HIST 498 Final Draft

8/3/2019 HIST 498 Final Draft

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Will Walsh06 May 2011

HIST 498 MitchellIreland: Music and Nationalism

Introduction

Ireland has a long history of both political conflict and folk music. Attempts to understan

the Irish experience through the study of this music reveals a tradition of nationalism. As a

aesthetic form of artistic expression, music cannot be the sole cause of nationalism. Howeve

history has shown the significance music can hold for many nationalistic movements. Mus

creates a sense of national or ethnic identity that is hard to replicate through the use of any oth

medium. In the United States of America, we are taught to say the pledge of allegiance befo

school. We sing the American national anthem at sporting events and before several sorts public displays. We say our pledges and sing our songs and it makes us feel American. Mus

is one of many symbols of Ireland and Irishness that has maintained its significance to this da

For people of Irish decent living all over the world, exposure to this Irish folk music from

very early age lends to the creation of a sense of Irish ethnicity. A very important component

Irish music throughout the past several centuries has been the notion of political music. Musi

specifically political music, has been utilized for generations of Irishmen and Irishwome

Studying the creation of Irish music, the study of Irish music, and the societal implications

Irish music reveals the very powerful relationship Irish music has had with Irish nationalism.

Part I: Irish History

Without an adequate understanding of the complexities and controversies that hav

characterized Irish history, it is impossible to understand the progressive growth of Irisnationalism and its implications for the people of society of the island of Ireland. Although t

major political events that led towards the independence of the Republic of Ireland occurre

during the nineteenth century, it is important to note that Irish nationalism has roots in th


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HIST 498 Mitchellcenturies leading up to political independence. Irish nationalism is closely linked to the sense

Irish ethnicity. Following the line of logic adhered to by Irish nationalists, the Republic o

Ireland, which was created in the twentieth century, might be called a nation-state. The Iris

people are a nation, and the Republic of Ireland is their state and a means for self-governanc

The relationship between the Irish people and their English colonizers has culminated in violen

that still shudders throughout parts of the island. Comprehending the events of the last sever

hundred years that have led to the development of Irish nationalism yields an explanation of Iri

music and Irish nationalism.

Prior to early Anglo-Norman attempts at colonization, the island of Ireland was defined by iGaelic Celtic culture and history. Centuries of different migrations and invasions from group

like the Vikings make it impossible to define the modern population of Ireland as truly an

purely Irish. Calling a collection of people who may draw a genetic history from differen

groups of centuries of settlers and invaders by a single term may be nave and unethica

However, to the Irish nationalists, it is necessary to take a snap shot of Ireland prior to Britis

invasion and influence. This Gaelic Ireland and the Gaelic Irish became the definition of Iris

people to the Irish nationalists. Unlike the island of Great Britain, the Roman Empire nev

stretched into Ireland. By the time of the Anglo-Norman invasions, the people of Great Brita

were a heterogeneous blend of people descended from Britons, Angles, Saxons, Dane

Norwegians, and all the other groups that settled the island. William the Conqueror became t

first Norman king of England in 1066 and created Norman England. The people of England th became Anglo-Normans or Anglo-Saxons.

Beginning in the twelfth century, these Anglo-Normans from England began to settle an

colonize the people of Ireland. They ruled isolated populations of Irish Gaels. For the most pa


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HIST 498 Mitchellthere was very little complete Anglo-Norman government of Ireland. The Anglo-Norma

government in Ireland established the 1366 Statutes of Kilkenny, which outlawed Irish (Gaeli

laws, customs, and language and outlawed any intermarriage between the Irish and the Angl

Normans. The Irish did not have a sense of identifying themselves as ethnically Irish. Instea

they were already beginning to define themselves against the other who was suppressing the

ways of life. The Statutes of Kilkenny mark a very important date in Irish nationalis

development. This is the first significant piece of English law that defines Irish and suppresse

the expression of culture for a specific people. The situation would evolve into a more compl

and involving relationship, but it is important to remember that English settlers have beeinvolved in the affairs of the Irish since the twelfth century.

The English control over the Irish continued to develop for the next couple centuries. The

was a series of violent rebellions against this oppressive government in the seventeenth centu

that led to the introduction of Oliver Cromwell and his particular style of brutal repressio

Estimates of the proportion of people on the island of Ireland that died during Cromwell

conquest range from about forty percent1 to about eighty percent.2 A loss of this outstanding

amount of the native population is remarkable from any modern observation. The Cromwelli

conquest of Ireland was deliberately and specifically targeted at killing Catholic peopl

However, the acts of near genocide that occurred throughout this specific occupation were n

purely religious in nature. Motivation might have also been to react to the violence displayed

elements of the Irish who were rising against British control. Regardless of motivation, thresults of Cromwells actions and tactics in Ireland were mass death and the creation of a ha

that exists thoroughly to this day. Again, the Irish are beginning to experience a collectiv

1 John P Prendergast,The Cromwellian Conquest of Ireland (New York: PM Haverty, 1868), 177.2 Noel M Griffin, How many died during Cromwells campaign?, History Ireland 6 (2008), accessed 6 May 2011.


