kurultai, in which the Mongol chiefs met with the Great Khan to discuss domestic and foreign policies. Kurultais were also convened for the selection of each new Great Khan. The Mongols were very tolerant of other religions, and never persecuted people on religious grounds. This was associated with their culture and progressive thought.

1707 – 1947 A.D. But the British rule gave a severe blow to the local independence of the village Panchayats. They changed the Revenue system that reduced the self sufficient villages to the status of dependent units. Their centralized system of governance gave a severe blow to the rather autonomous indigenous socioeconomic system of Indian villages. Since their main aim was to exploit the natural resources as well as people of India to strengthen the British Empire, they systematically destroyed all forms of local independence. Thus, they put in place a system of delegation where power flowed from the Central command and reduced the local people to the status of nonentities.

Renaissance and Europe: The Renaissance began in Italy, which was organized into numerous city-states. The most prominent city-states included Florence, Venice, Milan, and Rome. Florence was a republic where democratic ideals were admired during the Renaissance. Government actions in Florence and other city-states were strongly influenced by powerful, wealthy families. The city-states were very competitive and wars among them were common.

The Great German Empire: Germany's government had a parliament (the Reichstag and Bundesrat), much like that of England. One house was full of appointed officials while another was elected officials. Otto von Bismarck would allow members in the one house to be elected by men over 25. The German empire was run by the Kaiser, who was the king of Prussia. Otto von Bismarck's policies were very popular among traditional land owners and the ever growing class of businessmen, however, they received much criticism from the Socialist Party and the Catholic Church. Germany was composed of 26 states, however, most were small.

Post Independence New constitute prepared; contained provisions for rural settlements only, reference to urban local government observed only in two parties : (a) Entry 58 ,list II of the Seventh Schedule 9State list);and (b) Entry 209 of List III Attempt to introduce the constitution (63 Amendment) Bill; also known as Nagar Palika(Municipality) Bill; contained provisions for the strengthening urban local governments. Most State municipal Act amended Reforms underway in the structure and functioning of urban local governments.

Industrialization now became the key to a nation’s military strength. As religion had been in the second epoch of history , so the influence of commerce was felt upon politics and government in the third epoch. Access to oil was critical. Education was also important as an educated citizen was through essential to a successful democracy.

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