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HIST 498 Mitchellhistory where their identity is constantly being created in contract to their British occupier

These events unfolded in the middle of the seventeenth century, but the brutality that the Iri

associated with England and their colonial government would last for centuries.

Cromwells control over Ireland continued the process of transferring land and wealth out

the hands of the native Catholic Irish holders to upper class Protestant settlers from Great Britai

For generations, the British state had been promoting Protestants from Great Britain to sett

parts of Ireland. British people were being planted in significant numbers in Ireland. The Chur

of Ireland, which was more or less the equivalent of the Church of England, was established

the premier Protestant Church with blatant power over other Protestant denominations and thIrish Catholic Church. Part of this process included removing the Catholic Irish people who h

been living on the land. An entire class of landless Irish Catholics was created. The plantation

Ireland had begun under Elizabeth I at the end of the sixteenth century and continued until t

end of the seventeenth century. It is important to note that most of the valuable land in Ireland

in the northern part of the island in the region of Ulster. This land was being stripped fro

Catholic farmers and traded to wealth Protestants from parts of Scotland and England. To th

day, there is a slight Protestant majority in the country of Northern Ireland that resulted from th

state-sanctioned plantation. Irish identity at this point was not based on religious affiliatio

There were Irish Protestants and Irish Catholics throughout the entirety of this period. Howev

Irish people were beginning to see that their definition, according to their British oppressor

included being a part of the Roman Catholic Church.A series of seventeenth century laws, collectively called the Penal Laws, further marginalize

the Catholic population of Ireland. Under a variety of these Penal Laws, Catholics were barr

from holding government office, legal office, or military office. Property owning by Catholi


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HIST 498 Mitchellwas also restricted. Dependence on the potato crop and vulnerability to a variety of plights a

poor weather conditions resulted in large-scale famines and mass migrations. The Catholic Iris

who were the poor of the population, became further entrenched in a place of susceptibility an

poverty. These laws, which would not be repealed until the early nineteenth century, furth

alienated the Anglican ruling class of the island from their Catholic subjects.

In addition to alienating the Catholic majority of the island of Ireland, the English

government managed to marginalize the powerful upper class known as the Protestan

Ascendancy. The Protestant Ascendancy was the dominant class in the somewhat autonomo

Irish state with a history that was centuries old by the nineteenth century. These Anglo-Iriselites owned land and ran the government in the name of England and the Anglican Church. T

Anglo-Irish were not necessarily the same as the Gaelic Irish that they governed, but the

would consider themselves Irish because they had lived on Ireland for generations. The Catho

dimension of later Irish identity would not include the Anglo-Irish class. As relations betwe

Ireland and Great Britain developed, the Anglo-Irish became bitter as they felt as though th

crown for which they were governing was ignoring them.3 This fact would become historically

important, as Irelands Anglo-Irish elites were responsible for organizing the first majo

resistance movements against English rule.

In 1798, the Society of United Irishmen organized a rebellion against the English governme

in Ireland. This event was one of the first major examples of Irish nationalism in its early stage

Led by Theobold Wolfe Tone, Protestant and member of the Anglo-Irish elites, the Society oUnited Irishmen was an Irish nationalist organization consisting of disenfranchised Catholics a

Dissenters. Despite receiving limited aid from the French First Republic, the rebellion failed an

3 John Hutchinson,The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism: The Gaelic Revival and the Creation of the Irish NationState (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987), 54-55.


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HIST 498 Mitchelloppression would increase in the years to come. Great Britain, newly-revitalized after th

Glorious Revolution of Protestant King William of Orange over Catholic King James II, wou

continue its religiously-defined oppression of the people of Ireland. Irish Catholics, specifical

continued to find themselves in a place where there was no option for any realistic expressio

whether it was political or otherwise.

The 1801 Act of Union finally joined the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom o

Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. This was the first instance where

was determined that the Irish would be directly ruled from the Westminster Parliament i

London, England. Clearly, the British in Britain realized that all of the people of Ireland, frothe Anglo-Irish elites to the Irish Catholic majority, were disillusioned with governin

themselves as an informal part of the British Empire. If left to themselves, the Anglo-Irish mig

stage a revolution and there would be no control from London. Instead, the British Parliame

chose to directly govern the affairs of the island. This control is important, especially as the Iri

begin to specifically define themselves as Catholic and Gaelic.

During the nineteenth century, Irish nationalism began to rise in popularity, especiall

amongst the islands Catholic population. One of the major representations of this Irish Catho

nationalism in the early part of the nineteenth century was Daniel OConnell. OConnell wa

Roman Catholic who was elected as a Member of Parliament from Ennis, but could not take h

seat because of his religious affiliation. He actively campaigned for Catholic Emancipatio

which was ultimately achieved. OConnell would later campaign for a repeal of the Act Union, but he would then fail.

Later on in the nineteenth century, other nationalists led by Charles Stewart Parnell woul

lead the movement for Home Rule. Home Rule was not independence from the Union, but


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HIST 498 Mitchellwas more like autonomy within the union. Unionists in Ireland, especially those in Ulster in t

North, were vehemently opposed to home rule, as they imagined that the Catholic majority of t

island would attain political prowess. Here we see a clear association of identity with religiou

affiliation. The Catholic Irish are striving for self-government. The Protestants on the islan

yearn to maintain control over the affairs of the Irish people. At this point, it is almos

completely clear that the Irish are Catholic and the other is Protestant.

After several failed attempts to legislate Home Rule, a bill that seemed like it would pas

finally entered Parliament in 1914. Unionists, almost entirely Protestant, in Ulster formed th

Ulster Volunteers to ensure that the bill was not enforced. Catholics in Ireland formed the IrisVolunteers with the intent to be sure that the bill was enacted. The Catholics had taken up arm

against the Protestants, and the Catholics called themselves Irish. Irish nationalism had final

become decidedly Irish Catholic nationalism. Self-government had always been the ultimate go

of Irish nationalists, but the idea of complete independence was also widely-embraced. Whe

World War I broke out, the process of realizing Home Rule was halted. The majority of the Iris

Volunteers broke away from the group and formed the National Volunteers with the intent to

support Irish involvement in the war on the side of the Triple Entente. The minority, retaining th

name Irish Volunteers, remained opposed to any Irish involvement in the war.

In 1916, the Irish Volunteer minority group aligned with a smaller group of Irish nationali

socialists called the Irish Citizen Army. The groups rose against the British government in a

event called Easter Rising, where they occupied important government buildings in Dublin Ciand other parts of Ireland. The British military eventually crushed the uprising and responded

executing the leaders of Easter Rising individually. In the months that followed, the moo

towards Home Rule in Ireland began to change. The pro-independence political party Sinn Fe


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HIST 498 Mitchellwon overwhelming support in 1918 in Ireland and decreed its own government and its ow

Parliament, the Irish Republic. The British government tried to intervene in the action, and

guerilla war was fought in from 1919 to 1921. The Irish War of Independence ended with th

Anglo-Irish Treaty. The Anglo-Irish Treaty gave the new Republic of Ireland complet

independence in dealing with domestic affairs. However, members of the Dil and othe

government officials were forced to swear an oath the Crown. Perhaps more importantly, si

counties in the North of Ireland remained a part of the United Kingdom. Although the partitio

was initially supposed to be temporary, the country of Northern Ireland remains the Kingdom

Northern Ireland and is governed by the British Parliament. A state with a Protestant majorihad been cut out of the island of Ireland. The region of Ulster had always been in the North, b

even the new state of Northern Ireland did not completely encompass Ulster. The Britis

Parliament, for fear of an armed conflict between Irish Catholics and Protestant Unionist

created a state that has no historical basis. Instead, a state that maintained a Protestant majori

was drawn so that the Irish Catholics who found themselves in the borders of the new sta

would continue to be oppressed for their religious affiliation. There was a vast majority o

Catholics in the Irish Free State. From the early stages of Irish nationalism to the eventual se

government of the Irish people, the process of defining Irishness and realizing independence h

become almost entirely based on religious affiliation.

Conditions in the Anglo-Irish Treaty were not favored by all members of the Irish nationali

coalitions that fought for independence. A civil war broke out between the new governmentforces of the Irish Free State and their supporters and those Irish nationalists who disapproved

the treaty. The anti-treaty group was led by amon de Valera, who would be the President of th

Irish Republic into the 1970s, and a ceasefire was finally declared in 1923.


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HIST 498 MitchellIn 2010, the Republic of Ireland still exists as a sovereign state governing most of the islan

completely free of direct British influence. Northern Ireland remains a part of the Unite

Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Both states have delved into the careful proce

of modernization and inclusion in the European Union since the signing of the Anglo-Iri

Treaty. Decades of violence have characterized the forced harmony of Catholics and Protestan

in Northern Ireland. The conflict has spread into the Republic, into Great Britain, and eve

farther abroad. Though this violence has decreased dramatically in the past decade or so, Briti

government and military personnel will irregularly be killed by members of several splinter Iri

nationalist groups remaining on the island.Part II: Irish Identity

After understanding the history of Anglo-Irish relations, it is possible to begin the process

defining Irish identity. This sort of ethnic and national identity, like many other modern notio

of ethnicity, has a history and modern construction. Those who identify as Irish people and c

be identified by other Irish people as Irish people try to distinguish themselves from the other

This has important historical significance. Like many other states that have been created in t

twentieth century, the Republic of Ireland and its people feel the need to retain an identity th

belongs uniquely to them. In the Republic of Ireland, both before and after the creation of t

modern state, there are several aspects of Irishness that have been defined.

The modern Irishmen or Irishwomen identify themselves as Gaelic. Gaels were one of man

different branches of the Celtic tribes who inhabited much of Europe. Gaels were the specifgroup that shared similarities and inhabited Ireland and parts of Scotland. Irish people identify

Gaels because Gaels are one of the earliest and most dominant cultures known to inhabit th

island prior to Anglo-Norman influence in the twelfth century. This Gaelic identity varies great


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HIST 498 Mitchellfrom that of the English or the British. Although Ireland was susceptible to dozens of differe

migratory and invasion groups since the Gaels first inhabited the island, Irish people determi

themselves to be decidedly Gaelic. This fact is likely due to the notion of what might have been

more pure Irish culture prior to any sort of Anglo-Norman influence.

In addition to this kind of ethnic identification, Gaelic is important as a linguistic history

Irish people. It is important to distinguish Irish Gaelic from Scots Gaelic. Scots Gaelic is th

language spoken by the Gaels in Scotland, whereas Irish Gaelic is the language of the Iris

Gaels. Generally, Irish Gaelic is simply referred to as Irish. From 1890 to 1921, there was

period of revival for Irish culture4

. Cultural groups, including the Gaelic League and the GaelicAthletic Association (GAA), were created to maintain and develop what was state-define

Irishness. The GAA preserved ancient Irish games, like Gaelic football and hurling, and real

standardized the sports into their modern form. The Gaelic League sustained and most

standardized Irish throughout the country5. Irish language was made compulsory in Irish

education. Despite the attempt at linguistic revival of Irish in the Republic, Irish really neve

reached levels of use prior to Anglo intervention in the government of the island. To Iris

nationalists, the native language of the Gaelic people (Irish people) is what makes them

culturally distinct from their British oppressors. To this end, it was significant to preserve th

language and maintain a cultural distinctiveness that lent to the legitimacy of Irish nationalism.

Another important aspect of Irish identity is with the Roman Catholic Church. St Patric

converted the inhabitants of Ireland to Christianity from Celtic paganism in the fifth centurSince then, the Irish have maintained a Catholic identity. Despite the success of the Protesta

Reformation in Great Britain in the sixteenth century, Irish people retained and developed the

4 Rachel Fleming, Resisting Cultural Standardization: Comhaltas Ceoltir ireann and the Revitalization of Traditional Music in Ireland, J ournal of Folklore Research 41 (2004): 231, accessed 20 April 2011.5 Fleming, Resisting Cultural Standardization, 231.


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HIST 498 MitchellRoman Catholicism. Surely there were Protestants in Ireland, perhaps even of the fabled Gael

origin, but they do not share the oppressed and exploited past of their Catholic brethren. Th

religious aspects of identity have always been very important in the history of Ireland and Iri

nationalism. Many aspects of British oppression of the Irish have not been strictly ethni

Measures like the Penal Laws were very clearly sectarian, since the laws were only for Catholic

The British knew, however, that Catholic meant Irish, even decades prior to any significan

uprisings. Especially since the partition of the island into a clearly-Protestant North and clearl

Catholic South, this sort of sectarian identification between colonizer and colonized is somethi

that is hard to remove. Irish identification with the Catholic Church remains significant to thday, as sectarianism in the North rumbles on.

In modern Northern Ireland, the concept of the Orangeman is entirely distinct from that o

the Irishman. To be Orange in Northern Ireland means to be a part of the Protestant tradition

To be Green is to be Catholic. Since at least the turn of the twentieth century, it was quite clea

that Protestants in Ireland had quite different goals from that of Catholics. Irish people becam

distinctly Catholic, as the Catholic elements of the island were the leaders of Irish nationali

movements for independence and autonomy. Protestant elements were those unionists in parts

the island who threatened militaristic resistance to state efforts at integration into a Catholi

majority electorate. Moreover, it is almost paradoxical to claim membership of a historically

Catholic Irish identity

Part III: Irish MusicIt is almost as difficult to clearly define Irish music as it is to define Irish identity. Like an

society, music has been a part of Irish culture for centuries. Though there have been attempts

reviving what is considered traditional or folk Irish music, there is no universally-accepte


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HIST 498 Mitchelldefinition of Irish folk music. Collections of folk music are available for examination. Althou

there is a lack of complete cohesion between exactly what was collected and what was omitte

patterns seem to emerge with Irish folk music.

The content of these collections must be further analyzed to identify what was widel

accepted as Irish folk music at the time. Edward Bunting, who lived from the late eighteen

century to the mid nineteenth century, is credited by many as being the first person to transcri

Irish musical tradition.6 Bunting was an important figure in late eighteenth century Belfast. The

1792 Belfast Harp Festival was an event organized by influential figures in the city. The goal

the festival was to offer prizes to those harpers who performed the best traditional Irish musiHowever, it is important to realize that the organizers of the event, all of whom were Protestan

determined exactly what was considered Irish music.7 Regardless of possible intentions of the

organizers, the Belfast Harp Festival and Bunting were significant in recording the first record

traditional Irish music.

Thomas Moore was alive at about the same time as Edward Bunting. Though Bunting

collection had been called the national music of Ireland,8 many considered Moores work to be

more important in the development of early Irish nationalism. Ironically enough, Moores hym

were set to the tunes captures by Bunting in Belfast. It is significant to understand that Moo

was a Catholic, whose parents were from one of a decreasing number of parts of Ireland whe

the Gaelic language was still the first language over English. This is remarkable, as Iris

nationalism progresses to be in the realm of Catholic leaders, rather than Protestant leader

6 SC Lanier, It is new-strung and shant be heard: nationalism and memory in the Irish harp tradition, B ritish Forum for Ethnomusicology 8 (1999): 4, accessed 23 February 2011.7 Lanier, It is new-strung and shant be heard, 3.8 Lanier, It is new-strung and shant be heard, 12.


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HIST 498 MitchellUsing lyrics instead of music by itself, his music had a sometimes very clear political tone. Som

of his music is still popular and may be rerecorded by modern Irish folk artists.

A third figure worthy of mention is Thomas Davis, who lived during the early to middle o

the eighteenth century. Davis was the son of a Welshman and a Protestant. He wrote politic

music during his life and drew on Moore for inspiration. To some modern historians, Davis w

the most renowned political balladeer of the nineteenth century.9 Through the course of a

couple generations, music transforms from the music of the Irish harp to politically-charge

rhetoric. However, political message was not the intent of most folk music collectors.

From Bunting onwards, collectors have determined the definition of Irish folk music. Thedefinitions come from a variety of perspectives. Whether the collector identified as Iris

English, British, Catholic, Protestant, nationalist, unionist, or so on, would determine a great de

about their personal definition of Irish folk music. It is reasonable to assume that thes

collections drew upon the work of those who had come before them, but defining and redefini

Irish music is an important theme about this period in Irish music.

Definitions Irish music developed and evolved throughout the course of the last couple

centuries. In 1792, a private organization collected people who played the harp from across t

island. Bunting recorded the music. Moore then added lyrics over Buntings music, and h

intentions were often blatantly nationalistic. Davis further included nationalistic lyrics in h

ballads. The music and images created by Moore and Davis in the nineteenth century would

drawn on by Irish nationalists for generations. As people started to try to preserve an Irish cultuthrough Irish folk music, political music became a major part of this collection.

Part IV: Irish Political Music

9 May McCann, Music and politics in Ireland: the specificity of the folk revival in Belfast, British Journal of Ethnomusicology 4 (1995): 57, accessed 16 April 2011.


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HIST 498 MitchellMay McCann conducted a thorough examination of the collections of Irish folk music. H

conclusions lend a tremendous deal of insight into the workings of music and nationalism

Ireland. After observing the tremendous lack of patriotic songs in the available collection

McCann criticized these collectors. She contends that patriotic music should be included

songs of the people, considering the fact that politics had such an important role in the lives o

Irish people throughout the period.10 McCanns understanding of the connection between music

and politics is invaluable for its comprehensive approach to the period.

Music in Ireland has always been developed in a politically charged atmosphere. Even befo

Bunting recorded the music of the harpers in Belfast in 1792, the Irish have existed in a colonrelationship with England and Great Britain. This colonial process and the shared experience

the Irish during the entire period would have to have had a tremendous impact on th

development of Irish folk music and culture.11 It would be incomprehensive of collectors to omit

the patriotic songs of the people from the records and terming the remaining collections folk

music.

There could be a number of reasons for the censoring of political tones from the themes

the collections of Irish music. Buachalla concludes that the enacting of the 1801 Act of Uni

was the event that influenced elites on the island to avoid any controversial political talk to avo

religious dissention and sectarianism.12 Perhaps other collectors tried to avoid listeners of their

collections from concluding that Irish folk music is about war and death. It may seem obviou

that the idyllic image of the isolated Irish cottage surrounded by the flora and fauna of OlIreland would not include pikes, rifles, and beating drums.

10 McCann, Music and Politics in Ireland, 53.11 McCann, Music and Politics in Ireland, 54.12 B Buachalla, I mBal Feirste cois cuain, translated by Gordon McCoy, Baile tha Cliath (1978): AnClochohhar Teo.


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HIST 498 MitchellSince the noted attempts at the revival of Irish culture, there have been other notabl

collections of Irish folk music that have included political tunes. McCann notes that the intere

in this sort of Irish cultural and folk music revival must be patriotism.13 If there is a surge in

popular interest in maintaining Irish culture, then it must be because people are trying

establish the clear definition and history of a nation. A thorough content analysis of th

collections of Irish folk music available at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaig

reveals an interesting trend in the process of folk music collection.

Alan Lomax collected and edited songs for The Columbia World Library of Folk an

Primitive Music. In the Irish Folk Songs collection, he used the aid of Seamus Ennis to recorand edit the selection. There is a brief introduction to the collection that stresses the sense

urgency of the revival and maintenance of Gaelic culture. Among the reasons for the urgency

the collection and revitalization of Irish culture are the availability of global music, the influen

of movies and music from abroad, and the trend of migration out of the island for centuries.14

There are a couple dozen selections of Irish folk music, and only one of the recordings

blatantly political. The song Soldier, Soldier is about a militant Irishman during some sort o

unspecified armed conflict.15 The publication date for the collection is nowhere to be found, but

the estimated date of the publication is in the 1960s. The inclusion of even a single political so

in this folk music collection entertains the idea that political music is a recognized part of Iris

folk music.

This conclusion is supported further in findings in other collections. A 1960 collection titleIrish Folk Songs for Women includes a couple political songs amongst its collection of Iris

13 McCann, Music and Politics in Ireland, 56.14 Alan Lomax and Seamus Ennis,The Columbia World Library of Folk and Primitive Music: Irish Folk Songs (New York?: Columbia, 196-?).15 Lomax and Ennis, Irish Folk Songs .


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HIST 498 Mitchellfolk music. The Patriot Mother and The Tri-Colored Ribbon both express sympathy and

support for Irish nationalist movements.16 This collection was particularly interesting,

considering the intent of the pieces was specifically for women. The Patriot Mother is a song

about the mother of a militant Irishman.17 Despite the risks her son faces, the mother remains a

patriot. Though the origin of these songs is not well-documented, their inclusion into th

collection again suggests the acceptance of political music into defined Irish folk music.

A 1962 collection recorded by Bill Leader provides evidence for a similar trend. He record

the folk songs of the McPeake family. There are dozens of folk songs in this collection, an

some of them are very powerfully political. The inclusion of Ireland, Boys, Hurrah, a song this supposedly a hundred years old,18 sends a clear message of Irish nationalism. Other political

songs include The Lament of Aughrim, about the defeat of Jacob II at Aughrim, and Carrai

Dun (The Dark Rock), which is about the flight of the Catholic landholders from Ireland aft

the enactment of the Penal Laws.19 The most powerful political lyrics in the collection come

from the song An Durd Fainne. The lyrics say Welcome to our victorious army, Some day

Ireland will be free of foreigners.20 The politics of this collection of Irish folk songs is quite

clear. Irish folk songs include the political songs of Irish nationalists and their sympathizer.

From the very first recordings and of Edward Bunting to the most recent collection o

supposedly folk songs, the transition in definition of Irish folk music is clear. Political song

have become the songs of the people. Although there is a clear sense of militancy in th

recordings, there is no connection between religious denomination and militancy groups. Instea

16 Kenneth S Goldstein and Lori Holland, Irish Folk Songs for Women (New York City: Folkway Records, 1960).17 Goldstein and Holland, Irish Folk Songs for Women .18 AL Floyd and Bill Leader,The McPeake Family Irish Traditional Folk Songs and Music (London: TopicRecords Limited, 1962).19 Floyd and Leader,The McPeake Family .20 Floyd and Leader,The McPeake Family .


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HIST 498 Mitchellwords like Irish and foreigner will be used to reference different groups in the pieces. In

culture where political conflict and violence is often a reality, there is no surprise that there is

vast expanse of different political songs from the past few centuries. Political songs are not t

only type of folk song, to be sure. However, the exclusion of political songs from the folk son

collections of a culture where this sort of expression is commonplace is irresponsible an

inconclusive.

Part V: Irish Political Music and Irish Nationalists

For Irish nationalist movements, from the late sixteenth century, when the first movemen

for Irish independence from English affairs may be observed, through the present, song has bean important tool. To a population with limited literacy for much of the period in question

political song was one of the most important ways for messages to be sent. There is som

academic support for the claim that music has been important to a variety of Irish nationali

groups.

The Society of United Irishmen, formed during the late eighteenth century by man

prominent members of the Anglo-Irish Protestant Ascendancy, was responsible for the fail

1798 Irish Rebellion. Song and satire were amongst the instruments used by the United Irishm

as propaganda during the period.21 The particular form of Irish nationalism endorsed by the

United Irishmen was not particularly sectarian. After all, the group was composed of promine

Protestants and supported by sympathetic Catholics. It is hard to discern from available recor

to what degree the United Irishmen sought independence. The spectrum could range anywhefrom Irish Parliamentary reform to complete independence. There were several branches

United Irishmen founded throughout the country, and it is hard to identify exactly what is th

best definition of United Irishmen nationalism.21 McCann, Music and Politics in Ireland, 56.


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HIST 498 MitchellYoung Ireland was a political and social movement that was the inheritor of Irish nationalis

after the United Irishmen fizzled out of mainstream politics. The leader of the Young Irelan

movement was Thomas Davis, the political balladeer of the nineteenth century. In the group

publication,The Nation, the most popular section was always the ballads section.22 It seems that

once again, even decades after the failure of 1798, Irish nationalism is thriving in the country a

song is one important mean for organizing and motivating the movement.

The next, and most, significant movement for Irish nationalism came during the earl

twentieth century. This was the Irish Volunteer movement and the eventual Easter Rising o

1916. Songs from the Young IrelandersThe Nation were even sung by the participants in theuprising.23 Participants in the movement used song to fill up the silence between the gunfire

The Soldiers Song, written by Peader Kearney in 1907, became the battle hymn for the rebe

and the song itself was adopted as the national anthem of the Republic of Ireland.24 Music and

song were an important part of the successful push for Irish independence from Great Britain. A

such, it is easy to draw the important of music in Irish nationalism.

United Irishmen, Young Irelanders, Irish Volunteers, and the Irish Free State have all bee

dependent on Irish folk music that was distinctly political. This music helps to organize an

motivate a group of rebels who would wage a war against a force that is far more powerful an

likely to win. It was only after generations of struggle and music that the Irish would create

sovereign nation-state. Much of the leadership of the United Irishmen and the Young Irelande

was a part of the Protestant Anglo-Irish class. The nationalism these men felt was not religiousdefined. Instead, it was simply the sovereignty of an Irish state that was sought. By the time

the coalition of the fragmented Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizen Brigade, Irish nationalis

22 Sean Cronin,The Revolutionaries (Bray, Ireland: Record Press, 1971), 31.23 McCann, Music and Politics in Ireland, 58.24 McCann, Music and Politics in Ireland, 62.


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HIST 498 Mitchellwas very much Catholic in nature. These men sang the same songs that were popular for th

Anglo-Irish Irish nationalists, but this time they were prepared to take up arms agains

Protestants who had been living in Ireland for generations. There is no religious tone in Iri

political music. However, the enemy that the music was invoked against was often defined alon

religious affiliation lines.

Part VI: The Irish Harp

No symbol is as representative of Ireland as the harp. Every part of the Irish identity can b

associated with some degree of use of the Irish harp. This use draws from the conclusion that t

Irish harp is a culturally distinctive harp when compared to the harps of other cultures. From tonset of the Irish Republic, the harp has been representative of Irishness. Even Irish currenc

both before and after the adoption of the Euro, featured harps amongst their symbols of Iri

culture. A major beer exported from Ireland is called Harp. In fact, the harp has been a

important symbol of Irish nationalism for centuries.

The society of United Irishmen adopted the harp as their symbol in the late eighteent

century. The purpose of the adoption of the symbol was to associate the society with an ancie

representation of Irish culture25. Of course there was some degree of social construction of the

validity of this symbol and its importance to the pre-English Irish. The motto of the newly

formed society was Liberty it is new-strung and shall be heard. The stringing of libert

would refer to the stringing of the Irish harp. The Irish harp had continued importance for Iri

nationalism in the years to come.The Young Ireland movement continued the United Irishmens tradition of using the harp

representation.26 Again, by using the harp and being the active organization representing Irish

25 Lanier, It is new strung and shant be heard, 3.26 Lanier, It is new-strung and shant be heard, 3.


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HIST 498 Mitchellnationalism, the Young Irelanders maintained the relationship between Irish nationalism and th

harp in the minds of Irishmen across the island.

By the time of the Easter Rising, the harp had been an established symbol of Iris

nationalism. It was only natural that the first Irish President amon de Valera would make th

harp the symbol used on Irish currency. From the 1792 Belfast Harp Festival, the first majo

recorded competition for Irish traditional music, up through the modern Irish Republic, the ha

has proven to be an important marker of where the culture of Ireland was prior to Englis

influence on the island. The utilization of this symbol was important for nationalists who want

to paint a picture of an Ireland that was free of foreign influence. The fact that the harp was musical instrument once again goes to show how important music has been for Irish nationalism

The harp was the symbol for the early, not religious, forms of Irish nationalism. As Iris

nationalism developed into a form of political expression that was specifically Catholic, the ha

continued to be used as a symbol. Ultimately, as the harp was used by Irish Catholic nationalist

the harp came to symbolize Catholic Ireland.

Part VII: Music and Power in Northern Ireland

Up until very recently in Northern Irelands history, Catholics had been severel

marginalized. The state very blatantly favored Protestants in all sorts of domestic affairs. Fro

politics to police, it was quite clear that the Protestant part of the state, which has had a

increasingly small majority over Catholics, was the wielder of power. The dynamic of this pow

relation has been made apparent through the use of music and street bands in Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland has had a very marked history of sectarianism. Relations are always defin

as Catholic or Protestant. The Orange Order is a Protestant society that is endorsed by the sta


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HIST 498 Mitchelland is vocally anti-Catholic.27 For decades the group has had parades characterized by pipe and

drum bands. Musical expression is one thing, but the sectarian implications that came with th

marches are another thing. Often the Orange Order would design its parade routes to go throu

parts of Northern Ireland that were well-known to be Catholic areas, especially in Belfast. The

parades often concluded with violent clashes between sectarian groups. Nonetheless, Oran

Order parades continue into the twenty-first century and the sounds of pipes and drums in t

streets are symbolic of Protestant control over the Catholic population.

The Catholic counterpart to the Orange Order was the Ancient Order of Hibernians (AOH

This was hardly a fair counterpart, considering the level of censorship the group experiencefrom the British state. Choice of instruments was most likely similar, considering the immobili

of the traditional harp. Parades were canceled, routes were changed, and rules about flag-wavi

and song singing were commonplace for AOH parades.28 Almost as quickly as a Catholic answer

to the Protestant challenge began, it was over. Catholic culture became marginalized in Northe

Ireland.

Power relations were quite clear in Northern Ireland and music was a way to mark power an

resistance. Protestant parades and music were endorsed by the state. Catholic parades and mus

were rendered nonexistent by the British government. Catholics in Northern Ireland continued

practice music privately and within their communities. However, Catholic music in Northe

Ireland would never reach the public stage like that of the Orange Order.

Music, power, and resistance in Northern Ireland demonstrate an important aspect of identiin Ireland. Catholic expression was officially repressed and extremely limited. Protestan

demonstrations were endorsed, promoted, and continued to provoke Catholic communiti

27 McCann, Music and Politics in Ireland, 62.28 McCann, Music and Politics in Ireland, 63.


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HIST 498 Mitchelldespite repeated violent clashes. The Irish Catholic identity was strengthened througho

Northern Ireland, where Sinn Fin, the only major political party in the United Kingdom a

Republic of Ireland still fully endorsing complete Irish independence from the United Kingdo

still receives a significant proportion of votes. The evolution of Irish nationalism is still very ea

to observe in Northern Ireland, where the ideology is very strictly along lines of religiou

affiliation.

C onclusions

Studying the creation of Irish music, the study of Irish music, and the societal implications

Irish music reveals the very powerful relationship Irish music has had with Irish nationalismIrish folk music has always been a part of Irish nationalism, and Irish nationalism has alwa

been a part of Irish folk music. Separating one from the other is impossible because the two ha

been so intertwined for centuries. When Irish nationalists look to an imagined Gaelic past, fr

from the influence of the English or the Protestant Reformation, they find sanctuary in the fo

songs. Especially since the end of the eighteenth century, Irish nationalism has been a moveme

of the masses who have been unable to express their desire for independence through tradition

political means. These people would have to turn to music and the arts to show their sentimen

The people of Ireland, with their colonial history and independent future, have linke

nationalism and a sense of ethnic pride with the music of their past. Without musical expressio

there would be no Irish nation.


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HIST 498 MitchellB ibliography

Cronin, Sean.The Revolutionaries . Bray, Ireland: Record Press, 1971.

Fleming, Rachel C. Resisting Cultural Standardization: Comhaltas Ceoltir ireann an

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257. Accessed 20 April 2011. http://www.jstor.org.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/stable/3814592.

Floyd, AL and Bill Leader.The McPeake Family Irish Traditional Folk Songs and

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(2008). Accessed 6 May 2011.

http://www.historyireland.com///volumes/volume16/issue6/letters/?id=114206.

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060850.Lomax, Alan and Seamus Ennis.The Columbia World Library of Folk and Primitive

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1868.

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